6.
Biomass for renewable energy
6.5.1 Introduction
Among the natural resources available for satisfying
mankind’s energy requirements, one of fundamental
importance is biomass, i.e. basic vegetable matter,
which is nature’s most sophisticated means of
accumulating solar energy. Through the process of
photosynthesis by means of chlorophyll, vegetable
organisms use energy from the sun’s rays to convert
atmospheric carbon dioxide and water into the
complex molecules of which they are made or which
appear in their life cycle processes: carbohydrates,
lignin, protein, lipids, as well as a virtually limitless
number of secondary organic and inorganic products.
The term biomass, in its most general sense, is
used to refer to all those biological substances in a
non-fossil form which can be used for energy
purposes. Hence, in addition to biomass sourced from
forests or the waste products of wood-working, this
category also includes the so-called ‘energy crops’
(types of vegetation that are cultivated specifically to
be used in the production of energy and/or of fuels),
agricultural residues, waste from processing and the
effluents of the agro-food industry, animal manure and
the organic part of solid urban wastes.
Biomass is a renewable resource and, hence,
inexhaustible over time, provided that it is used at a
rate that is not greater than that at which it can be
renewed biologically. In reality, then, biomass has no
limit in terms of quantity, but for each vegetable
species used, there is a maximum ceiling on its
availability determined by the area set aside for its
cultivation, as well as by climatic and environmental
constraints which limit the species that can be grown
cheaply and effectively in each region. The use of
biomass for energy purposes is advantageous when it
is found in high concentrations and is available in
sufficient quantities throughout the year, whereas an
VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY
excessively widespread geographical distribution and a
high seasonal variation in harvesting make gathering,
transportation and storage more difficult and
expensive.
Using biomass for energy purposes is also of
undoubted environmental significance: in addition to
the positive effects of containing atmospheric CO2, its
use is often a good solution to the problems of waste
disposal, especially of solids. When viewed
exclusively from the financial and/or energy yield
standpoint, biomass is at the limit of its practicability,
but if the environmental aspects are taken into
account, resorting to biomass can be optimal and
cheap in many cases.
Biomass is a raw material which can be potentially
used in the production of solid, liquid and gas energy
vectors, useable for both typical end markets of
thermal and/or electrical energy and transport. Fig. 1
shows a summary diagram of the principal production
streams based on the use of biomass. From a
technological and industrial standpoint, there are
essentially four alternatives for exploiting energy from
biomass which are already being used industrially on a
competitive commercial basis:
• Direct combustion, resulting in the production of
thermal energy for use in domestic, public and
industrial heating, or for the generation of steam,
both as a driving force and for the production of
electrical energy (Broek et al., 1996).
• Co-combustion (generally carried out in plants
intended for the production of electrical energy,
steam and cement) in which biomass is generally
used as a partial substitute (5-15%) for slack (Van
Loo and Koppjan, 2002).
• The transformation into liquid fuels of certain
types of cultivated biomass, such as the oleaginous
species (production of biodiesel through extraction
of their oil and their subsequent chemical
611
POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

raw materials

starch and sugar wet wastes

lignocellulosic oleagineous
containing and residues

hydrolysis- anaerobic
pyrolysis hydrolysis extraction
extraction digestion
chipping gasification
pelleting
processes

fermentation esterification
distillation

purification purification

catalytic etherification
conversion

solid gas methanol ethanol ETBE oil biodiesel biogas methane

products

biofuel hydrocarbons

bio-oil electrical/thermal energy

charcoal main final markets
transport

Fig. 1. Production streams for biomass energy vectors.

raw materials

wet wastes and residues starch containing sugar containing lignocellulosic

hydrolysis hydrolysis extraction gasification

acidogenesis
processes

biocatalytic conversion purification

of sugars (***)

biocatalytic conversion (**) biocatalytic conversion (**) water gas

of organic acids (*) of organic acids (*) shift
products

hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen

(*) acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic

(**) by phototrophic anaerobic bacteria (Benemann, 1997)
(***) by anaerobic bacteria working in the dark (Lin and Lay, 2004)

Fig. 2. Production streams of hydrogen from biomass.

612 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS


conversion into blends of methyl and/or ethyl
esters) and the sugar species for the production of
ethanol through alcoholic fermentation. These
fuels can be used, either neat or blended with diesel
or gasoline, for vehicle propulsion (IEA, 2004).
Moreover, vegetable oils can be used directly in
endothermic engines combined with a generator
for the production of electricity, or used in a
refinery as a raw material to complement or
replace crude oil (Holmgren, 2005).
• The production of biogas through the anaerobic
fermentation of animal, public or agro-industrial
wastes and effluents, and/or various types of
vegetable biomass with a high moisture content
(Braber, 1995); the biogas produced is
subsequently used for the generation of thermal
and/or electrical energy. Biogas can be produced in
purpose-built plants in livestock businesses or
agro-industrial establishments (ITABIA, 2004), or
recovered from the discharges of solid urban waste
by means of suitable collection devices. In the
latter instance, the energy factor is secondary to the
primary issue of the environment because it avoids
release of methane into the atmosphere (one
molecule of methane has an effect 21 times greater
than that of CO2 in the creation of the greenhouse
effect).
On the other hand, the technologies which are
closest to industrial application are gasification and
pyrolysis (Faaij, 2004).
With the former, it is possible to convert raw
materials such as wood, cultivated lignocellulosic
biomass, agricultural residue or solid urban waste into
a gas fuel that has a wide range of uses. In fact, this
gas can be used in Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)
for fuelling gas or combined cycle turbines, or even
for more avant-garde applications in future, such as
powering fuel cells. Pyrolysis, instead, is a thermo-
chemical process which is traditionally used with
lignocellulosic biomass to obtain liquid fuels which
are more easily transported (bio-oils), charcoal
(typically used for cooking foods) and, in the future,
Fig. 3. Energy sources for
the worldwide production
of energy in 2003 natural gas
21.2%
(totals in graph might not
add up due to rounding).
oil 34.4%
coal 24.4%
VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY
BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
biofuels for running internal combustion engines in
processes integrated with petroleum refining cycles
(Hart et al., 2003). Moving away from large-scale
commercial applications, there are other truly
biotechnological processes, such as the production of
ethanol through the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose
material and the fermentation (subsequent or
simultaneous) of hydrolyzed sugars. In fact,
demonstration-scale production based on this type of
process has commenced only recently under a
Canadian initiative in which Petro-Canada and Shell
Oil are participating (Chipello, 2004).
It is also noticeable how, in the last decade, the
possibility of exploiting biomass as a raw material for
the bio-production of hydrogen has become the subject
of intense research and development (Thanisho, 1996;
Levin et al., 2003; Khanal et al., 2004). The technical
feasibility of the production streams shown in Fig. 2
has already been widely demonstrated.
6.5.2 The role of biomass
in the energy spectrum
At the global level, compared with a total primary
energy production in 2003 of 10,579 million tonnes
equivalent of petroleum (Mtoe), renewable energy
sources with 1,404 Mtoe account for 13.3% of the
total, against 80.2% derived from fossil energy sources
(petroleum, coal and natural gas) and 6.5% from
nuclear sources (IEA, 2005a; Fig. 3).
Among the renewable sources, biomass plays a
primary role, accounting for 79.9% of the total energy
produced from renewable sources during 2003 (IEA,
2005a; Fig. 4). However, as stated in the introduction,
there is a wide range of options for converting biomass
into a useable form of energy, through both
thermo-chemical and bio-transformation processes
(see also Chapter 8.3).
Obviously, the relative importance of biomass in
energy production varies widely from country to
country. Most of it (87.5% of the 2003 total) is
nuclear 6.5% hydroelectric
2.2%
renewables combustible
13.3% renewables
and waste
10.6%
other renewables
0.5%
613
POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Fig. 4. Percentage liquid biomass

