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Use of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes in Construction Concrete

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DOI: 10.14359/51700991

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 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
MS No. M-2016-238.R3
Use of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes in
Construction Concrete
by Hasan Şahan Arel and Ertug Aydin
This work investigated the effects of Class F fly ash (FA), coconut
husk ash (CHA), and rice husk ash (RHA) as cement replacements
at various proportions on the workability, setting time, compressive
strength, and pullout strength of concrete. Concretes containing
partial replacement of cement by 20 and 40% FA and 10, 15, and
20% CHA and RHA were investigated. The results revealed that FA,
CHA, and RHA can be used as replacements for cement in concrete
production to produce sustainable and ecological products. The
mixed composition of 20% FA and 20% RHA had 15.3% greater
compressive strength than that of the reference composition after
180 days, while a slight reduction in this parameter was observed
in FA-CHA combinations. FA and RHA mixtures showed the highest
compressive and pullout strengths for all aging times tested.
Keywords: coconut husk ash; fly ash; rice husk ash; sustainability; workability.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a widely used construction material, with
annual production exceeding 10 billion tons: there is almost
no construction that does not require concrete.1,2 It is used for
water structures, such as dams and canals, as well as roads,
bridges, and buildings.2 It serves both as a bearing element
and as a decorative material.3 It is preferred for its durability,
fire resistance, water impermeability, cost efficiency, energy
efficiency, and ability to be produced on-site. Global annual
concrete production per capita is approximately 1 ton.4
Cement, which the most expensive raw material compo-
nent of concrete, is a hydraulic binder, produced by grinding
a mixture of natural limestone with clay after treatment at
high temperature.5 Composition selection for concrete is
driven by the need to attain the desired qualities using the
least possible amount of cement, but without compromising
the strength, durability, or sustainability of the product.
Using a large amount of cement in concrete production may
produce negative effects, such as an increase in hydration
temperature or shrinkage.6 One of the most efficient methods
by which the concrete industry can meet environmental stan-
dards, decrease production costs, and increase concrete’s
durability is by replacing cement in the concrete composi-
tion by mineral additives added in certain proportions.7,8
One such mineral additive is fly ash (FA), which is a
pozzolanic material.9 Having both aluminous and sili-
ceous character, FA forms a binding substance (as do all
fine pozzolanic materials) when it is mixed with calcium
hydroxide and combined with water, and forms C-S-H
gels following hydration, such as seen in ordinary portland
cement (OPC).10-12 It is the fine particle size of FA, rather
than the amount, that influences the increase in compressive
strength. FA particles are usually spherical: their size varies
between 3.9 × 10–5 in. and 7.9 × 10–3 in. (1 and 200 µm).13
ACI Materials Journal
TECHNICAL PAPER
Approximately 85% of FA particles are composed of SiO2,
Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, and MgO.14 FA is classified according
to its chemical composition.15 The most widely adopted
classification is that of ASTM C618, which is based on the
analytical amount of CaO contained.16 According to this
classification, FA with less than 10% CaO is considered to
be low-calcareous or low-calcium, while those containing
more than 10% CaO are high-calcareous or high-calcium fly
ashes.17 The FA used in this study is classified as Class F,
which is produced from bituminous coal and has more than
70% total (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3). This material is also clas-
sified as a low-calcareous FA because it contains less than
10% CaO. Class F fly ash is pozzolanic.18
Another fine material commonly used for concreting
purposes is rice husk ash (RHA), an agricultural waste. Rice
comprises half of all food consumed by 1.6 billion people. It
is reported that 11% of the world’s arable land, corresponding
to 145 million hectares, is used for rice farming.19 During
the production of rice, extensive amounts of rice husks are
obtained as waste matter. This causes environmental pollu-
tion because they cover vast areas during rice harvesting.20
RHA is obtained by controlled combustion of risk husks to
produce low-carbon amorphous silica.21 Comprising mainly
silica (80 to 90%), carbon (0.41 to 5.91%), and alkali oxides
(0.95 to 4.61%), RHA is a very pozzolanic material that
offers important features for improving the properties of
fresh and hardened concrete.22-24 By decreasing the amount
of Ca(OH)2 employed, compressive strength, bending
strength, and workability are increased and total permea-
bility is decreased.25 Using RHA to replace a certain amount
of cement in concrete production decreases the hydration
temperature and thereby allows bulk volumes of concrete
to be cast during hot weather. This feature also decreases
bleeding of the concrete.26,27
Coconut husk ash (CHA), another agricultural waste, has
also been used in the concrete industry. CHA is reported
to be a good pozzolan, improving the mechanical charac-
teristics of concrete.28,29 Portland cement, when mixed
with pozzolan, reacts with lime and decreases the amount
of lime required, but increases the amount of C-S-H gel,
thereby improving the cement quality. This, in turn, enriches
the mechanical characteristics of concrete.30 Using CHA
in concrete as a replacement for cement allows: 1) a slow,
ACI Materials Journal, V. 115, No. 1, January 2018.
