Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Extraction of cellulosic fibers from the natural resources: A short review

Lalita Chopra, Manikanika
Department of Chemistry, UIS, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, 140301, Punjab, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cellulosic fiber or cellulosic biomass finds major role in the modern scientific era. The cellulosic fibers
Received 16 June 2021 were well utilized in today’s research due to the unique properties of cellulose such as its biocompatibil-
Received in revised form 2 August 2021 ity, biodegradability, non-toxic etc. Nature is the major sources of cellulose along with some minor
Accepted 20 August 2021
sources such as microbial cellulose (fungal, bacterial, algal etc.). One of the major research areas today
Available online xxxx
is to extract cellulose from natural resources abundant with us such as rice husk, wheat husk, maize husk,
pine needles, cotton, jute etc. Cellulose can be extract from these available sources by numerous chem-
Keywords:
icals, mechanical and green techniques. Cellulose extraction can be carried out at nano, micro or macro
Cellulosic fiber
Biodegradable
scale by the processes like alkalization, bleaching, acidic hydrolysis etc. Extracted cellulosic fiber was ana-
Natural resources lyzed by different analysis techniques such as X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR)
Extraction etc. The present review article represents the importance of the waste biomass to be a useful resource for
Environmental solutions the extraction of cellulose.
Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Symposium on Synth-
esis, Characterization & Processing of Inorganic, bio and nano Materials 2021

1. Introduction lution or smoke of approximate 12–60 percent parts per million

Extraction is a term that is used to define the transfer of any
compound from its original state such as solid or liquid to another
phase. It can be understood as the separation of the compound
from a matrix [1,2]. It can be explained by various types such as
liquid–liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction, acid-base extrac-
tion, ultrasound-assisted extraction, heat reflux extraction, and so
on [3,4]. R. M. Pangborn et al. reported that the flavour and colour
of tea are extracted by us from grounds and then boiling in water
[5].Fig. 1.Fig. 2.Fig. 3.Table 1.
The current review article specially raises two major problems
world-wide; one is the decrease in the wastage of plant or agro
residue and second is to convert this residue or waste into some
useful material [6]. The suitable management of the remains will
lead to maximum paybacks along with the lessening of the health
hazardous instigated by predominate traditional practices like
burning of the agro waste in the fields itself [7-9]. Agro waste con-
sists of high contents of cellulose along with hemicellulose, lignin,
xylose, ash and crude proteins along with other organic com-
pounds. Burning of such a valuable agro residue is a harmful prac-
tice like in India and should be banned along with the cheap and
economical solution to the farmers [10-13]. The burning of the
agro residue is identified as major health hazardous leading to pol-
(ppm) concentration [14]. Burning of the agro residue is doubly
wasteful as the nutritious straw lost to the harmful pollution
flames [15,16]. There are various alternative ways to like produc-
tion of bioethanol, biogas/bio hydrogen papers and boards from
wheat straw pulp, animal feed, yarns, fuels etc [17,18]. The whole-
some agro residue can be best used to extract the good quality cel-
lulose biopolymer as good percentage of cellulose present in it
[19,20]. Cellulose itself is bio renewable, biocompatible and non-
toxic biopolymer with number of hydroxyl functionalities which
provide it uses in various enrichment and separation technologies
[21,22]. Secondly, the biomass also represents extreme potential to
be a renewable and green resource of bioactive polymeric materi-
als [23,24]. Bio feedstocks or its waste can be exhausted for the
extraction of biologically active materials such as cellulose, lignin,
dextrose, chitin and many more. Production of cellulosic fibre from
the biomass is one of the important technical practice [25-27].
This review article is based on the critical analysis and harvest-
ing of various chemical, green and technical methods of cellulose
fibre extraction from available or waste biomass.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.08.267
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Symposium on Synthesis, Characterization & Processing of Inorganic, bio and nano Materials
2021

Please cite this article as: L. Chopra and Manikanika, Extraction of cellulosic fibers from the natural resources: A short review, Materials Today: Proceed-
ings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.08.267
L. Chopra and Manikanika Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Sources of cellulose.