distribution of renewable 1.0%
energy sources in 2003 wind 0.4%
(totals in graph might not renewable
municipal waste
add up due to rounding). 0.7%
combustible
hydroelectric renewables solid biomass/
16.2% and waste charcoal
79.9% 77.5%
solar, tide 0.3%
geothermal 3.1% gas from biomass
0.7%

produced and used in non-OECD (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development) countries;
in particular, great use is made of it in the developing
countries of south-east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa
for heating and cooking food (IEA, 2005a). In the
developed countries (OECD), production of energy
from biomass (including solid urban waste, biofuels
and biogas) amounted to about 6.8⭈1018 J (162.4 Mtoe)
in 2003, and the contribution to total energy
production was 3% (IEA, 2005a). One area that is of
particular interest and is constantly growing is the use
of biomass for the production of electrical energy.
Even if it is not yet competitive with conventional
energy sources (fossil fuels, large hydroelectric and
nuclear generation), it is on a similar scale to other
renewable sources as far as energy generation costs are
concerned, if not cheaper (IEA, 2003).
In Europe, the use of biomass accounts for a minor
part of energy consumption, on average only 3.5%,
although the potential for this energy source is much
greater. The overall production of energy from wood
and comparable products (dry agricultural and
agro-industrial residue) amounted to a little less than
43 Mtoe in 2003. The extent to which this source of
energy is used in Europe also varies, and the leading
countries are France and Germany in terms of its use
for heating. The countries of central and northern
Europe are the most advanced for the production of
electrical energy (31.37 TWh in 2003), being equipped
with large plants, particularly for district heating and
co-generation; in some of them, the contribution of
biomass to the national energy balance is of major
significance. This is the case, for instance, in Finland
where there is a large number of companies processing
timber and producing pulp for paper whose residue
(available in large quantities and often concentrated in
the very area where it will be used) can be utilized to
produce energy very cheaply. In that country in 2002,
biomass contributed 19.3% of the total energy
production and 10.7% of the electricity production.
The diagram shown in Fig. 5 illustrates the
contribution made by biomass to the energy
production of various European countries in 2002
(Power [...], 2002).
As regards the technologies most commonly used
in domestic heating systems (10-50 kW), this sector
has experienced major innovations in recent years. The
types of systems most widely used are as follows:
• Manually fed boilers, with large chambers for
fuelling with wood logs, operating with a
downdraft and equipped with a fan. These devices,
using special oxygen sensors (lambda sondes),

Fig. 5. Contribution 30
of biomass to energy
production in some 25
European countries. 19.28
% of the total

20
16.2
15
10.21 9.77
10
3.54 4.2 3.26
5 2.05 1.3

0
EU

Austria

Denmark

Finland

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

Sweden

614 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS


make it possible to optimize the supply of air for
the combustion process and have a conversion
efficiency of about 80%, especially if the boiler is
linked to a hot water storage tank which reduces
the need to switch it on and off. These boilers
generally require attention no more than 2-3 times
per day for feeding and periodically for removal of
the ashes.
• Heating stoves with glass doors for closing a
combustion chamber that takes pieces of wood
which can heat air with forced circulation or the
water of a central heating system; it is also possible
to barbecue food by opening the glass front. With
the doors closed, the efficiency is on the order of
50%.
• Mechanically fed boilers and stoves (Fig. 6) that
use loose, even-sized material (pre-ground residues
such as residue from olive oil processing, fruit
stones, hazel and/or almond shells) or wood which
has been chipped or compressed into pellets.
Pellets, especially, obtained from sawdust or
woodworking waste which is ground, dried and
extruded at high pressure without the addition of
any bonding agent, have a low ash content (in high
quality pellets, it is less than 0.7%) and, above all,
have movement characteristics that enable them to
be handled like a liquid fuel. This opens up the
possibility of automating both the biomass feeding
system (generally using an Archimedes screw that
takes the fuel from a loading hopper and
continuously feeds the combustion chamber), and
the system for removing the ashes; it is also
possible to improve the combustion efficiency up
to a level that is comparable with conventional
fossil fuel boilers. There are models available on
the market that are technically very advanced with
Fig. 6. Diagram
of automatic pellet
and chip fed boiler
(Heizomat).
secondary
air inlet
feeding device
shut-off valve
primary air inlet
VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY
BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
electric ignition, air intake regulated by a lambda
sonde and with an efficiency of around 80%.
Another particularly promising sector for the use
of wood residue as a source of energy is that of
fuelling district heating plants, designed to serve
villages or small towns. These plants are of economic
interest in areas that have both a harsh climate with
extended periods of low temperatures and high
availability of residue biomass at competitive prices
(generally waste from local sawmills, ground-up wood
obtained from forestry maintenance, pruning and
agricultural by-products). The overall installed thermal
power is in the order of 200 MW and grate stoker
technology (fixed or moving) of about 10 MW output
is used. In some cases, electricity is also produced
through co-generation.
Electrical efficiency in the biomass conversion
process does not normally exceed 25%, with an
average specific consumption of 1 kg of biomass per
kWh of electricity; it would, therefore, be highly
desirable from a financial and environmental
standpoint to maximize the recovery of residual
thermal energy (equal to 75% of the energy emitted by
the fuel). However, that is not always possible, also in
view of the fact that the potential thermal uses are
normally seasonal and, for environmental reasons,
generally located at some distance from the plants.
6.5.3 Fuels from biomass
The energy uses of biomass in centralized plants (for
district heating or for the generation of electrical
power), as well as the industrial transformation of
biomass into solid biofuels (such as pellets) for selling
on the open market, mark the end of the chains that
hot water outlet
smoke outlet
cleaning device for heating pipe
insulated combustion chamber
gases combustion chamber
water inlet
endless screw for ashes removal
615
POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES
begin with the gathering and/or the cultivation of
biomass suitable for conversion into energy. These
chains are made up of a series of successive stages:
• Supply of the biomass (cutting and gathering in the
case of cultivated biomass, gathering of straw and
agricultural residues, collection of the residues at
the end of processes involving wood-working or
agro-industrial activities) and possible treatment to
facilitate its transportation (baling of straw and
herbaceous products, compression of wood
biomass into chips).
• Transport to the storage location which may also
be the plant where it is converted into energy or
transformed into pellets.
• Storage, including any drying.
• Transformation into pellets or energy conversion
through combustion in a grate stoker or fluid bed
boiler for the production of steam or hot water (for
district heating) and the subsequent use of the
steam in a turbine – or in some instances, in an
alternative motor, such as a Spilling engine – to
drive an electricity generator for the production of
electricity.
• Disposal of the residue, essentially the ashes from
the combustion, discharged from the energy
conversion plants.
• Marketing of the pellets and management of the
energy produced (input into the electricity grid
and/or distribution of thermal energy to local,
public and industrial users).
Availability and accessibility of biomass
If one excludes Solid Urban Waste (SUW) and
comparable industrial waste (treated wood, etc.)
because of the variety of problems associated with the
handling of the waste stream, there are essentially
three possible sources of biomass for energy purposes:
forestry, agriculture and agro-industry.
In the first two instances, the biomass produced
can consist of residues (waste and residues from
activities related to the care and maintenance of
woodlands or to logging and the initial processing of
wood, or agricultural residues such as straw, prunings,
etc.) or can come from specific farming activities
(productive forestry, dedicated agricultural crops). It is
estimated that on a worldwide level, woods and forests
cover an overall area of almost 5⭈109 ha which is the
equivalent of 33% of the entire surface of the planet
(Runesson, 2006). According to data prepared by the
World Bank at the end of the Twentieth century, the
world’s principal forests are concentrated in relatively
few countries (Table 1).
The ratio of woodland area to population varies
dramatically between the different regions of the
globe: in the temperate zones, it ranges from 7.5
616
Table 1. Countries with the main forest resources
Total forest
Percentage
Country covered area
of total
worldwide
(106 ha)
forested area
Russia 764 22
Brazil 566 16
Canada 247 7
United States 210 6
China 134 4
Indonesia 116 3
Zaire 113 3
Scandinavia 53 2
ha/head in Oceania to 3.4 in the Nordic countries,
down to 2.7 in North America and to a minimum of
just 0.35 ha/head for Europe (excluding Scandinavia).
As a result, the potential contribution of forestry
biomass to the energy needs of the different countries
varies greatly; in fact, where areas of woodland and
the ratios of these areas to population are comparable,
there can be great differences between the various
regions in terms of actual accessibility to those areas.
It is, therefore, important to differentiate between
exploitable and non-exploitable forests: exploitable
forests are used ‘sustainably’ on a regular basis for the
production of wood, or are those that could be used for
such a purpose with relative ease; non-exploitable
forests are those that will not lend themselves to such
use in the foreseeable future for geographical,
environmental or socio-economic reasons. A similar
contrast is equally clear when considering Europe, but
becomes harder to distinguish in countries with a
much more extensive forest coverage, such as Canada
or Russia. Because of its relatively low energy density,
the cost of transporting wood biomass is so high that
production is only feasible from exploitable forests.
An estimate of forested areas (exploitable and
non-exploitable) in temperate zones worldwide and of
the quantity of biomass that they represent can be
found in Table 2 (Streheler, 1988).
Production of biomass from dedicated crops
The forecast of a growing demand for biomass, for
either direct or indirect usage in the production of
energy, has led many organizations and institutes in a
number of European and non-European countries to
undertake research into the so-called ‘energy crops’,
whilst recognizing the serious difficulties (the costs of
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

