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A review on cellulose and its utilization from agro-industrial waste

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 Review Article

A review on cellulose and its utilization from

agro‑industrial waste
Antony Allwyn Sundarraj, Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan*

ABSTRACT

Agro-industrial waste removal is a serious issue of concerning in developing countries. Cellulose is a polysaccharide polymer.
This present review explores cellulose history, structure, worldwide production, and extraction of cellulose from agro-waste.
A wide spectrum of researches in the arena of properties of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin; their degradation; sources and
composition of cellulosic and its derivatives from agro-industrial wastes; present status of converting them into value-added
products of food and pharmaceutical applications. Cellulose is a tremendous product due to its abundance and characteristic
structural properties. The major industrial source of cellulose is vascular plants. The lignocellulosic materials, especially
agro-industrial residues, are important as reinforcement products for building construction material industry, in terms of
environmental preferences of the modern society. Most paper products generate from wood pulp, while textile fibers are
commonly not isolated from woody fibers. The materials based on cellulose and its derivatives have been used for a wide
variety of applications, such as food additives, paper manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, or other chemical engineering uses,
such as chromatography, paints, and explosives.

KEY WORDS: Agro-waste, Cellulose, Characterization, Extraction, Waste management

INTRODUCTION
Waste Utilization
Waste is defined as any material, which has not yet
been fully utilized, i.e., the leftovers from production
and utilization. The waste contains three main
constituents: Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and
it can contain various compounds.[1] Cellulose and
hemicellulose are carbohydrates that can be broken
down by enzymes and acids and then fermented to
produce ethanol renewable electricity, fuels, and
biomass-based products.[2,3] However, waste is an
expensive and generally unavoidable result of human
activity. It includes plant materials, agricultural,
industrial and municipal wastes, and residues.[4]
Food processing wastes food in spillage, spoilage,
discarding substandard edible materials, or removing
edible food parts in inefficient processing.[5] Food
waste significantly impacts environmental, economic,
and community health.[6]
Access this article online
Website: jprsolutions.info ISSN: 0975-7619
CELLULOSE
Plants produce about 180 billion tons of cellulose
manufacture annually, and it is the largest reservoir
of organic carbon on the earth. Cellulose constitutes
the most abundant, renewable polymer resource
available today worldwide. It has been expected that
by photosynthesis, 1012 tons are synthesized annually
in a rather pure form, for example, in the seed hairs of
the cotton plant but mostly are common with lignin
and other polysaccharides in the cell wall of woody
plants. Cellulose is the structural part of the primary
cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae, and
the oomycetes. Cellulose is the most common
organic compound on the earth.[7] About 33% of all
plant material is cellulose (cotton is 90% and wood
is 40–50%). For industrial use, cellulose is mainly
obtained from wood pulp and cotton. It is mainly
used to manufacture paperboard and paper,[8] and it is
transformed into a wide variety of derivative products
such as cellophane and rayon. Converting cellulose
from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic
ethanol is under exploration as an alternative fuel
source.

Department of Food Processing and Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India

*Corresponding author: Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan, Department of Food Processing and Engineering, Karunya
Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: srivarahe@gmail.com

