EM radiation interacts with matter primarily in three different ways

• Absorption
• Transmission
• Emission

Nature of these processes depends upon the frequency of the radiation

and the material involved.
 Position of Fermi level in semiconductors

E E E

CB CB CB
Ec
EFn
Efi 1.2 1.2 Efi 1.2
eV eV eV
Efi EFp
Ev
VB VB VB

Intrinsic Semiconductor n-type Semiconductor p-type Semiconductor

 E

CB
Ec
EFn
1.2
eV
Efi
Ev
VB

n-type Semiconductor
Degenerate semiconductors

Energy-band diagrams for degenerately doped (a) n-type and

(b) p-type semiconductors.
 LASER

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation
 Fig: Light propagating in z direction through a material with two energy levels.

The change in intensity as a function of z can be written as

where N1 and N2
are the electron
concentrations in
the energy levels
E1 and E2
Stimulated emission causes a beam of light to be amplified as it
passes through a material.
(i.e γ>0 condition can be achieved during stimulated emission process)

Then, Intensity of emitted radiation from the other end of the material
of thickness z can be given as

I = I0 exp (γz)

where γ is gain coefficient, I0 is intensity of incident radiation,

Intensity (I)
γ becomes <0 during absorption process.

Absorption causes a beam of light (stream of photons) to be attenuated as

it passes through a material. Hence the intensity of emitted radiation
Becomes less than the intensity of incident radiation.

Intensity of emitted radiation

(spontaneous emission) from the
other end of the material of thickness t is

I(t) = I0exp (-αt)

where α is absorption coefficient,

I0 is intensity of incident radiation.
Intensity (I)
 The gain factor in a pn homojunction diode is given by

That means the junction must be degenerately doped semiconductors.

In the vicinity of the junction, there is a region in which population inversion
occurs.
There are large numbers of electrons in the conduction band directly above a
large number of empty states.
If band-to-band recombination occurs, photons will be emitted with energies in
the range Eg<hν<(EFn- EFp).
 (for reference)

Non-degenerate pn junction (No LASING action)

Energy-band diagram of the forward- biased pn junction

Semiconducting LASER (Degenerate semiconductors)

(a) Degenerately doped pn

junction at zero bias.

(b) Degenerately doped pn

junction under forward
bias with photon emission
Semiconducting LASER (Degenerate semiconductors)

No bias
Forward bias
Semiconducting LASER (Degenerate semiconductors)
Laser requirements: A laser essentially consists of
i) Active medium
ii) Pumping source and
iii) optical resonator

Active medium: A medium in which light gets amplified is called an active

medium.

Pumping source: The process of supplying energy to the medium with a view
to transfer it into the state of population inversion is known as pumping.
Most commonly used techniques are
i) Optical pumping
ii) electrical discharge
iii) Electrical pumping

Optical resonator: Although population inversion is a necessary condition for

light amplification, it alone is not sufficient to make the stimulated emissions
dominate the other processes. A pair of parallel mirrors with the laser material
in between helps to maintain a large radiation density in the active material.
Such a device is called ‘optical resonator’
Optical resonator or Optical cavity: is created two mirrors at both
ends of the laser.
Laser mirrors serve two goals:
1.Increase the length of the active medium, by making the beam pass
through it many times.
2.Determine the boundary conditions for the electromagnetic fields
inside the laser cavity.

Fabry –Perot resonator: is a cavity with two mirrors

Optical axis of the laser: the laser beam is ejected out of the laser in the
direction of the optical axis.

The electromagnetic waves inside the laser cavity are 3 dimensional, and
are moving along the optical axis of the laser.
 Standing waves inside the cavity

• The optical path from one mirror to the other and back must be an
integer multiplication of the wavelength.
• The wave must start with the same phase at the mirror
• The Length between the mirrors is constant (L), the suitable
wavelengths, which create standing waves, must fulfill the
condition:
λm= 2L/m

L = Length of the optical cavity.

m= Number of the modes, which is equal to the number of
half wavelengths inside the optical cavity
λm = Wavelength of mode m inside the laser cavity.

• Wavelength in matter (λm) is equal to:

λm = λ0/n
λ0 = Wavelength of light in vacuum.
n= Index of refraction of the active medium.
c= Velocity of light in vacuum
 Formation of standing waves inside the cavity

Two waves of the

same frequency and
amplitude are moving
in opposite directions,
which is the condition
for creating a standing
wave.
 Longitudinal modes

Allowed frequencies inside a Laser cavity

If cavity length is greater than the active medium length

 Longitudinal modes
• Longitudinal modes are standing waves along the optical axis of the laser.
• The standing waves inside a laser are created when the electromagnetic
radiation is forced to move back into the cavity from the mirrors.
• The allowed frequencies inside an optical cavity are determined by the
length of the cavity (L) and the index of refraction of the active medium.
• Only those frequencies which create nodes at both mirrors are allowed.
Thus, the cavity length must be an integer multiplication of half their
wavelengths. The allowed frequencies are spaced at constant interval,
which is equal to the basic frequency of the cavity.
• Longitudinal Modes in a Laser explains that only specific frequencies are
possible inside the optical cavity of a laser, according to standing wave
condition.
• From all these possible frequencies, only those that have amplification
above certain minimum, to overcome, will be emitted out of the laser. This
minimum amplification is defined as lasing threshold.
 Fabry –Perot resonator
Gain and loss during round trip in a cavity

2
1
5

4 3

Under steady-state operating condition

 Spectral distribution of laser lines

In this laser 5 frequencies (longitudinal modes) are allowed at the

output, and they are spaced at equal distances, which are equal to the
mode spacing

ΔγMS = c/(2nL)
 Gain curve (longitudinal modes)

A’ A B E B’
C D
 Laser Gain

The output power of the laser at specific moment is determined by two

conflicting factors:

1. Active medium gain-which depends on:

a) Population Inversion.
b) Fluorescence line-shape of the spontaneous emission that is
related to the lasing transition .
2. Losses in the laser, which include:
a) Reflections from end mirrors.
b) Radiation losses inside the active medium-due to absorption
and scattering.
c) Diffraction losses-Due to the finite size of the laser components.