Table 2. Estimate of the forested area in temperate zones worldwide and the quantity
of biomass they contain
Forested area (106 ha)
Region
Total Non-exploitable
Europe 149
Former USSR 755
North America 457
Other 71
Total 1,432
production being the most serious of all) which must
be overcome to make these initiatives cost-effective.
In the European context, both the traditional crops
intended for the production of biofuels (cereals, beets
and certain other oleaginous crops, such as oil-seed
rape and, to a lesser extent, sunflowers) and cellulose
crops usable as solid fuels for the production of
thermal and/or electrical energy are becoming of
potential interest.
Crops for the production of biomass have been the
subject of extensive experimental research,
development and demonstration activity that has been
carried out over the last two decades in all the major
industrialized countries (Pignatelli, 1997). As a
consequence, today there is a great mass of technico-
scientific information available on the production,
transformation and usage of these crops; in many
instances, however, this information is present in a
very fragmented form within the realms of different
organizations, bodies and institutes, making it difficult
to carry out any serious technico-scientific
comparison of the different possible streams within an
individual nation and, even more so, transnationally.
Among the many species that have been studied, can
be noted: annuals, such as sweet sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor), hemp (Cannabis sativa) and kenaf (Hybiscus
cannabinus); perennial herbaceous species, such as
giant reed (Arundo donax), miscanthus (Miscanthus
giganteus), switchgrass (Panicun virgatum), thistle
(Cynara cardunculus) and common reed (Phragmites
communis); perennial ligneous species, such as poplar
(Populus sp.), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.), robinia
(Robinia pseudoacacia) and willow (Salix alba). Each
of the different types of crop for the production of
biomass has its own particular characteristics that make
it suitable for use in differing situations.
For example, the annual species have the great
advantage of not occupying farmland permanently and
can therefore be grown on land temporarily set aside
VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY
BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
Biomass
Exploitable (106 t)
16 133 12
341 414 52
149 308 48
28 43 5
534 898 117
or, in any case, integrated into the traditional crop
rotation cycle. Among these species, the most
interesting seems to be sweet sorghum which can be
cultivated with conventional farming methods and
agricultural machinery, reaching yields of up to 38
t/ha of dry biomass (Raccuia et al., 2003). Other
species of interest are hemp and kenaf, but are
considered primarily as possible alternative raw
materials for the textile (hemp cloth) and paper
industries. In that case, the only part of the biomass
that would be used for energy production would be the
low quality fibre which is separated out during the
splitting process of the long fibres which are used in
industrial applications with a higher added value.
Compared with the annuals, the perennial
herbaceous species have a greater impact on farm
organization, since they occupy the ground for a
number of years and carry high planting costs because
they can only be propagated by means of seedlings,
cuttings or rootstocks. On the other hand, once the
crop has been planted, biomass can be produced for a
number of years at a unit cost that is much lower than
that of an annual crop. Even the overall environmental
impact is lower, since perennial crops require lower
quantities of fertilizers and pesticides, and less
working of the soil. The timescale and the consistency
of production over time are the determining factors in
the evaluation and selection of these crops (Venturi
and Bonari, 2004). Among the perennial herbaceous
crops, the one that has produced the most interesting
results is the giant reed which grows practically
everywhere and, in the space of a year, can yield up to
50 t/ha of dry biomass in well-irrigated
experimental plots (Raccuia et al., 2003). Other
important species are miscanthus which has proven to
be highly adaptable to different pedoclimatic
conditions with potential yields of more than 30 t/ha
(Raccuia et al., 2003), and switchgrass which can be
cultivated under the conditions (poor soil and limited
617
POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

rainfall) that are typical of a large part of the
Mediterranean area, for example. After the second
year of cultivation, yields in excess of 20-25 t/ha were
achieved with this species, although only on
experimental plots (ENEA, 2005). A particular
advantage of these species is the possibility to dry the
biomass naturally in the field without any significant
loss of material during the winter season, which
significantly facilitates the harvesting and storage
operations. Thistle is also of some interest because of
the lower equipment costs, since it can be propagated
from seed, and because of its lower irrigation
requirements, but its yield of biomass (about 15
tonnes/ha) is lower than that of reed, miscanthus and
switchgrass (Raccuia et al., 2003).
Cultivating perennial ligneous species for energy
purposes (SRF, Short Rotation Forestry) is more
profitable, the shorter the growing cycle is and the
greater the planting density (Bullard et al., 2002).
However, the various SRF phases of the most
interesting species require further experimentation on
a significant scale, also bearing in mind that all the
species under consideration have differing propagation
techniques and climatic, irrigation and soil
requirements. In terms of productivity, the best results
were obtained with crop cycles varying from 3 years
(willow) to 10-15 years, with cutting carried out every
2-3 years (poplar) and a very thick planting pattern
(greater than 10,000 plants/ha). Productivity in the
open field varies from 10 to 15 tonnes of dry
biomass/ha per year in Europe and North America.
Some information (Tomassetti, 2005) on the
productivity and principal characteristics of certain
crops for the production of biomass at the time of
harvesting is provided in Table 3. In all instances, the
effective practicability of using crops dedicated to
energy production is directly linked to their energy
balance, i.e. the difference between the amount of
energy injected in the form of agricultural input and the
amount contained in the biomass produced (output).
The results of the experiments are always positive,
even if they vary significantly due to the different
productivity levels and, in most cases, relate to
growing trials that were limited in duration and carried
out on experimental plots rather than in the open field.
An example of energy balances calculated for certain
herbaceous crops can be seen in Table 4 (Venturi and
Bonari, 2004).
To give an idea of the quantities involved in the
potential use of biomass cultivated ad hoc for the
production of electrical power, it is estimated that a
plantation with an area consisting of between 17,000
and 25,000 ha of a crop for the production of biomass
(SRF or multi-year herbaceous vegetation) would be
able to supply a 30 MW electricity plant for a year
which is enough to provide electricity for 30,000
dwellings.
Characteristics and properties of the principal
solid biofuels
The energy content of a fuel (calorific value)
depends, first and foremost, on its chemical