MS No. M-2016-238.R3, doi: 10.14359/51700991, was received April 7, 2017, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2018, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
1
but long-term, increase in concrete durability due to the
pozzolanic reaction; 2) decreases the water and chloride
permeability; 3) improves resistance of concrete to chemical
impacts; 4) strengthens the adherence between the binding
matrix of the concrete (cement paste) and aggregates; and
5) decreases drying shrinkage, therefore decreasing crack
development in the concrete.31,32
Le and Ludwig33 conducted a series of tests on concrete
containing various industrial and agricultural wastes as
cement replacements. A 6.8% increase in compressive
strength was found in concretes produced with a cement-
substitution combination of 20% FA + 10% RHA, which
increased to 30.16% in concretes produced with a substi-
tution combination of 20% FA + 20% RHA. Samples with
20% RHA cement substitution exhibited a 1.7% reduction in
compressive strength compared with those with 10% RHA
substitution. A decrease in slump values was observed with
increasing RHA substitution. Deotale et al.34 reported that, in
terms of attained improvement in compressive and bending
strengths, the order of material combinations substituting for
cement was 30% FA < (20% FA + 10% RHA) < (15% FA
+ 15% RHA). Workability decreased with increasing extent
of RHA substitution. Feng et al.35 found a 60.5% increase in
the 28-day compressive strength and 6.74% decrease in total
pore volume for concrete with 30% RHA substitution for
cement. Zhang et al.36 stated that RHA improved the inter-
facial transition zone between cement paste and aggregates,
and that 10% RHA substitution of cement reduced the amount
of Ca(OH)2 required by 23%. Venkatanarayanan and Rang-
araju23 indicated that RHA substitution for cement increased
the setting time; 28-day compressive, bending, and tensile
splitting strengths exhibited increases of 35%, 19.9%, and
15%, respectively, for 15% substitution. Van et al.37 reported
that RHA particles, due to their mesoporous structure, were
able to absorb free water, resulting in a reduction of the
effective water-binder ratio (w/b) in the cementitious matrix
and thereby improving the compressive strength of concrete.
Ganesan et al.38 found that the 28-day compressive strength
of concrete prepared with 20% RHA substitution of cement
was 14.6% higher than that of a control sample. Gobra and
Kunal39 observed a 36% increase in the compressive strength
of concretes prepared with 15% RHA substitution.
Karoriya and Gupta40 reported that workability increased
with higher Class F fly ash substitution, and that the 28-day
compressive strength increased by 7% with 10% FA substi-
tution, but decreased by 17% when the FA proportion was
increased to 20%. An increase in the use of FA up to 30%
by mass of cementitious material led to an increase in the
workability of the fresh mortar mixture and a decrease
in the demand for high-range water-reducing admixture
(HRWRA).41 Sumer et al.42 reported that increasing FA
substitution resulted in increasing compressive strengths and
decreasing expansion values for concrete.
Utsev and Taku30 recommended 10 to 15% replacement
of OPC with CHA for both heavyweight and lightweight
concrete production. Partial replacement of cement by
20% CHA in concrete gave an average optimum compres-
sive strength at 28 days. The value obtained was suitable
for lightweight aggregate; however, the optimum value of
2 ACI Materials Journal
compressive strength obtained at 28 days at 10% replace-
ment of cement by CHA could be used for heavyweight
concrete.43 For best results, it was recommended that the
CHA addition should not exceed 5% of the mass of cement.