Received on: 24-01-2017; Revised on: 27-02-2018; Accepted on: 30-03-2018

Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018 89

 Antony Allwyn Sundarraj and Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan
History
Cellulose was revealed in 1838 by the French chemist
Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and
determined its chemical formula. Cellulose was used
to produce the first winning thermoplastic polymer,
celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870.
Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure
of cellulose in 1920.
Structure and Properties
Cellulose has no taste, odourless, hydrophilic with the
contact angle of 20º–30º, it is insoluble in water and
most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It
can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by
treating with concentrated acids at higher temperature.[9]
Cellulose is resulting from D-glucose units, which
condense through β (1→4)-glycosidic bonds as
shown in Figure  1. It is a vital structural part of the
primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of
algae, and most common organic compound on the
earth[10] available globally. In recent years, the interest
in cellulose-based materials has been rising due to
the demand for renewable resources and growing
ecological awareness.[11] Cellulose and its derivatives
are used in pharmaceuticals, medicinal purposes,
food additives, building supplies, and clothing  -  all
sort of various areas. Using cellulose as a material
for additive is not a new idea, and many researchers
have attempted this but faced major problems. When
heated, cellulose thermally decomposes partially
because of the hydrogen bonds that exist between the
cellulose molecules. The intermolecular hydrogen
bonding also makes that high-concentration cellulose
solution is too viscous to easily extrude.
NATURAL SOURCES
The main occurrence of cellulose is the accessible
lignocellulosic substance in forests, with wood as the
most essential source. Cellulose-containing resources
include agriculture residue, water plants, grasses, and
other plant substances. Cellulose occurs in the pure
form in plants but it is usually found in a mixture with
hemicelluloses, lignins and comparably small amounts
of extractives12. Commercial cellulose manufacture
concentrate on harvested sources such as wood and
in nature highly purified sources such as cotton, flax,
hemp, jute, etc.,
Figure 1: Structure of cellulose
90
A rather new approach to pure cellulose that is gaining
increasing interest is the laboratory-scale production
of the polymer by acetic acid producing bacteria, such
as Gluconacetobacter xylinum and Acanthamoeba
castellani. The cellulose is highly crystalline and
useful for studying polymorphs of the polymer.[13-15]
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
The kraft process is used to separate cellulose from
lignin, another major component of plant matter.
Paper products: Cellulose is the major constituent of
paper, paperboard, and card stock. Fibers: Cellulose
is the main ingredient of textiles made from cotton,
linen, and other plant fibers.[16] Cellulose can be
converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film,
and it can be turned into rayon, an important fiber that
has been used for textiles since the beginning of the
20th century. Both cellophane and rayon are known
as “regenerated cellulose fibers.” Cellulose is the raw
matter in the production of nitrocellulose which is used
in smokeless gunpowder and as the base substance
for celluloid used for photographic and movie films
until the mid-1930s. Cellulose is used to create water-
soluble adhesives and binders such as methylcellulose
and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) which is used in
wallpaper paste.
WORLDWIDE PRODUCTION OF
CELLULOSE
Worldwide, 3.6 million tonnes of dissolving pulp were
produced in 2009. The manufacture of dissolving
pulp improved by 24% worldwide between 1998 and
2009. In the same period, European dissolving pulp
production improved by 82%, from 520,000 tonnes
in 1998 to 950,000 tonnes in 2009. The production
also increased away in the world, for example, Asian
manufacture increased by 27% and African (19%),
though the manufacture increase in the Americas was
only just over 1%.
“Cellulose fiber marketplace can be classified into
two types of fibers.
1. Natural cellulose fibers such as cotton, jute, and
others;
2. Man-made cellulose fibers such as viscose, lyocell,
modal, and others, by region - trends & forecast to
2020”.
Cellulose fibers have a mixture of single character such
as strength, low weight, moisture absorbency, and so on.
Cellulose fibers are normally used for industrial skin-
friendly textile. The global cellulose fiber marketplace
is expected to reach at USD 36.96 billion in 2020
at a compound annual growth rate of 9.49% over the
period between 2015 and 2020.[17] The enhance in the
worldwide fiber marketplace expenses was 1.5% up to
Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018
 Antony Allwyn Sundarraj and Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan

Table 1: Chemical composition of typical cellulose‑containing materials

Source Composition (%)
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extract
Hardwood 43–47 25–35 16–24 2–8
Softwood 40–44 25–29 25–31 1–5
Bagasse 40 30 20 10
Coir 32–43 10–20 43–49 4
Com cobs 45 35 15 5
Com stalks 35 25 35 5
Cotton 95 2 1 0.4
Flax (retted) 71 21 2 6
Flax (unretted) 63 12 3 13
Hemp 70 22 6 2
Henequen 78 4–8 13 4
lstle 73 4–8 17 2
Jute 71 14 13 2
Kenaf 36 21 18 2
Ramie 76 17 1 6
Sisal 73 14 11 2
Sunn 80 10 6 3
Wheat straw 30 50 15 5
a
Adapted from 1 ion (1996)