Table 3. Productivity and characteristics of some crops for the production of biomass at the time of harvesting

Productivity Moisture content Characteristics

Crop Harvesting period
(t/ha dry matter) at harvesting (%) of harvested matter

Sweet sorghum 20-30 70 August/ September baled stalks

shredded or baled stalks

Thistle 10-20(*) 20-25 August/ September
(moisture 20-25%)

from November shredded or baled stalks

Miscanthus 15-25 20-25
to March (moisture 25-20%)(**)

from November shredded or baled stalks

Switchgrass 10-25 20-25
to March (moisture 25-20%)(**)

from November shredded

Giant reed 20-35 40
to March (moisture 40-30%)(**)
SRF
from November chipped
(poplar, eucalyptus, 10-15 50
to March (moisture 50-20%)(***)
robinia, willow)

(*) More than 2-2.8 t/ha of oil seed, possibly usable for the production of biodiesel
(**) The minimum value is the material harvested in March
(***) The moisture content of the chips can fall to 20-25% in the event of prolonged storage

618 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

Table 4. Energy balance of certain herbaceous crops for the production of biomass

Yield range Output/input

Energy content Output Output/input
Crop (t/ha of dry difference
(GJ/t) (GJ/ha) ratio
material) (GJ/ha) (*)
Sweet sorghum 20-30 16.7-16.9 334-507 309-494 13-39

Kenaf 10-20 15.5-16.3 155-326 130-313 6-25

Hemp 8-15 16.0-18.0 128-270 103-257 5-20

Miscanthus 15-30 17.6-17.7 260-530 238-522 12-66

Giant reed 15-35 16.5-17.4 240-600 118-592 11-74

Thistle 10-15 15.5-16.8 155-252 133-244 7-31

Switchgrass 10-25 17.4 174-435 152-427 8-54

(*) The inputs considered vary from 13 to 25 GJ/ha for annual crops and from 8 to 22 GJ/ha for perennials

composition. A high carbon and hydrogen content
has a high calorific value as a direct consequence,
while oxygen, nitrogen and the other elements
present in biomass make no contribution in this
respect. The average carbon content of wood from
conifers (deal, pine) is 50.7%, while for broad-
leaved trees (birch, beech), it falls to 49%; the
hydrogen content is 6.2% and 6% respectively
(Kollmann, 1951). The lower quantity of
combustible matter in broad-leaved trees is caused
by their lower content of lignin and its extracts.
In the specific case of biomass, a part of the energy
released by combustion is consumed by the
evaporation of water, both that contained initially in
the fuel and that which forms through the reaction of
hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen. As a result, the
energy content of a biofuel is expressed as the Net
Calorific Value (NCV) which depends directly on its
moisture content, as well as on the composition of the
biomass. This can be seen from Fig. 7 (Richardson et
al., 2002) where Wc represents the gross calorific value
(determined experimentally), while Wem indicates the
net calorific value.
A third element that has a significant influence on
the energy content of solid biofuels is density, that
is the mass of the material per unit of volume occupied
which depends on both the specific ‘internal’ mass
(i.e. calculated without taking account of the ‘space’
between the particles of the material) and on its size
(in the case of wood) or, in the case of agricultural
residue or herbaceous plants, on the type of packaging
(prismatic bales, cylindrical bales, etc.). The density
value and net calorific value of some biofuels are
shown in Table 5 (Streheler, 1988; Jones and Walsh,
2001; Richardson et al., 2002).
In addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, plants
need nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a certain
number of other minerals in small amounts in order to

Fig. 7. NCV of biomass freshly-felled

in relation to moisture. forest biomass
20 Wc dry mass basis
calorific value (MJ/kg)

15

10
Wem dry mass basis

5
Wc fresh mass basis
Wem fresh mass basis
0
0 20 40 60 80
moisture (%)

VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY 619

POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Table 5. Density and net calorific value of certain solid biofuels

Moisture NCV Density

Biomass Form
(%) (MJ/kg) (kg/m3)
Norwegian fir whole tree 40 17.55 400
Norwegian fir bark 40 19.69 360

20 14.28 350
Fir logs
40 10.10 390

20 14.28 180
Fir chipped
40 10.10 215

Scots pine whole tree 40 17.97 395

Scots pine bark 40 19.50 280
Birch whole tree 40 17.41 475
Birch bark 40 22.71 550

20 14.28 450
Beech logs
40 10.10 510

Wheat straw bales 10 15.50 120

Maize stalks bales 10 14.40 100
Miscanthus bales 12 15.37 120

build their tissue and carry out their vital processes,
and to absorb other elements present in the soil,
including heavy metals. None of these elements
releases energy during combustion, but they are
released into the atmosphere in the form of volatile
compounds or are in any case found in the ashes of the
combustion, and can be a problem for the incineration
plant (deposits, corrosion) and, more generally, for the
environment. Generally, combustion of wood from
broad-leaved trees produces a higher amount of ash
than that from conifers, and herbaceous biomass
(straw, miscanthus, etc.) produces more than wood.
The ash content from certain types of biomass is
shown in Table 6 (Streheler, 1988; Jones and Walsh,
2001; Richardson et al., 2002).
The wide variety in types and characteristics of
the fuels obtainable from biomass (solid biofuels) is
potentially one of the greatest obstacles to the
further development of this energy source. In fact,
the increase of international trade and the industry
that produces devices and plant components to make
use of these fuels requires the definition for each
individual type of biofuel, and specific techniques
that make it possible to determine its economic
value and design the plants properly so as to
optimize the conversion yield, increase the degree of
automation and minimize the emission of polluting
substances.
One standardization proposal (European
Commission, 2005), drafted by an appropriate working
group of the European Standards Committee (ESC),
defines as solid biofuels only those obtained from:
a) agricultural and forestry products; b) vegetable
residues from agricultural and forestry activity;
c) vegetable residues from the food industry; d ) wood
residue, with the exception of that treated with
impregnating agents and/or paints that contain traces
of halogenated organic compounds and/or heavy
metals, such as timber for construction and from the
demolition of buildings; e) vegetable fibre residue
from the production of virgin cellulose pulp or
chemical pulps for the paper industry, provided that it
is burned in situ and the energy produced is recovered.
The standardization proposal provides that biofuels
be classified on the basis of their nature and origin,
and the type and properties of the commercial product.
The classification based on the nature and origin of
the solid biofuels is divided into four successive levels,
starting with the following principal categories:
a) wood biomass; b) herbaceous biomass; c) fruit;
and d ) blends and mixtures (blends being the
intentional mixing of different products, and mixtures
their unintentional or accidental mixing). The
classification proposal, based on the type of product
being marketed and its properties, take the most
common forms of these materials into consideration in