Fig. 2. Cellulose extraction from plant biomass.

2. Natural cellulosic resources [28-30]. Biomass, such as plant resources or agro waste are the
major sources of cellulosic fiber. Plant waste fibers like wood,
Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer available on earth. rice husk, maize husk, banana peel, coffee bean husk, barley
The major sources of cellulose extraction are plants and bacteria husk etc. are major sources of cellulose. The degree of extraction

Fig. 3. Cellulose extraction from plant biomass.

2
L. Chopra and Manikanika
Table 1
Different waste product of wheat and their composition.
S. No. Wheat waste Cellulose
1. Bran 24%
2. Husk 36–39%
3. Straw 33–45%
of the fiber varies from plant to plant and also varies in accor-
dance to the methodology utilized for the extraction [31-35].
In most of the plants as well in the agro residue or waste the
cellulose accompany with lignin and hemicelluloses and found
in a composite form. These three are physically and chemically
bound altogether [36-39]. Cellulose is chief fragment of a plant
structure whereas lignin act as adhesive to hold hemicellulose
and cellulose together and hemicellulose, act as a medium to
link both cellulose and lignin together [40,41]. During the pro-
cess of extraction of cellulose to occur efficiently the removal
of the other counter parts such as lignin, hemicelluloses and
additional filths should be properly managed and controlled.
Microbial cellulose which also make a major quantity of cellu-
lose can be extracted from bacteria [25,42-44].
3. Cellulosic properties
Cellulose fibrous therefore it is unsolvable in water as well as in
most common organic solvents. The deprived solubility is accred-
ited mainly to the strong inter and intramolecular hydrogen bond-
ing holding the individual chains. Cellulose is employed
extensively in the wide local of applications instead of its poor sol-
ubility [45,46]. These areas include packing, paper, coatings, com-
posites etc. But the modification of the cellulose chemically hep to
enhance its solubility, accessibility and also applications as well.
The functional groups on the cellulose can be modified as per the
requirements and hence specific application can be fulfilled with
increased performance [47,48]. Annually more than 180 million
tons of cellulose produced by the plants world-wide and it con-
tributes to be the most abundant and renewable bioresources
available on earth. Cellulose present in plants as a primary struc-
ture of cell wall and also in algae in oomycetes [49]. Cellulose itself
is polysaccharide form of carbohydrate with formula (C6H10O5)n. It
consists of linear chains of b (1–4) glycosidic linked D-glucose
units. It is tasteless, colorless polysaccharide and remain immisci-
ble in aqueous solvent and other organic ones. The presence of
multiple –OH functional groups on it result in to interlinking of
the chains by H-bonding due to which it is gaining fibrous proper-
ties and high tensile strength as well. The presence of many –OH
functional groups make it more viable for the chemical modifica-
tion by required functionalities. Cellulose is crystalline in nature
as compared to other polysaccharide like starch, dextrin which
are amorphous. Cotton fibers are purest form of natural cellulose
as 90% of it is glucose only [40]. Cellulose exists in many forms
such as Cellulose-I, Cellulose Ia. Cellulose Ib, Cellulose II, Cellulose
III and Cellulose IV. Cellulose I obtained from plants and considered
to be the natural cellulose whereas Cellulose Ib is mainly present in
higher plants. Cellulose Ia is mainly present in bacteria and algae
[51]. Cellulose I can be converted into cellulose II and the process
is irreversible because of more stability of cellulose II over cellulose
I Cellulose III and Cellulose IV can be produced from the cellulose I
by various chemical treatments of it. DOP of cellulose controls
many physical properties of the cellulose such as strength, hard-
ness, crystallinity etc. [52-54].
3
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Hemicellulose Lignin References
32% 46% [73]
18–21% 16% [74]
19–32%, 8–16% [75]
4. Cellulosic extraction
Cellulosic fibre extraction can be attained in nano or micro
forms by some chemical or mechanical techniques. There are mul-
tiple number of ways to extract cellulose from the plant parts as
these are rich in cellulose. The three major steps in cellulosic fibre
extraction are pre-hydrolysis, pulping and bleaching. Pre-
hydrolysis treatment is done with mineral acid or alkali so as to