As the percentage CHA content in the mixture increased, the
compressive strength decreased appreciably to a value of
9 psi (0.06 MPa) at 30% CHA content.44 The initial and final
setting time of OPC-RHA and OPC-CHA pastes were longer
than that of 100% OPC, all mixture groups were in the limits
prescribed by the related standards. The workability of fresh
concrete produced by partially replacing OPC with either
RHA or CHA was found to exceed that of 100% OPC. It was
also shown that the porosities of OPC-RHA and OPC-CHA
concretes were less than that of OPC concrete.45
Siddique et al.46 investigated the effect of bacteria in
RHA-concrete mixtures and found that 10% RHA provided
optimum strength at all aging times. Gursel et al.47 investi-
gated the mechanical and durability properties of concrete
containing RHA, concluding that RHA can be used as an
alternative material to FA in the concrete industry. Hwang
et al.48 investigated the mechanical properties (compressive
and flexural strengths), cracking behavior (plastic shrinkage
cracking and scanning electron microscopy observations),
and impact resistance of coconut fibers in concrete, reporting
that its presence positively affected impact resistance and
first cracking. Pereira et al.49 showed that coconut fiber
and RHA densified the cementitious matrix by pozzolanic
activity and decreased alkaline attack. Divyashree et al.50
investigated the structural and morphological characteris-
tics of CHA composites using scanning electron microscopy
and thermogravimetric techniques, and reported that CHA
composites can effectively be used to produce low-cost,
high-performance super-capacitor electrodes.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Sustainability will drive future innovation: an increasing
range of supplementary cementitious materials and new clinker
types are likely to emerge in coming years. This study addresses
environmental problems caused by industrial and agricultural
waste, with the aim of improving sustainability of the concrete
industry. Fly ash, rice husks, and coconut wastes are common
environmental problems worldwide. Research is needed to
demonstrate how these industrial and agricultural wastes
may be used effectively and efficiently in concrete produc-
tion, and to determine the impacts of usage of these wastes,
known as mineral admixtures, on the properties of concrete.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Class F fly ash was obtained from a power plant in Manisa,
Turkey. It was used as obtained from the producer without
any pretreatment.
The rice husk material was obtained from a producer of
rice grown in the Marmara region, Turkey, and converted
to ash. The rice husks were placed in earthenware jars and
burned at 1112°F (600°C) for 4 hours. The resulting ash was
left to cool naturally and was removed from the oven when
the temperature reached 64.4 ± 3.6°F (18 ± 2°C), then held
at room temperature for 24 hours for complete cooling. The Modified polymer-based HRWRA was used as the chem-
ash was a light gray color after cooling. ical admixture. The additive was mixed with water and
Coconut husks, obtained from coconuts imported from the added to the mixture. The pH of the additive slurry was 6.5.
Philippines, were cut into 25.4 to 50.8 in. (1 to 2 mm) pieces For the pullout tests, ST420 deformed steel reinforced bars
and placed in an oven, the temperature of which was grad- (reinforcing bars) 0.551 in. (14 mm) in diameter, 39.37 in. (1
ually increased at a rate of 36°F/min (20°C/min), and then m) long, with 78,750 psi (525 MPa) yield strength, 91,800 psi
held at 1112°F (600°C) for 3 hours. (612 MPa) tensile strength, and 20.6% elongation were used.
After grinding both the RHA and CHA, their respective
particle size distributions were determined using a sub-sieve Preparation of concrete mixtures and production
size that was sensitive to particle diameters of 7.9 × 10–6 to Three hundred and eight cylindrical molds 5.906 in.
2.0 × 10–3 in. (0.2 to 50 µm). (150 mm) in diameter and 11.811 in. (300 mm) long were
The characteristics of the cement (CEM I 42.5R) and the prepared for compressive strength tests; 112 cubic molds
physical and chemical properties of the ashes are presented with dimensions of 5.906 x 5.906 x 5.906 in. (150 x 150
in Table 1. x 150 mm) were prepared for the pullout tests. The water-
Natural sand grading zone II, with a fineness modulus of cement ratio (w/c) was maintained at 0.35 for all concrete
2.37, specific gravity of 2.70, and absorption capacity of mixtures. A reference mixture (labeled Ref.) was prepared
0.393 mass percent, was used as fine aggregate. The coarse without the addition of FA, RHA, or CHA. For mixtures
aggregate had a maximum size of 0.8661 in. (22 mm), containing FA, RHA, and CHA, the simple designations of
specific gravity of 2.72, and absorption capacity of 0.348 F, R, and C were used, respectively: for example, F20R20
mass percent. Water absorption values were determined denotes a mixture composed of 20% fly ash and 20% rice
according to the ASTM C12851 and ASTM C12752 stan- husk ash; similarly, F20C15 denotes a mixture composed of
dards. The distributions of the fine and coarse aggregates 20% fly ash and 15% coconut husk ash. The proportions of
used in the mixtures were selected to fall between the A and the concrete mixtures employed are presented in Table 2.