620 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

accordance with the list contained in Table 7

Table 6. Ash content of different types of biomass (Tomassetti, 2005).
The classification of all these products requires
Ash content that a series of properties be evaluated for each one;
Biomass
(% of dry matter) on the basis of the pre-determined ranges of values
into which they fall, the product being examined can
Norwegian fir:
– trunk 0.6
be allocated to a particular category or quality grade.
– bark 3.2 By way of example, the properties taken into
– whole tree including foliage 1.6 consideration in defining the standards and/or
– whole tree excluding foliage 1.3 technical specifications for wood chips are the size of
the chips, the moisture content (% by weight of the
Scots pine: product on receipt), the ash content (weight % dry)
– trunk 0.4 and the nitrogen content (weight % dry). To these are
– bark 2.6
– whole tree including foliage 0.9 added further descriptive specifications regarding net
– whole tree excluding foliage 0.8 calorific value (MJ/kg or kWh/m3), density (kg/m3) on
receipt, and chlorine content (weight % dry) that
Birch: contribute to a precise identification of the product.
– trunk 0.4
– bark 2.2
– whole tree including foliage 1.0
– whole tree excluding foliage 0.8 6.5.4 Technologies for the use
of biomass energy
Cereal straw 4.3

Miscanthus 2.6
The processes of thermo-chemical conversion of
biomass rely on the thermal action to activate a series

Table 7. Principal commercial types of solid biofuels

Typical size
Type of biofuel Preparation method
(diameter or volume)
Briquettes ⬎25 mm mechanical compression

Pellets ⬍25 mm mechanical compression

Powdered fuel ⬍1 mm fine grinding

Sawdust 1-5 mm cutting

Chips 5-100 mm cutting

Wood fragments various grinding

Wood logs 100-1,000 mm cutting

Whole wood ⬎500 mm cutting

Straw in prismatic bales 0.1m3 compression and baling
Straw in large prismatic bales 3.7 m3 compression and baling
Straw in cylindrical bales 2.1 m3 compression and baling
Faggots various collection and binding of stems

Bark various stripping from the wood

Shredded straw 10-200 mm shredding during harvesting

Grain or seeds various no preparation

Pods and fruit stones 5-15 mm no preparation

Fibre oilcake various dehydration of fibrous residues

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POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES
of chemical reactions. The final result is the release of
energy due to the breakage of chemical bonds that
unite the carbon atoms with the hydrogen atoms,
leading to the formation of carbon dioxide, water and,
depending on the reaction conditions, numerous other
types of gaseous, liquid or solid chemicals.
Generally, biomass-derived fuels must have a
moisture content of less than 30% and a
carbon/nitrogen ratio greater than 30. The cellulose
biomass typically used for the production of solid
biofuels (see again Fig. 1) are: a) wood and
derivatives; b) cereal straw; c) stalks and leaves from
dedicated crops (giant reed, sorghum, miscanthus,
etc.); d ) waste and residues from agro-industrial
processing (husks, chaff, pods, nuts, olive residues,
etc.).
Combustion
Among the various processes for the
thermo-chemical conversion of biomass, direct
combustion is the one most used and the most
technologically developed, even though research is
continuing into the development of systems that are
ever more efficient and have a lesser environmental
impact.
The process of combustion enables the inherent
chemical energy of biomass to be transformed into
thermal energy through a series of chemico-physical
reactions. When the biomass is fed into a combustion
chamber, it first undergoes a drying process;
subsequently, as the temperature rises, processes of
pyrolysis, gasification and, finally, combustion take
place. With suitable fuel/air ratios, the biomass
decomposes and vaporizes, leaving a carbon residue
(ash) made up primarily of inert mineral compounds.
The volatile compound which makes up about 85%
of the initial biomass consists of a gas fraction, a
condensable fraction, a carbon fraction and, finally,
smoke. In addition to carbon dioxide (CO2), the gas
fraction contains carbon monoxide (CO), some
hydrocarbons (CxHy) and hydrogen (H2) that are
further oxidized through the following principal
exothermic reactions:
2CO ⫹O2⫺
⫺ 2CO2
䉳
䉴
CxHy ⫹(x ⫹0.25y)O2⫺
⫺ xCO2 ⫹(0.5y)H2O
䉳
䉴
2H2 ⫹O2⫺⫺ 2H2O
䉳
䉴 place in the first chamber, followed by a total
The condensable fraction contains water and
organic compounds with a low molecular weight, such
as aldehydes, acids, ketons and alcohols that tend to
fragment into lighter compounds with the rise in
temperature; for example, in the case of acetic acid
and acetic aldehyde, the following reactions take
place:
622
CH3COOH⫺⫺ CH4⫹CO2
䉳
䉴
⫺
CH3CHO ⫺ CH4⫹CO2
䉳
䉴
The products of these reactions undergo a further
oxidation process in the same manner as indicated in
the preceding point.
The carbon fraction can react with oxygen to give
CO and CO2. Finally, the smoke is composed of very
small particles of carbon, tar and ash ( fly ashes).
The overall result of these reactions is the
production of thermal energy that is recovered through
heat exchangers in which the thermal energy is
transferred to other fluid vectors, such as air or water.
The main problems of environmental impact
connected with the combustion of biomass are linked
to the characteristics of the solid fuel, such as its
chemical composition, its content of volatile
substances, its moisture content, its lack of physical
homogeneity, its ash content and how it behaves. The
principal combustion technologies are described
below.
Grate burner (fixed or moving). Fixed grates are
generally used for small-scale burners. For industrial
plants, moving grates are used that facilitate the
movement and remixing of the fuel, and removal of
the ashes. There are various types of these grates:
vibrating horizontally and/or vertically, with a
conveyor, rotating, stepped, on rollers, etc., and in
certain cases, air or water are used for cooling to
enable a higher specific thermal load.
Combustion in suspension. This is recommended
for pulverulent and light biomass like rice husks,
sawdust, wood dust and crushed straw in which the
biomass is fed into the upper part of the furnace and
burns as it falls onto the grate below whose primary
purpose is to remove the ashes.
Rotating drum combustion. This combustion is
used for applications in which the fuel has particularly
poor thermo-physical characteristics and contains high
amounts of pollutants. During combustion, the
biomass is continually remixed by the slow rotation of
the drum, and the products of combustion can flow in
the same or the opposite direction as that of the
biomass.
Two stage combustion. In this type of combustion,
gasification and pyrolysis of the material initially takes
combustion of the gasified products in the second
chamber which is the main body for transferring the
energy to the vector fluid.
Fluidized bed combustion. This can handle
various types of biomass, including ‘difficult’
carbon materials such as lignites, peat, sorted solid
urban waste, various kinds of mud, even with a high
percentage of moisture (in excess of 40%). The
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