open up the matrix [55,56]. Pulping is to cook the fibre done with
the help of alkali such as NaOH. The bleaching being the final step
to extract the pure bleached form of cellulose can be done with
H2O2, sodium chlorite, ozone etc. and in order to increase the pur-
ity of the obtained cellulose hydrolysis with H2SO4 under reflux
conditions can be carried out [57,58].
Cellulose can be extracted from various sources such as wood
pulp, rice husk, corn waste, wheat waste, coffee waste, banana
peel, sisal fibers, sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and many other sources.
4.1. Extraction of cellulose from rice husk
Agro waste (rice husks) collected, dried and well ground. Dried
rice husk is dewaxed with organic solvent hexane/ethanol. Deligni-
fication of the extract was carried out with the help of aqueous
NaOH at 121 °C in an autoclave. To remove lignin and hemicellu-
lose from the extract, dispersion obtained was treated with the
ultrasound [59,60]. The pulp thus obtained was gone through the
bleaching process bleaching agent such as H2O2 at a particular
pH for specific time and temperature. The ration of liquid to pulp
was treated with conc. HNO3 at a specific time and temperature.
The mother liquid was carefully drained out and the cellulose
obtained was washed subsequently with ethanol, water and then
again with ethanol. The obtained cellulose then dried in oven at
an optimum temperature until it weighs constant. The total yield
obtained was calculated as weight percentage [61,62].
4.2. Extraction of cellulose from wood pulp
Cellulose extraction from wood pulp is a quit old practice as the
pulp is the rich source of natural cellulose. This can be achieved by
various practices such as ionic liquid co-solvent systems, the alcell
process, high sheer homogenization, mechanical treatment etc.
Conventionally, the extraction of cellulose from the wood pulp
was carried out by Kraft pulping process. The process involves
semi-chemical degradation of hemicellulose and lignin from the
matrix by treatment with NaOH and Na2S at the conditions of high
pressure and high temperature. In the delignification process caus-
tic soda can be added to increase pH whereas chemical pulping
help to remove lignin to extract cellulose [63-65].
4.3. Extraction of cellulose from banana peel
Banana represents one of the extensively consumed fruit world-
wide and finds 40% share in world fruit trait. Therefore, a lot of
banana peel is thrown as waste and the factories producing
banana-based food products produce huge banana peel waste
which result into foul smell and also cause many human diseases.
L. Chopra and Manikanika
Banana is factories produce a lot of banana peels, which can cause
an environmental problem such as a bad smell and become a
source of human disease. It consists of 12.1% Cellulose and rest lig-
nin, hemicellulose, ash and moisture. In order to extract cellulose
from it, banana peel at maturity stage 7 that is yellow peel with lit-
tle brown patches on it is collected and cut in to the small pieces on
around 0.3  2.5 cm dimensions. These pieces are then dried
around 55 °C for about 10 h’ time to remove moisture from it, then
cool at room temperature. Peel then grounded into powder and
kept in polythene in refrigerate at 4 °C. In maceration process
around 50 g of banana peel is mixed with ethanol/ toluene (1:1)
solvent for 3 days. In the process of bleaching lignin was removed
by using NaOCl at 80 °C with constant stirring. Hemicellulose was
removed from the pulp by treatment with NaOH at 60 °C. Extracted
cellulose was washed with distilled water and ethanol. It is dried at
optimum temperature until give constant weight [66,67].
4.4. Extraction of cellulose from coffee husk
Coffee is commonest beverage consumed word-wide. It is rich-
est source of anti-oxidants, stimulate brain and improve its func-
tioning. Coffee crop produces a momentous amount of waste in
the form of coffee husk which can be employed as a resource for
valuable products. Coffee husks is agro waste produced after de-
hulling the coffee cherries thru dry processing. Waste coffee husks
from coffee fields and industries based on coffee were collected
and well-grounded and dried for the moisture loss. Coffee husk
constitutes approximately 57% of cellulose and 22% of lignin hence
contributes to be a rich source of lignocellulosic materials. Differ-
ent process involved in cellulose extraction are Alkali treatment,
bleaching treatment and acid hydrolysis. Alkali treatment was per-