B curves, in compliance with ASTM C136.53 The grain size All fresh concrete mixtures were subjected to setting time,
curves are shown in Fig. 1. compacting factor, and slump tests. For hardened concrete
samples, compressive strength tests were applied after 3, 7,
28, 56, 90, and 180 days; pullout tests were applied after 28
Table 1—Physical and chemical properties of and 56 days. All reported test results are an average of the
cement and ashes results for six specimens of the specified composition.
Analysis, % Cement RHA CHA FA
The initial and final setting times of the mixtures were
determined according to ASTM C403.54 Compacting factor
SiO2 21.4 88.4 42.5 58.5
Al2O3 6.1 0.21 17.7 28.6
Fe2O3 3.2 1.1 8.17 7.41
CaO 66.1 1.3 4.3 2.2
MgO 1.1 0.2 0.71 0.95
SO3 3.1 0.4 0.55 0.7
Na2O 0.04 0.4 0.93 0.66
K2O 0.77 1.77 0.82 2.1
Loss on ignition 3.4 2.8 6.51 2.2
Specific surface area 2002 118,155 97,649 15,511
(BET), ft2/lb (m2/kg) (410) (24,200) (20,000) (3177)
Mean particle size, in. 0.00039 0.00016 0.00025 0.00028
(µm) (9.95) (4.12) (6.41) (7.10)
Fig. 1—Grain size distributions of aggregates.
Table 2—Concrete mixture proportions
Samples Cement, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) Water, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) FA, % RHA, % CHA, % Aggregate, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) w/c HRWRA, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
Ref. 25.6 (410) 9.0 (144) — — — 116.9 (1870) 0.35 0.16 (2.5)
F40 15.4 (246) 5.4 (86) 40 — — 123.8 (1980) 0.35 0.16 (2.5)
F20R10 17.9 (287) 6.3 (100) 20 10 — 122.5 (1960) 0.35 0.13 (2.0)
F20R15 16.7 (267) 5.8 (93) 20 15 — 122.8 (1965) 0.35 0.13 (2.0)
F20R20 15.4 (246) 5.4 (86) 20 20 — 123.4 (1975) 0.35 0.16 (2.5)
F20C10 17.9 (287) 6.3 (100) 20 — 10 124.1 (1985) 0.35 0.13 (2.0)
F20C15 16.7 (267) 5.8 (93) 20 — 15 126.6 (2025) 0.35 0.13 (2.0)
F20C20 15.4 (246) 5.4 (86) 20 — 20 119.7 (1915) 0.35 0.16 (2.5)

ACI Materials Journal 3

tests were conducted in accordance with BS EN 12350-4.55
When conducting the compacting factor tests, the concrete
mixture was filled to the rim (preventing overflowing) of
the device. By opening a trapdoor under the container filled
with concrete, the mixture was allowed to drop into the
chamber below. The concrete mixture was then allowed to
fall into the cylindrical mold by opening the trapdoor of the
lower chamber. The cylindrical mold was weighed and the
mass (Mp) noted. The empty cylinder mold was placed on
a vibrating table and filled to the rim with fresh concrete
while vibration was applied. The compaction process was
continued until the fresh concrete in the cylindrical mold
did not shrink (compact) any further; the mass of the filled
container (Mf) was then measured. The compacting factor
was determined by the ratio Mp/Mf .
Fig. 2—Effect of concrete composition on setting time.
Slump tests were performed according to ASTM C143.56
Compressive strength tests were conducted in accordance
with ASTM C39.57 Pullout tests were conducted at 28 and
56 days on the reinforced steel samples in accordance with
ASTM C900.58 The force necessary to pull out reinforcing
bars embedded in the concrete were determined in units of kN.
