Please SET your

mobile phone to
SILENT mode
during class
session

Thank you for

your cooperation
Chapter

The Self
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should understand why:
1. The self-concept is strongly influences
consumer behavior.
2. Products often play a pivotal role in defining
LEARNING

the self-concept.
3. Sex-role identity is different from gender, and
society’s expectations of masculinity and
femininity help to determine the products we
buy to be consistent with these expectations.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:
4. A person’s sex-role identity is a major
component of self-definition. The media plays
a key role in teaching us how to behave as
LEARNING

“proper” males and females.

5. The way we think about our bodies (and the
way our culture tells us we should think) is a
key component of self-esteem.
 PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF
• Does the Self Exist?
• Self-Concept
• Self-Esteem
• Real and Ideal Selves
• Fantasy: Bridging the Gap between the Selves
• Multiple Selves
• Symbolic Interactionism
• The Looking-Glass Self
• Self Conscious
 CONSUMPTION AND SELF-CONCEPT
• Products that Shape the Self: You are What
You Consume
• Self / Product Congruence
• The Extended Self
 SEX ROLES
• Gender Differences in Socialization
• Gender vs. Sexual Identity
• Sex-Typed Products
• Androgyny
• Female Sex Roles
• Male Sex Roles
• Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and
Transgender (GLBT) Consumers
 BODY IMAGE
• Ideals of Beauty
- Is Beauty Universal?
- The Western Ideal
- Ideal of Beauty over Time
• Working on the Body
• Fattism
• Body Image Distortions
• Cosmetic Surgery
• Breast Augmentation
• Body Decoration and
Mutilation
• Tattoos
• Body Piercing
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Lisa is not alone in feeling that her physical
appearance and possessions affect her ‘value’ as a
person. Consumers’ insecurities about their
appearance are rampant. We buy many products,
from cars to cologne, because we want to
highlight or hide some aspect of the self.
• Eastern cultures focus on:
• The collective self (person’s identity comes from
group)
• The interdependent self (person’s identity defined from
relationships with others)
• Western cultures focus on:
• Individuality
• Individual appearance
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Does the Self Exist?
• 1980’s called the “Me Decade” because many people
were so selft-absorbed
• March 7th designated “Self Day” by Self magazine
• Western societies emphasize uniqueness of self.
• Collective self: Eastern culture’s belief that a person’s
identity is derived from his or her social group.
• Each single human life is unique.
• Both Eastern and Western cultures see the Self as
divided into an inner (private self) and an outer (public
self). For example, Casual Fridays, which encourage
employees to express their unique selves (at least
within reason).
• Mien-Tzu: Confucian belief that reputation is achieved
through success and ostentation
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self

Self-Concept
The beliefs a person holds about his or her
own attributes and how he or she evaluates
these qualities.
For example, Lisa feels better about her
professional identity than she does about
her feminine identity.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Dimension attributes of Self-Concept:
• Content: Facial Attractiveness vs. mental aptitude.
• Positivity: Self-esteem.
• Intensity
• Stability over time
• Accuracy: The degree to which one’s self-assessment corresponds
to reality.

• Consumer perceptions of self can be quite distorted,

particularly with regard to their physical appearance.
However, most people feel reasonably positive about
themselves, and we are drawn to others whom we feel are
similar in personality or appearance.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Self-Esteem
• Refers to the positivity of a person’s self-concept.
• People with low self-esteem expect that they will
not perform very well, and they will try to avoid
embarrassment, failure, or rejection.
• People with high self-esteem expect to be
successful, will take more risks, and are more
willing to be the center of attention.
• Acceptance by others often influence self-esteem.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Ads can trigger social comparison
• Attractive models using products
Marketing communications can influence a
consumer’s level of self-esteem. Exposure to ads
like those Lisa was checking out can trigger a
process of social comparison, where the person
tries to evaluate his or her self by comparing it to
the people depicted in those artificial images.
This form of comparison appears to be a basic
human tendency, and many marketers tap into this
need by supplying idealized images of happy,
attractive people who just happen to be using their
products.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Study participants who were exposed to beautiful
women in ads afterwards expressed lowered
satisfaction with their own appearance, as
compared to other participants who did not view
ads with attractive models.
Study also demonstrated that young women’s
perception of their own body shapes and sizes can
be altered after being exposed to as little as 30
minutes of TV programming.
A study found that people who were served food by
a server who was either fat or thin choose different
portion sizes.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Self-esteem advertising attempts to change
product attitudes by stimulating positive
feeling about the self.
Many consumers try to bolster their self-
esteem as they accumulate evidence of their
achievements. In a results-oriented and
competitive society, we continue to find
ways to trumpet our successes. We display
these badges by way of car bumper stickers
("My son is an honor student")
 Discussion

• Self-esteem advertising: products provide

remedy to low self-esteem
• Think about/locate examples of self-esteem
advertising
• Evaluate the probable effectiveness of
these appeals. Is it true that “flattery gets
you everywhere?”
Encourage consumers to view the product as Self-Esteem
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self

Self-Esteem advertising strategies:

1. To challenge the consumer’s self-esteem
and then show a linkage to a product that
will provide a remedy. For example, The
Marine Corps uses the strategy with its
theme “If you have what it takes ….”.
2. Outright flattery. For example, when
Virginia Slims cigarettes proclaims,
“You’ve come a long way, baby.”
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Real and Ideal Selves
In South Korea shopping malls, teenage girls line up
at photo machines that provide high-tech
makeovers with options including glamour
lighting, a hair-blowing breeze, etc.