the viscosity was derived[25] by non-linear regression

Figure 2: Global fiber market
99 million tons in 2016 according to starting calculation.
Oil-based synthetic fibers had the biggest share of
62.7%.[18] Cellulosic and protein-based fibers consisting
of cotton (around 24.3%), wood-based cellulose fibers
(around 6.6%), other natural fibers (around 5.3%), and
wool (around 1.1%) are shown in Figure 2.
Annual Production of Cellulose in Asia
Annually, asia alone generates 4.4 billion tonnes of solid
wastes and municipal solid wastes comprise 790 million
tonnes of which about (6%) metric tonnes are generated
in India.[19] Agricultural resources alone contribute
more than 350 MT of wastes per year.[20] However,
it is reported that about 600 MT of wastes have been
generated in India from agricultural sources only.[21]
The most important quantities of wastes generated from
agricultural sources are bagasse, straw and husk, wastes
of fruits and vegetables, foodstuffs such as coffee and
tea, oil cakes, nutshell, cotton stalk, etc.[22-24]
ISOLATION OF CELLULOSE
FROM FRUIT PEEL
Considerable literature pertaining to the isolation of
cellulose from agro-wastes is available.
Isolation of cellulose from orange peel (OP) waste with
the united effect of temperature and concentration on
analysis. The OP cellulose was transformed CMC by
etherification. The rheological properties of CMC
from OP using a rotational viscometer at different
temperatures and concentration, and it was initiated
that CMC solutions reveal pseudoplastic behavior
and demonstrated by the Weltman model and found
to exhibit thixotropic behavior. Bicu and Mustata[26,27]
investigated that OP was used as raw material for
cellulose isolation. Two different pulping reagents
were used, sodium sulfite, and sodium metabisulfite.
The various effects of the major processing parameters,
such as sulfite agent dosage and reaction duration, on
cellulose yield were investigated. A central composite
rotatable design involves at two different variables at
five levels, and response surface methodology was used
for the optimization of cellulose revival. The optimum
yields, referred to the weight of double-extracted OP,
were 40.4%, 45.2%, 38.2%, and 9.56% for sodium
sulfite, sodium metabisulfite, sodium hydroxide, and
chelating agent digestions, respectively.
Cellulose was isolated and characterized from
durian rind using delignification with acidic sodium
chlorite then followed by mercerization with 17.5%
(w/v) sodium hydroxide.[28] In another study, the
isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers
from banana peels using a combination of chemical
treatment, such as alkaline treatment, bleaching, and
acid hydrolysis. The cellulose nanofibers isolated
in this study had a dry basis yield of 5.1 %. Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to
analyze and bleaching treatments on the functional
groups, bonding types, and chemical constituents
of the fibers. Thermal analysis exposed that the
developed nanofibers reveal better thermal properties.
[29]
In another study reported that the extraction
and characterization of cellulose from banana peel

Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018 91

 Antony Allwyn Sundarraj and Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan
using high-intensity ultrasonication was subjected
to different chemical treatments to eliminate non-
cellulosic compounds. The obtained chemically
treated cellulose fibers were then mechanically
tailored and separated into nanofibers using high-
intensity ultrasonication at different output power
ranging from 0 to 1000 W. Hence, the manufacture
of cellulose nanofibers from this underutilized agro-
waste has possible application in a commercial field
that can add high value to culinary banana.[30]
In another study, the extraction and characterization
of cellulose and nanocellulose from pomelo (Citrus
grandis) peel is one of the under-utilized waste
materials that have potential in the production of
functional ingredients, due to its high fiber content.
Cellulose was prepared via alkali treatment followed
by bleaching process, while nanocellulose was
produced via hydrolysis using sulfuric acid. The
physicochemical and structural properties of the
produced material were characterized. Pomelo albedo
can be a main resource of natural cellulose and
nanocellulose materials which can be more manipulate
for food ingredient applications.[31] Hiasa[32] have
investigated the isolation of cellulose from mandarin
(Citrus unshiu) peel waste. Cellulose obtained from
mandarin peel waste was purified by the removal
of oil, coloring substances and pectin.. Two pectin-
removing methods and hydrothermal treatment
were investigated to compare their decontamination
efficiencies. FTIR and neutral sugar content analysis
of the purified cellulose from the mandarin peel
waste indicate that the hydrothermal treatment was
more successful for the purification of cellulose, as
compare to the multistep treatments. After the pectin
removal, the purified cellulose from the mandarin peel
waste was fibrillated by sonication to obtain cellulose
nanofibrils, yielding cellulose fibers with widths of
2–3 nm, as experimental by atomic force microscopy
(AFM).[32]
UTILIZATION OF AGRO-WASTE
Cellulose can be isolated from various raw resources
such as soybean hulls, pea hull, corn bran, dried
beet pulp, and oat hull.[33] Another similar study
was conducted that the various compositional
characteristics of rice straw, wheat straw, and
corn stalks were established in terms of lignin,
cellulose, and hemicellulose contents, to evaluate
the fitness of agricultural waste for the isolation of
microfibrils. Cellulose (37–43%), lignin (16–20%),
hemicelluloses (20–33%), and other compounds
were isolated. The isolated cellulose microfibrils
were characterized by FTIR, transmission electron
microscopy, Thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray
diffraction.[34] Reddy and Yang[35] investigated the
92
extraction and characterization of natural cellulose
fibers from common milkweed stems. Fibers obtained
from milkweed stems have about 75% cellulose,
higher than the cellulose in milkweed floss but lower
than that in cotton and linen. Milkweed stem fibers
have low % crystallinity when compared with cotton
and linen, but the strength of the fibers is similar to
cotton and elongation is higher than that of linen
fibers.
Elanthikkal[36] have investigated the extraction of
cellulose microfibres from banana fiber waste and
characterized. Bleached banana waste fibres were
hydrolyzed, under different conditions, to study
the effects of temperature, reaction time, and acid
concentration on the properties of the resultant
cellulose microfibres. As the concentration of acid used
in the hydrolysis was increased, more stable aqueous
suspensions of the cellulose product were obtained and
the dimensions of the resulting cellulose microfibres
were reduced. So that, X-ray diffraction reveals that the
cellulose prepared by hydrolysis was more crystalline
than the banana fibers.[36] Another study investigated
that the isolation of cellulosic material from the orange
(Citrus sinensis) peel wastes has been carried out. The
isolated cellulosic substance has been transformed
into its acetate ester. The acetate derivative has been
characterized using the titrimetric method and IR
spectra. Successful conversion of agro-waste into
its acetate derivatives and the fatty acid composition
suggest an alternative use of this waste material..[37]
Jiang[38] have investigated that the isolation of cellulose
from rice straw, which included delignification of
steam-exploded rice straw with recyclable mixed
solvent system and bleaching with alkaline hydrogen
peroxide. The condition of steam explosion was
optimized through a series of experiments using
statistical software. The optimized conditions of
steam explosion pre-treatment were to keep the rice
straw under 2.5  MPa for 25  min and then explode.
After bleached with alkaline hydrogen peroxide,
bleached cellulose possesses the moderate degree
of polymerization and contains no detectable acid-
insoluble lignin. The recycled lignin and hemicelluloses
were analyzed by FTIR spectra.[38] Extraction of
cellulosic materials from various agro-waste such
as outer skin of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus
Lam.), non-edible part of jackfruit, inner stick of
jackfruit, skins of lychee and skins of lotkon have
been isolated. Cellulose acetate and carboxymethyl
cellulose have been prepared from those isolated
cellulosic materials. The prepared derivatives have
been characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, titrimetric
method and pH-metric titration. The results point
out the possibilities of commercial utilization of the
cellulose derivatives.[39]
Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018
 Antony Allwyn Sundarraj and Thottiam Vasudevan Ranganathan
Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) by
the sulfuric acid hydrolysis of bacterial cellulose
produced by G. xylinus using pineapple peel waste
juice as culture medium. The optimized conditions
of the acid hydrolysis were obtained at the sulfuric
acid (50%), hydrolysis time range from 25 to 40 min,
and temperature at 50°C. The crystallinity of CNCs
determined by FTIR was found to be higher than
bacterial cellulose.[40] In another study, the isolation
of the cellulosic material from drumstick pulp and
peel of watermelon. The acetate and carboxymethyl
derivatives of the isolated cellulosic material have been
prepared. These derivatives have been characterized
by the titrimetric method and IR. Booming change of
the cellulosic matter of drumstick and watermelon pulp
derivatives suggests their alternatives for commercial
utilization of cellulose.[41]
The different properties of CNCs extracted from oil
palm trunk using total chlorine-free method. The
samples were either water pre-hydrolyzed or non-water
pre-hydrolyzed, to exhibit surface fibrillation and
peeling off after acid hydrolysis process compared to
non-fibrillated of non-water pre-hydrolyzed cellulose
and improved final CNC crystallinity (up to 75%).
CNC can be potentially useful in pharmaceutical,
food, medical, and nanocomposites.[42]
Raj and Ranganathan[43] investigated the extraction of
cellulose from the depectinated jackfruit (Artocarpus
integer) peel. The peel was treated with alkali followed
by a chemical process treatment. The morphological
characterization of cellulose was done using AFM.
Derivative thermogravimetric curve exhibits peak of
water-soluble compounds and three main overlapped
peaks attributed to hemicellulose, cellulose, and
lignin. AFM analysis showed homogeneous structures
with typical granular morphology.
CONCLUSION
This study was focused on the cellulose production and
its extraction from agro-industrial waste. Cellulose is
an eco-friendly forest-based polymer that could serve
as valuable renewable resources. Fruit and vegetable
processing sector is not a waste as everything can be
beneficially recycled, biotransformed, and utilized
in one or other form as food and fodder. Since the
agro-waste is a source of contamination, it has to
be treated before discharge into the atmosphere.
The manufacturing processes of cellulose should
be intended to maximize recycling potential and
minimize the generation of wastes. Furthermore, the
wastage in fruit and vegetable processing sector can
be effectively managed by the use of biotechnology,
maintaining the competent of food distribution
system and promoting the domestic and international
trade. Cellulose is a resourceful polymer used in
Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018
pharmaceutical applications obtained from various
sources. The application of agro-wastes and its by-
product as a raw material is of practical implication
for budding the material components as substitute for
traditional manufacture supplies, food, pharmaceutical
uses, and are environmental friendly.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank Karunya Institute of Technology
and Sciences for their guidance and support.
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Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None Declared
Drug Invention Today | Vol 10 • Issue 1 • 2018