Concrete mixtures for the pullout tests were cast into cubes
with sides of 5.91 in. (150 mm). Reinforcing bars were set and
fixed in place by means of stabilizing devices. It was ensured
that the loads applied to the samples placed between the jaws
of the pullout machine were uniformly distributed. The rein-
forcements were pulled from the samples using a 50 tonne
capacity test machine. The sample preparation and set up for
the pullout tests are shown in Fig. A1 to A5 in Appendix A.
Fig. 3—Effect of concrete composition on compacting factor.
Curing of samples
Samples subjected to standard curing were demolded The initial and final setting times of the F20C20 group
24 hours after pouring of the concrete, then cured in tanks were higher than those of the other ashes and higher by
containing tap water at 68 ± 3.6°F (20 ± 2°C), in accordance 85% and 66%, respectively, than those of the reference. A
with ASTM C192,59 for the specified aging time. reason for increasing retardation with increasing FA, CHA,
and RHA substitutions might be the presence of alumina in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the chemical composition of the ashes, which decreased the
Setting time hydration rate. Numerous previous studies have similarly
The results presented in Fig. 2 show that setting time reported that setting time increased with increasing extent
increased for all mixtures with cement substitution. Initial of FA, RHA, and CHA substitution.29,30,62 Interestingly,
and final setting times for the F40 mixtures were 42% and both initial and final setting times increased as the amount
33% higher than those of the reference, respectively. This of CHA increased, compared with both reference and RHA
retarding effect is due to the lower hydration rate of FA when mixtures. This could be attributed to higher internal porosity,
compared with cement and partially due to the SO42– and which increased water demand of the mixture. Similar find-
Ca2+ ions that dissolve from FA. The retarding effect of FA ings were reported by Siddique et al.46
on initial and final setting times has been reported in other
studies.60,61 The initial and final setting times for the F20R10 Workability: Compactibility factor
mixtures were 11% and 13% lower, respectively, than those Figure 3 shows the workability/compactibility values of the
of the F40 group. This might be due to the lower amount of FA fresh concrete mixtures. Based on an increase in Mp values,
available in the F20R10 mixtures, relative to the reference. the compacting factors increased with increasing FA, RHA,
FA seems to be more pozzolanic than RHA; however, setting and CHA substitutions. When compared with the reference,
times showed a linear increase with increasing proportion of compactibility increased by 17.7% for F20R20, 12.65% for
RHA substitution. Although the amounts of cement in the F20C20, and 2.53% for F40. This can be primarily attributed
F40 and F20R20 specimens were equal, the initial and final to the particle size distribution of the ashes, but also to their
setting times of the F20R20 group were higher. The mean mean particle size and geometric shape. In a general sense,
particle size of RHA may have an influence in this case. the workability/compactibility values of concretes prepared
Venkatanarayanan and Rangaraju21 also observed that RHA with FA-RHA or FA-CHA combinations were clearly higher
particle size exhibited such an effect, especially on initial than those of the reference (prepared with portland cement).
setting time.

4 ACI Materials Journal

Fig. 4—Effect of concrete composition on slump test results.
Fig. 5—Effect of concrete composition on compressive
Arum et al.63 reported that, the greater the RHA or CHA strength.
content in concrete, the greater the compactibility.
