Principles of Research & Statistics

Prof. (Dr.) P V GIRIMD PhD MHA

VAIDYARATNAM AYURVEDA COLLEGE
OLLUR THRISSUR

1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak

 Objectives
 The philosophy
 Aim & methods
 Steps in Research process
 Principle of hypothesis testing
 Use of statistics – Type 1 & Type 2 errors
 Ethics – Informed Consent, Assent
 Philosophy

wisdom

knowledge

courage

serenity
 Etymology, Definitions
 The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means
"to go about seeking”
 Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to
increase our understanding of a topic or issue. It consists of three steps
 pose a question
 collect data to answer the question
 present an answer to the question
 Finding an answer to an unanswered question
If the answer is to be acceptable to a scientific community, method employed
for finding the answer should be scientific and flawless
 Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques

that are used for conduction of research

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is
done scientifically
 Biostatistics

Statistics is the grammar of science – Karl Pearson

Statistics can be defined as a science of collecting, classifying, presenting and
interpreting data related to any sphere of enquiry
Biostatistics are the development and application of statistical methods
to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological
experiments, the collection and analysis of data from those experiments
and the interpretation of the results.
 Aims
 to establish or confirm facts
 to reaffirm the results of previous work
 to solve new or existing problems
 to support theorems, or develop new theories
Also
 expansion on past work in the field
 To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may
replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole.
Steps in research process

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Generalisation and Interpretation
8. Preparation of the Report
Steps in research process

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Generalisation and Interpretation
8. Preparation of the Report
 Research problem j

Identifying the area of interest

Formulation
Developing research questions
Refining research questions
 Discrepancy between current
knowledge and unawareness
 destination before undertaking a journey
 foundation of a building
Criteria
 Literature review k

 Theory is an abstract generalization of an observed

relationship which may be simple or complex
 Model is a symbolic representation of a relationship
observed or predicted
 Model uses symbols to depict a theory or
conceptual framework
 Literature review
Functions

 theoretical background
 contribution to the existing body of knowledge
are proposing to examine
 establish the links what you
already been studied
 familiarity
 bring clarity and focus to research problem
 Improve research methodology Process Product
 Developing hypothesis l
Conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables
 Conceptual framework
 It is a tentative proposition
 Its validity is unknown
 study with focus
 what data to collect and what not to collect
 enhances objectivity
 enables you to conclude
A hypothesis is a speculation or theory based on insufficient evidence that lends itself
to further testing and experimentation. With further testing, a hypothesis can usually be
proven true or false.
 Research design m

 an arrangement of conditions or collections

 a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived
as to obtain answers to research questions or problems

Study design

Sampling design
Measurement design
Level of evidence

M Hassan Murad et al. Evid Based Med 2016;21:125-127

Research design – study design
Research design – Sampling design
Research design – Measurement design
Collection of data – Types of data n

Measurability

Collection procedure
Collection of data - methods
 Analysis of data o
 Qualitative data analysis  Quantitative data analysis
Concepts, themes, codes Statistical methods
 Analysis of data

Normal distribution
 Generalisation & interpretation p
Sampling from a tangible population
 Inductive inference
act of reasoning that involves drawing broad inferences
from particular observations
 Inference from study group
 To all such groups
 Pause and think Creation of an abstract population to fit
an existing sample
 Three models of generalizability
 sample-to-population (statistical generalization)
 analytic generalization
 case-to-case transfer (transferability)
Preparation of the report q
 Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing is concerned with testing whether the value of a
population parameter is equal to some specified value.

Hypothesis testing allows us to determine whether enough statistical

evidence exists to conclude that a belief (i.e. hypothesis) about a parameter is

supported by the data.

How statistical inference works

Sampling from a tangible population

Creation of an abstract population to fit

an existing sample
 Steps involved in Testing of Hypothesis
1. To set up a Null Hypothesis: (Ho)
no difference in outcome between the treatments
2. Set up an Alternate Hypothesis: (H1)
difference in outcome between the treatments
3. Fix up the Probability level (P<0.05, P<0.01, P<0.001 etc.)
The term statistical significance is used to define the probability that a measured difference/effect
is the result of a real difference in the tested variations and not the result of chance
4. Calculate the appropriate test statistic with the relevant formula Four of the numbers in the sample
are {3, 8, 5, and 4} and the average
5. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom (d.f.) of the entire data sample is
revealed to be 6.
Degrees of Freedom refers to the maximum number of logically independent values, which are
values that have the freedom to vary, in the data sample
6. Compare the calculated value of the test statistic. with the table value and interpret
Testing of Hypothesis – Types of errors

 Type I error
finds difference in treatments when in actuality no
difference P (Type I error) = α
 Type II error: fails to find a difference in treatments when in
actuality there is a difference P (Type II error) = β
Testing of Hypothesis – Level of significance
 The level of significance is defined as the probability of rejecting a
null hypothesis by the test when it is really true, which is denoted as
α
 It is the probability of type 1 error
 If you are doing the same testing procedure for n number of times;
do 100 rejections of H0 and 5 are likely to be wrongly significant for
α= 0.05
 Ethics in research
सुखाराथाःसर्थभत
ू ानाां मतााः सर्ाथाः प्रर्ृत्तयाः
सुखां च न वर्ना धमाथत्तस्मात्द्धमथपरो भर्ेत्
All activities of man are directed to the end of attaining
happiness, whereas happiness is never achieved without
righteousness. It is the binding duty of man to be righteous in his
action
the quality of being morally right or justifiable
Charak Samhita prescribes an elaborate code of conduct. The
medical profession has to be motivated by compassion for living
beings (Bhutadaya)
 Ethics in research

Respect for autonomy – the patient has the right to

refuse or choose their treatment
Beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best
interest of the patient
Non-maleficence – to not be the cause of harm.
Also, "Utility" – to promote more good than harm
Justice – concerns the distribution of scarce health
resources, and the decision of who gets what
treatment
 Ethics in research
Informed consent
Subjects, to the degree that they are capable, must be given the opportunity
to choose what shall or shall not happen to them
The consent process must include three elements:
information,
Comprehension, and
voluntariness.
"Assent" is a term used to express willingness to participate in research by
persons who are by definition too young to give informed consent but who are
old enough to understand the proposed research in general, its expected risks
and possible benefits, and the activities expected of them as subjects.