combustion chamber is partially filled with inert
material, such as sand or alumina, which is fluidized
by the air from the primary combustion so as to
form a bubbling bed or (in the case of greater air
speed and material entrainment) a so-called
circulating bed which is recovered and re-inserted
into the combustion chamber. In addition to the inert
material, material can be inserted so as to vary the
ambient conditions in which the combustion takes
place: in fact, in the case of fuels polluted with acid
compounds or containing low melting ashes,
limestone or dolomite can be used to break down the
acid pollutants and prevent fusion of the ashes under
the operating conditions of the combustion chamber.
Quite apart from the technology used, the
primary problems connected with the combustion of
biomass consist of the degree of moisture in the
material (25-55% for agro-forestry and wood-
working residues, less than 10% for pellets). If it
varies significantly, it is a major obstacle to the ideal
operation of the process and the maximization of the
energy yield. Those problems are also due to the
quantity and nature of the inert elements present in
the biomass that are the cause of fouling through
fusion of the ashes (800-1,200°C).
The equipment used for the combustion aims to
recover most of the energy developed during the
process. This recovery can take place in a direct
manner through the walls of the device (stove), or else
in an indirect manner by means of a vector fluid
(boiler). The presence of the heat recovery section is
not only useful from an energy and economic point of
view, but is necessary to reduce the temperature of the
fumes leaving the combustion chamber (which can
reach 1,200°C) down to such levels (less than or equal
to 300°C) so they can be treated.
The devices for combustion of biomass have
different construction features, depending on whether
they are intended for use in private, agricultural or
industrial sectors. The principal devices for the private
sector (space heating), of which there are numerous
models on the market, can be grouped as follows:
• Wood-burning ranges, purely and typically for
single family use, intended both for space heating
and for cooking food, with an overall efficiency of
about 70-75%.
• Woodstoves, also for single family use, with air or
water heat exchangers that have an average
efficiency of about 50%.
• Small to medium output (20-300 kWt )
wood-burning boilers that have a variable average
efficiency of between 60-80%, capable of
providing the heating for a single dwelling or for
small residential complexes. Those with the
smallest capacity are equipped with a fixed grate
VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY
BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
and are refilled with fuel manually, while those
with higher outputs include loading hoppers,
feeding systems, fixed or moving grates, and
systems for removal of the ashes and elimination of
dust prior to discharging the smoke through the
chimney. Boilers for heating water are of the
firetube type in which the hot combustion gases
pass through a set of tubes immersed in water to
which they transfer the heat.
The combustors of special interest to the
agricultural sector are those with large chambers and
moving grates, equipped with systems suitable for
feeding with bales of straw, tree pruning residue,
agro-industrial processing residue, etc. The
combustors must be properly designed to ensure good
operation with biomass that has a high ash content
(also low melting ash) and a moisture content that
varies over a wide range. The most frequent
applications (and in many cases, the cheapest) found
in this sector are the drying of agricultural products,
and heating of greenhouses and stalls for pig and
poultry breeding, as well as for normal domestic uses.
The output of the thermal devices is generally between
200 and 2,000 kWt. In this case also, the heat
exchanger is of the firetube type.
In the industrial sector, there are numerous direct
combustion plants for biomass from agro-forestry or
agro-industrial sources, SUW or industrial waste.
These applications enable the production of thermal
energy for use in productive activities, the production
of electrical energy or cogeneration (simultaneous
production of electrical and thermal energy).
A plant consists of the following sections:
• A biomass store that can be big enough to ensure
continuity of the fuel supply for several days or for
much longer periods (even several months) in the
case of seasonal biomass.
• Any pre-treatment consisting of reduction in the
piece size or moisture content of the biomass to the
specifications required by the combustion system.
• A feed line equipped with suitable flow control.
• A combustor with the features previously
described.
• Energy recovery through: firetube heat exchangers,
if the vector fluid is low-pressure hot water or air;
water pipes, if you need super-heated pressurized
water or steam; diathermic oil and, if necessary, a
steam heat exchanger, particularly for low output
plants.
• Where production of electrical power is involved,
additional components are required, such as a
steam turbine and an electricity generator
connected to it, a steam condenser, a degasifier,
and various heat recovery devices to optimize the
energy cycle.
623
POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The functioning of steam turbines calls for the
generation of super-heated steam at medium/high
pressure.
The output of plants that produce thermal energy
alone can vary from a few hundred kWt to tens of
MWt: the upper limit for industrial biomass plants is
linked to the technical and organizational-operational
characteristics of the supply chain of the wood or other
types of biomass. The number of operational hours
each year often puts a limit on the financial return on
investment, when compared with plants fed with
conventional fuels, since the latter generally involve
low investment costs, but high energy costs.
The use of biomass for the production of electrical
power is generally carried out using three types of
devices: piston systems powered by steam for small
plants (from 50 kWe to 1 MWe; efficiency of 6-10% for
single stage systems and from 12 to 20% for
multi-stage systems); steam turbines for plants from
0.5 MWe up to 500 MWe and above, with the majority
being around 50 MWe (from about 25% efficiency for
sizes of 5-10 MWe and above to 30% for 50 MWe
cogeneration plants); Rankine cycle plants with
organic fluid (ORC, Organic Rankine Cycle) for plants
of 0.5 to 2 MWe.
Since biomass has a low energy density (about a
tenth of that of petroleum), the financial benefits of
constructing plants for the production of electrical
power or cogeneration by means of biomass
combustion increase with its availability locally in
large quantities and consistently over a period of time.
This results from the significant reduction in transport
and storage costs of the large amounts necessary for
the operation of a power plant whose typical output is
generally in the range of 3-10 MWe. To give an idea of
the biomass necessary for this type of project, it
should be remembered that it requires about 1 kg of
biomass to produce 1 kWh of electrical power.
The primary energy parameter used to evaluate a
plant is its net overall efficiency; this is given by the
energy available for external users as a percentage of
the fuel input into the power generating plant, net of
the consumption needed for the operation of the plant
itself.
Pyrolysis and gasification
Pyrolysis is a process of thermal decomposition of
biomass at high temperature (300-700°C) in the
absence of oxygen. Traditionally, the results of
biomass pyrolysis (see again Fig. 1) are solid products
(vegetable carbon), liquids (pyrolysis oil or bio-oils)
and/or a mixture of fuel gases, in general reused
directly within the process to maintain a high
temperature (Bridgwater et al., 2002). Pyrolysis of
biomass has been used with traditional technologies
624
for the production of charcoal; however, one of the
current areas of interest is the advanced processes that
have a high conversion yield into liquid products with
a high energy content that can be transported more
easily than solid biomass and used directly as a fuel, or
subjected to fractionating to obtain a wide range of
chemical products of industrial interest. Yields of bio-
oils in excess of 80% by weight of the original
biomass can be obtained with rapid pyrolysis
processes or flash pyrolysis at moderate reaction
temperatures (Bridgwater, 2005). One of the most
modern applications of biomass pyrolysis processes is
that which leads to the production of synthetic gas or
syngas (see below).
Gasification consists of transforming a solid fuel,
in this case, biomass, into a gas fuel through reaction
with oxygen. Gasification is a process from which a
gas is obtained, which traditionally has a low calorific
value (varying between 900 and 1,200 kcal/Nm3),
through the reaction of the biomass itself with a
quantity of air so as not to allow complete oxidation.
The calorific value of the gas can be noticeably
increased if oxygen is used instead of air.
The typical combustible components present in the
gas produced are carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2), accompanied also by small amounts of
hydrocarbons. The non-combustible components of the
gas produced are nitrogen (N2), if air is used as the
comburent; nitrogen oxides (NOx), derived from the
oxidation of the nitrogen linked to the biomass; carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water vapour. The proportions of
the various components of the gas vary significantly,
depending on the different types of gasifier, the fuel
and the moisture content. In addition to the organic
substances, biomass also contains mineral salts that
are not gasified, but are transformed into ash and dust.
In practice, the biomass is transformed by means
of gasification into a combustible gas that is useable in
internal combustion engines or in boilers for the
production of mechanical or electrical energy, which is
of more value than mere thermal energy, or that can be
used in kilns for the production of cement or bricks,
for example.
Gasification devices, apart from certain
construction and processing details, have the same
characteristics as those used for the combustion of
biomass, but the oxidation of the fuel occurs in the
absence of oxygen. The principal types of gasifiers
and their particular characteristics can be seen in
Table 8 (Pignatelli and Scoditti, 2004).
Leaving aside fixed bed gasifiers which are
well-suited to low/medium output, industrial interest
is currently directed, above all, towards fluid beds.
Taking a closer look at gasification of biomass in a
fluid bed, three basic stages of drying, pyrolysis and
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