It is clear that a required condition for lasing is:

In a round trip path of the radiation between the laser mirrors, the
gain must exceed ( or at least be equal to) the losses.
 Controlling the Number of Longitudinal Modes of the Laser

1. Control the length of the laser cavity.

• Doubling the length of the cavity reduces to half the distance between
adjacent longitudinal modes, thus doubling the number of possible laser
modes under the fluorescence curve.
• A single mode laser can be made by reducing the length of the cavity,
such that only one longitudinal mode will remain under the
fluorescence curve with GL>1.
• In such single mode laser the exact distance between the mirrors is
critical, since if there will be no modes to fulfill the condition, no lasing
will occur.
• The disadvantage of this method is that the short length of the cavity
limits the power output of the laser.
Controlling the Number of Longitudinal Modes of the Laser

2. Adding an extra mirror inside the laser cavity

The length L1 is chosen such that only one longitudinal mode will
be under the fluorescence curve of the laser.
 Problems: (Draw schematic in each problem)
1. The length of the optical cavity of a NdYAG laser is 30 cm. The length of the laser
rod which makes the active medium is 10 cm. The index of refraction of the laser
rod is 1.823. The rest of the cavity is air which have an index of refraction of 1.0.
Calculate the difference in frequencies between adjacent modes.

2. The length of an optical cavity is 25 cm. The index of refraction is 1.0. Calculate
the frequencies vm and wavelengths λm of the following modes: m =1, 10, 100,
104, 106 . Comment on the results

3. Repeat the question number 2 with refractive index 1.43 and compare the
results with the results from question number 2.

4. The length of the optical cavity in He-Ne laser is 30 cm. The emitted wavelength
is 0.6328 mm. Calculate: (a). The difference in frequency between adjacent
longitudinal modes. (b). The number of the emitted longitudinal mode at this
wavelength.(c). The laser frequency.

5. The length of the optical cavity in He-Ne laser is 55 cm.. The fluorescence line
width is 1.5 GHz. Find the approximate number of longitudinal laser modes.
 Transverse modes
Transverse modes are created by the width of the cavity, which enables a
few diagonal modes to develop inside the laser cavity.

A little misalignment of the laser mirrors causes different path length for
different rays inside the cavity.

When a laser operates in several transverse modes, the total intensity

profile is a superposition of all existing transverse modes.
Shape of Transverse Electromagnetic Modes
 Shape of Transverse Electromagnetic Modes

• Some waves travel off axis, but within cavity

• Result is Phase changes in repeating paths
• These can change shape of output
• Get local minimums (nulls) in the output beam shape
• Reduce these by narrowing the beam
• Called Transverse ElectroMagnetic, TEM
 Control of the Transverse Modes of the Laser

Choosing the pinhole diameter equal to the diameter of the lower mode,
only this mode can pass through the pinhole, and all higher modes are
attenuated.

Since radiation inside the optical cavity is moving many times, only the
basic mode will be amplified, and appear in the output
 Laser Gain

The output power of the laser at specific moment is determined by two

conflicting factors:

1. Active medium gain-which depends on:

a) Population Inversion.
b) Fluorescence line-shape of the spontaneous emission that is
related to the lasing transition .
2. Losses in the laser, which include:
a) Reflections from end mirrors.
b) Radiation losses inside the active medium-due to absorption
and scattering.
c) Diffraction losses-Due to the finite size of the laser components.

It is clear that a required condition for lasing is:

In a round trip path of the radiation between the laser mirrors, the
gain must exceed ( or at least be equal to) the losses.
 LASER

Device Structures
Homojunction LASER
 Homojunction LASER

Recombination rate
Hetrojunction LASER
Double Hetrojunction LASER

Carrier confinement
 (for reference)

Non-degenerate pn junction (No LASING action)

Energy-band diagram of the forward- biased pn junction

Optical confinement
Gain guided LASER
LASER output comparison
Index guided LASER
LASER diode characteristics
 LASER diode characteristics

External quantum efficiency of the laser as

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

ηD =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑑𝑃Τℎ𝑣 𝑒 𝑑𝑃
ηD = = ℎ𝑣 . 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝐼Τ𝑒

Where dP/dI is referred to as slope efficiency and is specified in milliwatts

per milliampere
 LASER diode characteristics

Output spectrum of a typical semiconductor laser. The cavity is

made up of two end mirrors and such lasers are referred as
Fabry–Perot lasers
Single frequency lasers
External cavity Laser
Distributed feedback (DFB) laser
 Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser

neff represents the effective index of the propagating mode in the

waveguide forming the laser
Λthe period of the grating
λB satisfying the above equation is known as the Bragg wavelength