Rules of Inference

Introduction:

1.1:Proofs: Proofs in mathematics are valid arguments.

1.2:Argument: By an argument, we mean a sequence of

statements that end with a conclusion.

1.3:Valid Argument: By valid, we mean that the conclusion, or

final statement of the argument, must follow from the truth of
the preceding statements, or premises, of the argument.

That is, an argument is valid if and only if it is impossible

for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be
false.

1.4:Rules of Inference: To deduce new statements from

statements we already have, we use rules of inference which are
templates for constructing valid arguments. Rules of inference
are our basic tools for establishing the truth of statements.

We can always use a truth table to show that an argument

form is valid. We do this by showing that whenever the
premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
However, this can be a tedious approach. For example,
when an argument form involves 10 different propositional
variables, to use a truth table to show this argument form is
valid requires 210 =1024 different rows. Fortunately, we do
not have to resort to truth tables. Instead, we can first
establish the validity of some relatively simple argument
forms, called rules of inference. These rules of inference
can be used as building blocks to construct more
complicated valid argument forms. We will now introduce
the most important rules of inference in propositional logic.
2: Types of Inference Rules:
2.1: Modus Ponens:
 The tautology (p∧ (p → q)) → q is the basis of the rule of
inference called Modus Ponens, or the Law of Detachment.
(Latin for "mode that affirms by affirming”). The symbol ∴
denotes “therefore”.

Modus Ponens tells us that if a conditional statement and

the hypothesis of this conditional statement are both true, then
the conclusion must also be true.

Example 1: Suppose that the conditional statement “If it snows

today, then we will go skiing” and its hypothesis, “It is snowing
today,” are true. Then, by modus ponens, it follows that the
conclusion of the conditional statement, “We will go skiing,” is
true.

p
p→q
…………….
∴q

2.2: Modus Tollens:

 Its derived from Latin word means "mode that denies by
denying"  is a valid argument form and a rule of inference.  It is
an application of the general truth that if a statement is true, then
so is its contra-positive.

The contrapositive of Example 1, is the example of Modus

Tollens. i.e.
q
p→q
…………….
∴ p

2.3: Hypothetical Syllogism:

Hypothetical Syllogism is a valid argument form which is

a syllogism having a conditional statement for one or both of
its premises.

Example 2: If I do not wake up, then I cannot go to work. If I

cannot go to work, then I will not get paid. Therefore, if I do not
wake up, then I will not get paid.
Solution:
p: I do not wake up
 q: I cannot go to work
r: I will not get paid
using Hypothetical Syllogism, we have,
p→q
q→r
--------------
∴p→r

2.4: Disjunction Syllogism:

A disjunctive syllogism means ''mode that affirms by
denying'', is a syllogism in which the two premises are mutually
exclusive and they cannot be both true nor can they be both
false. For example:

 First: premise in which we include a disjunctive

conjunction: My friend's name is Ali or Raza.
 Second: premise denied: My friend's name is not Ali.
 Conclusion: My friend's name is Raza.

Example: “ I will choose soup or I will choose salad. I will not

choose soup. Therefore, I will choose salad.”
Solution:
p: I will choose soup.
 q: I will choose salad.
Using Disjunction syllogism, we have,
pq pq
p q
 
q OR p

Exercise
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following
argument:
1: “If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
network.”
Solution:
p: you have a current password
q: you can log onto the network
p
p→q
…………….
∴q
2: It is either hotter than 100 degrees today or the pollution is
dangerous. It is less than 100 degrees outside today. Therefore,
the pollution is dangerous.
P: It is hotter than 100 degrees today.
Q: pollution is dangerous.

pq
p

q

3: The cake has either chocolate or vanilla frosting. The cake

does not have vanilla frosting. Therefore, the cake has chocolate
frosting.
Solution:
P: The cake has chocolate frosting
Q: The cake vanilla frosting
pq
q

p

4: If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue today. If we

do not have a barbecue today, then we will not have a barbecue
tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains today, then we will not have a
barbecue tomorrow.
Solution:
P: it rains today
Q: we will not have a barbecue today
R: we will not have a barbecue tomorrow

p→q
q→r
--------------
∴p→r

5: If it snows today, the university will close. The university is

not closed today. Therefore, it did not snow today.
Solution:
P: it snows today
Q: the university will close

q
p→q
…………….
∴ p
6: Steve will work at a computer company this summer.
Therefore, this summer Steve will work at a computer company
or he will be a beach bum.
Solution:
P: Steve will work at a computer company this summer
Q: he will be a beach bum

Using Rules of Inference to Build Arguments

Example 6: Show that the hypotheses “It is not sunny this

afternoon and it is colder than yesterday,” “We will go
swimming only if it is sunny this afternoon,” “If we do not go
swimming, then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If we take a
canoe trip, then we will be at home by sunset” lead to the
conclusion “We will be home by sunset.”

Solution: Let

p: “It is sunny this afternoon.”

q: “It is colder than yesterday.”

r: “We will go swimming.”

s: “We will take a canoe trip.”

t: “We will be at home by sunset.”

First we translate the statements into logical expressions and so

we have the hypotheses:

¬p∧q
r→p
¬r→s
s→t and
conclusion t.
We want to get that the conclusion t is true.
Steps Reason
¬p∧q Hypothesis
¬p Simplification rule
r→p hypothesis
¬r Modus tollens
¬r →s Hypothesis
s Modus Ponens
s→t hypothesis
t Modus ponens

Home work:
Example 7: Show that the hypotheses “If you send me an email
message, then I will finish writing the program,” “If you do not
send me an email message, then I will go to sleep early,” and “If
I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed” lead to
the conclusion “If I do not finish writing the program, then I will
wake up feeling refreshed.”