Table 8. Principal types of gasifiers

Contact system and

Advantages Limitations
principal characteristics

Downdraft fixed bed (co-current)

Solid and gas downward Simple, robust construction Limited potential for scaling up
Very low levels of tar High carbon conversion Low specific capacity
Moderate level of particulates Low entrainment of ash High biomass moisture levels
High residence times of solids Deposit of sintered ash

Updraft fixed bed (counter-current)

Solid downward, gas upward Simple, robust construction Low specific capacity
Very high levels of tar Good potential for scaling up High biomass moisture levels
Moderate level of particulates High thermal efficiency Deposit of sintered ash
High residence times of solids

Bubbling fluid bed

Gas passes through a bubbling bed Good temperature control Minimal scope in choice of biomass
Inert solid in reactor vessel Good potential for scaling up Loss of carbon in ash
Low levels of tar High specific capacity
High level of particulates Possible use of catalyst in the bed

Circulating fluid bed

Particulates separated and recycled
Low levels of tar
High level of particulates
Good temperature control Use of catalyst in the bed not possible
Good potential for scaling up
Increased range of particulates
High reaction capacity
High carbon conversion
Simple construction

Entrained flow fluid bed

Fine feed transported by high velocity Very good potential for scaling up Costly pre-treatment
gas
No inert solids High carbon conversion Practical only above 10 t/h
Low levels of tar Slag in the ash
Very high level of particulates Costly construction materials
Minimal scope in choice of biomass

Double fluid bed

Pyrolysis in first reactor
Combustion of tar in 2nd reactor that
reheats the bed of the 1st
High level of tar
High level of particulates
Medium calorific value of gas using air Complex and costly design
alone
Possible use of catalyst in the bed Practical only above 5 t/h
Scaling up possible but complex

oxido-reductive processes can be identified, with the
substantial difference that these operations are
carried out rapidly in an almost isothermal reactor
vessel and with extremely brief residence times.
Conditions of isothermicity are ensured by a
fluidized bed of sand where the gasifying agent
normally used is air, although it is also possible to
use oxygen or steam. Biomass, in general, has a high
moisture content (as much as 30-40%), and so H2O
is released rapidly, together with other volatile
substances, on entering the fluid bed at temperatures
between 500 and 800°C.
Initially, the fuel is transformed into carbon
dioxide, tarry substances, hydrocarbons, carbon
residues and water vapour. A part of the volatile
substances developed undergoes a further

VOLUME III / NEW DEVELOPMENTS: ENERGY, TRANSPORT, SUSTAINABILITY 625

POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

transformation process, with the formation of a crude
final gas (CO⫹H2: 20-35%; CH4: 2-4%; CO2⫹N2:
remaining percentage) that carries a noticeable
quantity of particulate carbon material and inert matter
(ash).
Fluid beds lend themselves well to the gasification
of fuels with low calorific values because they
produce a rapid and uniformly distributed heat, and
the temperature can be controlled relatively easily. The
carbon residues accumulate in the inert bed until they
reach a certain proportion which can vary from one
biomass to another, depending on their granulometry
and reactivity. At this point, as much biomass enters
the gasifier as comes out as gasified product, tar
transported by the gas and carbon residue present in
the ash (char).
Some of the reactions that take place in the
bed are:
C ⫹1/2O2⫺
⫺ CO䉳
䉴
to above can affect the calorific value of the gas
which, essentially, depends on the final concentrations
of CO, H2, CxHy.
Of particular importance in the general balance of
the process are the hourly flow-rate of biomass, the
hourly flow-rate of air, the temperature of the bed, the
moisture content of the biomass, and the residence
time of the biomass and the gases in the inert bed. In
turn, these variables are influenced by the following
parameters: a) the optimal granulometry of the inert
material making up the fluid bed; b) the minimum
velocity of the vector used for the fluidification (the
higher it is, the lower the density and viscosity of the
fluidifier are); c) the optimal height of the bed (so as
not to allow excessive losses of pressure to reduce the
consumption of energy by the blower); and d ) the size
of the reactor and the ancillary equipment (cyclones,
nozzles, pipework, etc.).
Since fluido-dynamic factors must co-exist with

others of a kinetic nature in a fluid bed gas generator,

CO ⫹H2O⫺⫺ CO2 ⫹H2
䉳
䉴
the choice of project parameters influences the quality
CH4 ⫹H2O⫺ ⫺ CO ⫹3H2
䉳
䉴 of the gas and the degree of gasification of the
⫺ biomass.
H2 ⫹1/2O2 ⫺ H2O
䉳
䉴

One parameter that differentiates gasifiers is their

The best methane and hydrocarbons come from operating pressure. Gasifiers can operate under
pyrolysis reactions of biomass. The reactions referred pressure or at atmospheric pressure. The composition

Fig. 8. Pilot circulating

fluidized bed biomass
gasification plant
at the ENEA Centre
of Trisaia
(Rotondella, Matera, Italy).