and 10% RHA additions, respectively; in contrast, the CHA
mixtures showed 6.25% and 12.5% reductions in compres-
Workability: Slump tests
sive strength for 5% and 10% CHA additions. This showed
Slump test results are shown in Fig. 4. The w/c was kept
that pozzolanic activity was highly effective in RHA compo-
constant for all mixtures, so the slump values showed an
sitions, but not in CHA compositions. When compared with
increase with increasing substitutions of FA, RHA, and
the reference, RHA mixtures showed an increment for all
CHA. When compared with the reference, the slump values
RHA replacement levels at 56 days; however, the CHA
of the F40, F20R15, and F20C15 specimens were 111%,
mixtures only showed a small increase (2.13%) for the
83%, and 88% higher, respectively (Fig. 4). Similar results
F20C10 composition. RHA in finely divided form reduced
were reported in previous studies.33,64,65
porosity and densified the matrix, which then caused an
Viscosities of the mixtures were lowered due to the different
increase in compressive strength. Increased formation of
degrees of fineness of FA, RHA, and CHA: FA-RHA and
C-S-H with continuous hydration filled more pores and
FA-CHA combinations exhibited lower slump values than
created a denser structure. The opposite trend was observed
the FA40 reference. Mixtures substituted with CHA reached
in CHA mixtures: the decrease in compressive strength was
comparatively higher slump values than those substituted
due to weakening of the bond between the cement paste
with RHA. This is attributed to a change in frictional forces
and aggregate. An increase in the amount of CHA leads
due to the different geometrical shapes of the respective ash
to the formation of a porous structure and, hence, reduces
particles. Attractive forces exist between the cement parti-
compressive strength. Similar results have been reported by
cles in cement-water mixtures and the particles form strong
other researchers.66-70
bonds. If the water phase is sufficiently viscous, it reaches
RHA, known to have high pozzolanic properties, was
a defined yield stress value above which suspended parti-
responsible for FA-RHA combinations exhibiting the highest
cles will not separate. When the paste volume was increased,
compressive strength improvements in the latter period, due
both the yield stress and viscosity of the composites were
to increased consumption of Ca(OH)2 when compared with
reduced. This is assumed to be a result of closer interparticle
FA and CHA. Le and Ludwig33 reported similar findings.
spacing and, accordingly, closer particle arrangement with
The compressive strength FA-CHA combinations showed
increasing paste volume.66-68
a decrease with increasing CHA content. The 90-day
compressive strength of F20C20 was 6% and 11% lower
Compressive strength
than those of F20C15 and F20C10, respectively. Ettu et
Figure 5 shows that compressive strength at early aging
al.32 reported similar results in their study, where increasing
times decreased with increased level of cement substitu-
CHA substitution resulted in a decrease in compressive
tion for all ashes tested. Because the amorphous silica and
strength for all substitution proportions. When FA-RHA and
Ca(OH)2 present in FA reacted to form additional C-S-H
FA-CHA combinations were compared, it was obvious that
gels, the F40 specimens showed similar results to those
the compressive strengths of the former were notably higher.
of the reference after 56 days. After 28 days of curing, all
Silica has a positive effect on strength in concrete because it
specimens with RHA substitutions had higher compres-
reacts with nearly all the Ca(OH)2 that is produced during the
sive strengths than those of the reference. The compressive
hydration process; this improves strength of concrete. Reaction
strength of F20R15 was higher than that of other substitu-
of silica with calcium hydrates formed around sand particles
tion levels; however, after 56 days, the highest compressive
and scattered all over the paste influences the pore size distri-
strength value was observed for F20R20. When the 90-day
bution of the matrix. The Ca/Si ratio of the C-S-H gel also
compressive strength values were compared with those of
reduces as the amount of microsilica increases, which finally
the reference, F20RA20, F20R15, and F20R10 exhibited
influences the compressive strength. Additionally, the exis-
14.3%, 10.2%, and 7.7% higher values, respectively.
tence of fine particles of SiO2 improves the porous structure of
Considering the rice husk mixtures, 3.59% and 7.17%
concrete because these particles become uniformly distributed
increases in compressive strength were observed for 5%

ACI Materials Journal 5

in the cement-aggregate matrix.69-71 The presence of SiO2
affects compact packing and density of the cement-aggre-
gate matrix in concrete and so its relative amount in concrete
mixtures affects the compressive strength. This is primarily
because the amount of amorphous silica found in the chem-
ical structure of CHA is lowest of all the ashes, which leads
to a relatively lower amount of C-S-H gel formation from
reaction with CaOH2. A second reason is that the proportion
of SiO2 + AlO3 + FeO3 is 89.7% in RHA, but 68.4% in CHA,
indicating that RHA exhibits greater pozzolanic properties.
Third, RHA causes greater increases in physical adherence
of the cement-aggregate interface than CHA, because the
specific surface area of RHA is 4956 ft2/lb (24,200 m2/kg)
compared with 4096 ft2/lb (20,000 m2/kg) for CHA.
Pullout test results
The pullout test results are presented in Fig. 6. When
compared with the reference sample, the F40 mixtures
exhibited 4% and 2% lower values after 28 and 56 days,
respectively, due to the decreasing hydration rate and the
spherical FA particles being unable to provide sufficient fric-
tional force in the cement paste.
In the FA-RHA combinations, however, the pullout values
increased with increasing extent of RHA substitution.