formed with NaOH solution for 3.0 contact time at reflux temper-
ature with incessant stirring. The solid obtained was filtered and
washed with distilled water many times until residual alkali was
removed. The residual solid was bleached by treatment with equal
portions of sodium chlorite, acetate buffer and water for 4 h at
reflux temperature. The bleaching process will be removed number
of times until product become white in color. The product obtained
then washed with water until all residual chemicals were removed.
Acid hydrolysis of the product cellulose will be performed to pre-
pare nanocrystalline cellulose [68-70].
4.5. Extraction of cellulose from wheat straw
Wheat (botanical name Triticum aestivum) is known as one of
the commonest, oldest, major consumed cereal in the whole world.
Among wheat waste wheat bran, husk and straw are most com-
mon. From the wheat plant cellulose can be extracted from the
bran, husk as well as from the straw [71,72]. The composition of
the different parts of wheat in terms of cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin are given in table below:
4.6. Extraction of cellulose from sisal fibers
Literature survey revealed the employment of sisal fiber in the
cellulose extraction. Sisal fibers requires preconditioning before
extraction of cellulose and for the purpose sisal fibers were washed
multiple times with the distilled, dried in a hot air oven at around
80 °C for whole one day. Fibers are then cut into small pieces of 5–
10 mm long [76]. Fibers then processed through the procedures
like dewaxing carried out with the mixture of solvents toluene/
ethanol (2:1 V/V) for 6 h in Soxhlet. Pre-treatment process is per-
formed with 0.1 M NaOH in 50% volume of ethanol for 3 contact
hours at 45 °C for 3 h then treated with H2O2 at pH = 11.5 main-
tained with buffer. Treated with NaOH and Naa2B4O7
10H2O with
nonstop agitation. The product the treated with HNO3. Solid
4
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
obtained was washed thoroughly with 95% ethanol, dried at opti-
mum temperature in hot air oven until constant weight was
obtained [77]
4.7. Extraction of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse (SCB)
Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) powder was first subjected to deligni-
fication with sodium chlorite in acidic conditions for 2 h contact
time and temperature approximately 70 °C. After this treatment
the residue was filtered and washed with distilled water properly.
It is then dried in hot air oven at optimum temperature [78].
Extraction of holocellulose was carried out with alkali solution.
Residue obtained after the process is cellulose rich. It is filtered
and washed with water to remove the chemical residues along
with. Sample was dried and then weighed. The crude cellulose
material obtained here can be purified by the treatment with nitric
acid. The final sample obtained was washed with subsequent frac-
tions of ethanol and water, dried and weighed until give a constant
weight [79,80].
5. Conclusion
The cellulose being the most abundant biopolymer present on
earth was most exhausted one. The sources of natural cellulose
are numerous, almost every kind of flora consists of a good amount
of cellulose content in it. Cellulose in general present associated
and well bound with hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose can be
extracted from the natural resources for various purposes. During
the extraction of cellulose from any kind of plant or agro waste
delignification and removal of hemicellulose is required. Bleaching
was processed unless bleached cellulose material was obtained.
There are huge number of renewable resources to extract cellulose
as discussed above. Most of these resources are agro waste, which
if not treated well then can lead to pollution in the environment
but if utilized for the extraction of the components whin it then
solves the dual problem. A lot of agro waste is exhausted by the
researchers for this purpose as well as many small-scale industries
were working on the techniques. But the best solution can be
obtained if large scale local plants were installed with the quick
extraction mechanism of the components of the waste so as to
make best of it in less time, less labor and less cost.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Lalita Chopra: Writing – original draft. Manikanika: Writing -
review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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