626 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS


of the gas and its calorific value do not differ
significantly in these two systems. In pressurized
gasifiers, the feeding system is more complex and
costly; for similar sized systems, the investments are
much higher; the gas produced does not have to be
compressed and that facilitates the purification of the
gas, even in the presence of high tar content; the
efficiency is higher. In atmospheric gasifiers for
application to gas turbines, low tar content is required
in the gas produced and a relatively low temperature
before the gas is compressed; the quality of gas
required for use in internal combustion engines is not
a costly enterprise and, moreover, the gas does not
have to be under pressure. For this type of gasifier, the
investment costs are potentially less at lower outputs
(under 30 MWe).
Another fundamental parameter that differentiates
fluid bed gasifiers is the gasifying agent. The simplest
use air, but because of the effect of diluting the
nitrogen, the calorific value of the gas produced is
normally low (about 5,400-7,100 kJ/Nm3).
As pointed out previously, in order to increase the
calorific value of the gas, it is possible to use oxygen
or water vapour as the gasifying agent instead of air. In
the latter case, the hydrogen content of the gas is also
increased and, potentially, that makes this technology
particularly interesting for use in conjunction with fuel
cells or for the production of hydrogen from biomass.
Fig. 8 shows a pilot circulating fluid-bed gasifier
(Pignatelli and Scoditti, 2004) where the combustion
and gasification zones are separate; transporting
thermal energy from one zone to the other takes place
through the circulation of the matter (sand). This
arrangement makes it possible to compartmentalize
the gasification zone, feeding thermal energy from the
combustor to the gasifier without the entry of air, and
using steam as the gasifying agent. This makes it
possible to obtain a gas with a high hydrogen content,
useable for feeding a fused carbonate fuel cell for the
distributed production of electrical power and heat.
Fig. 9. Diagram
biomass
of an advanced process pyrolysis
for the production at 550°C
of syngas from biomass.
char and
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BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
The gas produced by this type of plant has a hydrogen
content of about 45-50% and a calorific value of about
11,500 kJ/Nm3.
To paint a comprehensive picture of the status of
gasification technology, it should be pointed out that
commercial interest in this sector was sparked during
the course of the 1970s by the first oil crisis. At that
time, there was a proliferation of small-scale plants,
especially in the United States and in Europe, used
particularly in the realms of industries associated with
wood processing. During the course of the 1990s, a
major effort in the field of research and development,
supported mainly by United States governmental
bodies, was concentrated on the development of
demonstration plants based on IGCC (Integrated
Gasification Combined Cycle) techniques and cofiring
in coal gasification plants. The results of this effort led
to the construction of some medium-scale commercial
plants fed with lignocellulosic waste.
At present, the technical innovation within the
sector is directed at making large-scale plants available
for the production of syngas (CO⫹H2) at costs that are
competitive with fossil sources. The plant solutions
being proposed are often based on steam reforming of
pyrolysis gas. A typical example of these processes is
depicted in Fig. 9 (DOE, 2005).
The real barrier to success in making the
production of syngas from biomass financially
competitive seems to be related to the low cost, wide
availability of raw materials that do not change over
time, with uniform physical (size, density, etc.) and
chemical (composition, calorific value, etc.)
characteristics.
The possibility of obtaining syngas at competitive
prices is linked to the success of one of the most
interesting current hypotheses concerning the integral
exploitation of biomass for the production of energy,
known as Biomass to Liquid (BtL). BtL technologies
(Griesemann, 2004) are, in fact, based on two
sequential stages of production: gasification of
pyrolytic syngas
gas steam gas
gas
reforming
clean-up
850°C
steam
steam
boiler
heat
ashes
ash and flue gas
combustion
heat
air
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POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES
biomass to obtain syngas and catalytic conversion of
the syngas (Fisher-Tropsch synthesis) into
liquid hydrocarbons (see again Fig. 1).
The principal elements made available in recent
literature relating to BtL technologies are as follows:
• The fuels obtained would make it possible to
achieve one of the most favourable results in terms
of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
(EUCAR/JRC/CONCAWE, 2003).
• Four of the major European automotive
manufacturers have formed a consortium to
promote this technology; Daimler Chrysler and
Volkswagen have registered the brand name Sun
Diesel for diesel obtained by means of BtL; and
production on a pilot scale is in progress in
Germany and Sweden.
• A plant for the production of 100,000 t/y of
fuel would consume about 1,500 t/d of
biomass, require an investment of between
250 and 300 million Euro, and have an energy
efficiency (GJ/GJ) of between 50 and 55%
(Griesemann, 2004).
• The estimated potential for 2010 for replacing
conventional petroleum-based fuels in 15 states of
the European Union would be between a minimum
of 4.5% and a maximum of 10%, corresponding to
13 and 32 million tonnes of petroleum equivalent
per year (Hart et al., 2003; Wurster et al., 2002).
6.5.5 Conclusions
Currently, 80% of world energy market demand is met
by fossil sourced fuels. The contribution made by
biomass to this market can presently be assessed at
10-15%. The uncertainty of this estimate is linked to
the non-commercial use of biomass that forms the
principal source of energy in many developing
countries.
Despite the uncertainty of the above-mentioned
estimate, it is, however, certain that vegetable matter is
the most important renewable energy source on the
planet. Given the relevance of problems relating to
climate change potentially linked to the growing use of
fossil fuels and the steep increases in the price of
hydrocarbons, a careful analysis of the constraints and
possibilities for the use of biomass in the production
of energy is appropriate. Limiting this analysis to
thermo-chemical processes, first and foremost, it is
clear that the introduction in the industrialized
nations of specific techniques for solid biofuels will
cause them to be marketed more widely and,
consequently, used more extensively. For some time
now, an increase has been recorded in almost every
European country in the use of pellets, reflecting the
628
use of modern, highly energy-efficient combustors in
place of the traditional domestic heating systems
fuelled by coal or diesel (IEA, 2005b).
The spread of biomass combustion plants that are
larger than those presently used for the production of
electricity (anticipated output 50-80 MWe), or of
electricity and heat, will be seen primarily in those
countries rich in lignocellulosic by-products and
waste, or in nations where there is wide scope for
biomass energy production from urban waste (Van
Loo and Koppjan, 2002). Co-combustion in
medium/large size plants for the generation of
electrical power is the sector in which the greatest
increase in the use of biomass is taking place,
including some European countries (for example,
Spain, Netherlands and Germany). The advantages of
this usage, especially in coal-fired plants, are obvious:
minimum investment and a reduction in costs and
emissions of both traditional pollutants and
greenhouse gases. Co-combustion of biomass with
coal is one of the routes that China and India are
following to meet their growing demand for energy
(Van Loo and Koppjan, 2002).
As regards the production of syngas from biomass,
with all the possible developments associated with it,
such as the production of electrical power using
combined cycles (IGCC), hydrogen and biofuels
(BtL), the future scenario appears to be very complex
(Möllersten et al., 2003; Hamelick et al., 2004). The
construction of large gasification/pyrolysis plants to
overcome economies of scale constraints seems to be
hindered primarily by the availability of large enough
quantities of low-cost raw materials (Morris et al.,
2005).
In conclusion, the future of biomass in the energy
scenario can develop in two successive phases. In the
short and/or medium term (already in progress), a
more rational evaluation of lignocellulosic materials
will take place with the standardization of new energy
products, such as solid biofuels, which will co-exist
with the more traditional liquid biofuels. The market
for these products will take on an international
dimension, extending the present boundaries drawn
around individual nations. On this basis, within a
period of one or two decades, the contribution of
biomass to the worldwide production of energy will
increase significantly from the current 40-55 EJ/y
(1 EJ⫽1018 J). The higher the price of hydrocarbons
remains, the greater the scale of this increase will be.
Forecasts prepared by the International Energy Agency
(2003) estimate a minimum annual increase of 4%.
In the medium and/or long term (within the first
half of the current century), the quantity of energy
from biomass could exceed that generated from
petroleum, reaching a value of 200-300 EJ/y (Faaij,
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

2004). This possibility is firmly linked to the
agricultural production of biomass for financially
competitive energy that will overcome the current
limits on quantities of residues from lignocellulosic
material (by-products and waste from other production
processes).
The actual environmental sustainability of such
production is still, however, not proven. The doubts
relating to the ongoing maintenance of water
resources, soil fertility and biodiversity, etc., were
raised some time ago (IEA, 2005b) and have recently
grown to include those relating to the balance of
greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural
production. In fact, according to data published by the
Max-Plank Institut (Keppler et al., 2006), the growth
of plants is considered responsible for the emission of
methane into the atmosphere (generated by aerobic
phyto-cellular processes that are still not understood),
equivalent to a third of the total emissions of this
major greenhouse gas.
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Andrea Robertiello
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