Comparing the 56-day test results with those of the refer-
ence, the F20R10 and F20R20 mixtures showed 5.2% and
11.9% higher values, respectively. This might be due to the
ability of RHA to improve the cement-aggregate interface
Fig. 6—Effect of concrete composition on pullout test results
after curing for 28 and 56 days.
transition zone in the cement paste and increase physical
adherence.
When the FA-CHA combinations were examined, the
F20C10 and F20C15 mixtures exhibited higher values than
F40 because the total amount of cement in the latter was
lower. The F40 concrete showed 5.9% higher pullout values
than the F20C20 mixtures, although these both contained
the same amount of cement. This is because CHA leads to
lower consumption of Ca(OH)2 when compared with FA.
Additionally, F20R20 mixtures had 13.2% higher pullout
than F40, which indicated that RHA was more effective than
either FA or CHA.
Microfilling and pozzolanic activity of RHA caused a densi-
fied matrix, and more C-S-H structures formed in the transition
zone. With continuing hydration, fine material (such as RHA)
gives rise to an increasing number of nucleation sites for paste
and formation of additional C-S-H gel produces unbreakable
bonds inside the matrix, so greater force is required to break
those bonds to cause complete failure. Similar observations
were reported by Siddique et al.46
COST ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE PRODUCTION
WITH AND WITHOUT ASH SUBSTITUTION
RHA is currently not commercially used in concrete
production; therefore, RHA, as a waste product, can be
easily acquired in Turkey in large quantities at economical
prices. CHA has started to be used in Turkey as an alterna-
tive to charcoal. Details pertaining to the calculation of costs
of such substituted concretes are presented in Table 3; the
cost-strength ratio relationships are shown in Fig. 7. Because
pozzolanic waste materials were used, compressive strength
results at 56 days were used in these data.
The following considerations and assumptions pertain to
the cost calculations and various sources of research articles
were investigated.72-77
• The Turkish cost analysis was based on 2016 material
prices78 in the city of İzmir and converted from Turkish
lira (TRY) to United States dollars (USD) based on an
exchange rate of USD 1.00 = 3.73 TRY;
• Turkish prices were used for the following: fly ash: 0.54
USD/m3 (excluding transportation costs), 0.7 USD/m3
(transportation costs included up to 20 km), 2 USD/m3
(including transportation exceeding 100 km)76;

Table 3—Concrete cost calculations

Cement cost FA cost RHA cost CHA cost Total binder cost for 1 m3 Relative compressive
Samples (USD) (USD) (USD) (USD) concrete (USD) Cost (USD)/10 strength, %
Ref. 359.2 * * * 359 35.9 *
FA40 213..3 75.4 * * 290.4 29.0 5.4
FA20R10 251.4 37.7 12.3 * 301.4 30.1 9.1
FA20R15 251.4 37.7 18.5 * 307.6 30.8 13.0
FA20R20 251.4 37.7 24.6 * 313.7 31.4 17.0
FA20C10 251.4 37.7 * 21.7 310.8 31.1 5.4
FA20C15 251.4 37.7 * 32.6 321.7 32.2 –2.1
FA20C20 251.4 37.7 * 43.5 332.6 33.3 –8.7
*
No data.
Note: 1 m3 = 1.308 yd3.

6 ACI Materials Journal

Fig. 7—Cost-strength ratio relationships for different concrete compositions.
• The costs for RHA and CHA were 50 USD/m3 and 100
USD/m3, respectively. The cost ratio for cement, RHA,
and CHA was therefore 1:0.26:0.52;
• The costs used for C20, C25, and C30 concretes in
Turkey,78 including governmental taxes, were 35.4
USD/m3, 38.0 USD/m3, and 40.2 USD/m3, respectively;
• The total calculated cost of concrete included the cost
of cement dosage at 904 lb (410 kg) per cubic meter of
concrete;
• The costs of binding materials were calculated sepa-
rately for each mixture;
• Depending on the FA source, the total concrete cost
can vary and can sometimes be higher than that of
cement. Considering the sustainable strategies of the
concrete industry, total transport distance was ignored
and it was assumed that a FA thermal power plant was
located close to the concrete mixing plant (total trans-
port distance was assumed to be 12.41 miles (20 km);
• RHA and CHA were assumed to be locally available
and, therefore, of negligible cost. If these materials are
not locally available, their use is not feasible: in India,
for example, the cost of RHA is 50 USD/m3 (including
transportation, grinding, incineration, and transporta-
tion costs up to 12.41 miles [20 km])74;
The cost calculation appears feasible if local wastes are
used. As shown in Table 3, the cost of concrete was 23.6%
less when FA replaced cement at a level of 40%; however,
this composition was unfavorable with respect to ultimate
strength, so it was considered necessary to analyze FA-HRA
and FA-CHA combinations in terms of their mechanical
properties with respect to the cost calculation.
Figure 7 shows that the highest cost was USD 359 for the
reference mixture, using only cement as a binder, while the
lowest cost was USD 310.84 in the F20C20 mixture. When
40% FA replacement was used, the total cost decreased to
USD 290.44—a reduction in cost of 23.8% when compared
with the reference. Additionally, the compressive strength
was 5.43% higher than that of the reference. In terms of
compressive strength, the optimized cost-strength ratio was
ACI Materials Journal
found for the F20R20 group, which exhibited 17.0% higher
strength than the reference. The total cost of F20C20 was
lower than that of the reference, but there was 8.7% loss in
compressive strength.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK
In further studies, scanning electron microscopy of the
composites should be conducted to better understand the
interactions of these wastes in concrete applications. Addi-
tionally, investigation of durability performances, such as
sulfate resistance and chloride ion penetration, should be
carried out for longer periods—specifically, data for 56 to
365 days would be beneficial to completely characterize
and understand the behavior of agricultural wastes in the
concrete composites.
CONCLUSIONS
The need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions has led to
evaluation of alternative protective measures. Industrial
waste is commonly used to minimize the effects of green-
house gas emissions. The results obtained within the scope
of the study are summarized as follows:
1. The highest slump value was measured in F40 mixtures.
When compared with the reference, slump values increased
with increasing ash substitution. When similar extents of
substitution were compared, the F40, F20R20, and F20C20
groups showed increases of 111%, 66%, and 78%, respec-
tively. CHA exhibited higher slump than RHA at all levels
of substitution.
2. The highest compacting factor was measured in the
F20R20 mixture; the lowest was for F40 mixtures.
3. Setting time increased with increasing extents of FA,
RHA, and CHA substitution. The highest initial and final
setting times were found in the F20C20 mixtures.
4. Compressive strengths increased with increasing RHA
substitution, but declined as substitution exceeded 10%
CHA. The highest 180-day compressive strength results
were measured for F20R20; the lowest were for F20C20.
The compressive strength results showed that promising
7
alternative ecological building materials can be manufac-
tured using both RHA and CHA for medium to moderate
load-bearing applications, based on the relevant standards.
5. The highest pullout load value was measured at 56 days
for the F20R20 mixture; the lowest was for F20C20.
Concrete production is expected to grow to 18 billion t/a by
2050, so, as researchers, we need to find alternative wastes,
such as rice husk ash and coconut husk ash, for utilization.
Research on utilization of these wastes is ongoing, but prog-
ress is not at the expected rate: there are still many gaps in
knowledge and more research needs to be undertaken with
respect to the utilization of agricultural wastes in the concrete
industry for producing sustainable ecological composites.
AUTHOR BIOS
Hasan Şahan Arel is an Assistant Professor at Ege University, İzmir,
Turkey, where he received his PhD. His research interests include durability
and mechanical properties of reinforced concrete.
ACI member Ertug Aydin is an Assistant Professor at European Univer-
sity of Lefke, Lefka, Northern Cyprus. He received his MSc and PhD from
Eastern Mediterranean University, Turkey. His research interests include
alternative materials for construction, waste use, and methodologies for
mixture designs for pastes and mortars.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors greatly appreciate the assistance of A. Uçkunoğlu, R. Özgün,
and R. Göztepe for their support. This research did not receive any specific
grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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APPENDIX A
Fig. A1—Preparation and arrangement of reinforcing bars
for pullout tests.
Fig. A2—Samples after pullout tests.
Fig. A3—Arrangement of samples for pullout tests.
10
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(last accessed Feb. 20, 2017)
Fig. A4—Pullout test setup.
Fig. A5—Accessories used in pullout test.
ACI Materials Journal