• When a consumer compares some aspect of

herself to an ideal this judgment influences her
self-esteem. For example,
• “Am I as attractive as I would like to be?”
• “Do I make as much money as I should?”
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Ideal Self:
• A person’s conception of how he or she would like to
be
• Partially molded by elements of a consumer’s culture

Actual Self:
• A person’s realistic appraisal of the qualities he or she
does and does not possess

The ideal self is partly molded by elements of the

consumer’s culture, such as heroes or people
depicted in advertising, who serve as models of
achievement or appearance.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
• Products can:
 Help us reach ideal self
 Be consistent with actual self
• Impression management means that we work to
“manage” what others think of us
• Nivea Visage face care products focus on assisting
women to look and feel beautiful in whatever
situation they are in, helping them to achieve their
ideal selves. One of their print ads has the
headline, “Wrinkles? I don’t give them a
chance.”
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self

Actual Self-Concept Ideal Self-Concept

How I actually see myself How I would like to see myself

How others actually see me How I would like others to see

me
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Fantasy: Bridging the Gap Between the Selves
• Fantasy (daydream): A self-induced shift in
consciousness, which is sometimes a way of
compensating for a lack of external stimulation or of
escaping from problems in the real world.
• Fantasy appeals: Marketing communications aimed at
individuals with a large discrepancy between their real
and ideal selves
Many products and services are successful because
they appeal to consumers’ fantasies. This
marketing strategies allow us to extend our vision
of our selves by placing us in unfamiliar, exciting
situations or by permitting us to try on interesting
or provocative roles.
 Fantasy Appeals

• Fantasy: self-induced shift in consciousness

Fantasy Appeals
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Multiple Selves
Each of us has many selves and roles. Depending on
the situation, we act differently, use different
products and services, and even vary in terms of
how much we like the aspect of ourselves that is
on display.
A person may require a different set of products to
play each of her roles: she may choose sedate,
understated colors when being her professional
self, but splash out on something more
provocative for a Saturday night party or going out
clubbing with friends.
 Multiple Selves

• Each of us has many selves and roles

• Marketers pitch products needed to facilitate active role
identities
Sister
Woman Friend

Wife
Spokesperson

Pro athlete
Mother
American citizen
 Virtual Identity

• People are assuming virtual identities in cyberspace

• Avatars represent visual identity
• How do online “selves” affect consumer behavior?
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
We each play many roles, and each has its own script, props,
and costumes. We can think of the self as having different
components, or roles identities, and only some of these are
active at any given time. Some identities (e.g. husband,
boss, student) are more central to the self than others. But
other identities (e.g. stamp collector, dancer, or advocate
for the homeless) may be dominant in specific situations.
A marketer must take steps to ensure the appropriate role
identities is active before pitching products needed to play
that particular role. For example, place advertising
messages in contexts where people are likely to be well
aware of that role identity – promoting fitness and energy
products at a marathon.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Symbolic Interactionism
Stresses that relationship with other people play a large
part in forming the self. As members of society, we learn
to agree on shared meanings. For example,
• A red light means stop.
• The “golden arches” means fast food.
• The blondes have more fun.
That’s important in understanding consumer behavior,
because it implies that our possessions play a key role as
we evaluate ourselves and decide ‘who we are’.
We tend to pattern our behavior on the perceived
expectations of others in a form of self-fulfilling prophecy.
By acting the way we assume others expect us to act, we
wind up confirming these perceptions
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
The Looking-Glass Self (Taking the Role of Other)
The process of imagining the reactions of others toward us.
Our desire to define ourselves operates as a sort of
psychological sonar: we take readings of our own identity
by bouncing signals off others and trying to project what
impression they have of us. The looking-glass image we
receive will differ, depending on whose views we are
considering.
Like the distorted mirrors in a funhouse, our appraisal of
who we are can vary, depending on whose perspective we
are talking and how accurately we are able to predict their
evaluation of us.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
For example, Lisa, a confident career woman, may
sit morosely at a nightclub, imaging that others see
her as an unattractive woman with little sex
appeal.
A self-fulfilling prophecy can operate here because
these signals can influence Lisa’s actual behavior.
If she doesn’t believe she’s attractive, she may
choose clothing that actually does make her less
attractive.
On the other hand, her confidence in herself in a
professional setting may cause her to assume the
others hold her “executive self” in even higher
regard than they actually do.
 Looking-Glass Self

• Looking-glass self: taking the role of the other

• We take readings of our own identity by “bouncing”
signals off others and trying to project what impression
they have of us
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Self-Consciousness
A painful awareness of oneself magnified by the belief that others are
intently watching.
If you have ever walked into a class in the middle of a lecture and
noticed that all eyes were on you, you can understand this feeling of
Self-Consciousness. If you respond by slinking to the nearest chair, or
by standing tall and strutting, it is easy to measure your self-confidence
level.
In contrast, consumers sometimes behave with shockingly little self-
consciousness. For example, people may do things in a stadium, a riot,
or at a fraternity party that they would never do if they were highly
conscious of their behavior.
Self-consciousness is socially mediated by the situation and the peer
group. The same person will be more or less self-conscious of their
behavior in a church, football stadium, and traffic jam.
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self

Public Self-Consciousness:
• A heightened concern about the nature of one’s
public “image”
• Results in more concern about the
appropriateness of products and consumption
activities
• Consumers who score high on a scale of public
self-consciousness are more interested in
clothing and are heavier users of cosmetics
 Perspectives
Perspectives on
on the
the Self
Self
Self Monitoring:
• Awareness of how one presents oneself in a social
environment
• High self-monitors are more attuned to how they
present themselves in their social environments, and
their product choices are influenced by their estimates
of how these items will be perceived by others.
• High self-monitors are more likely than low self-
monitors to evaluate products consumed in public in
terms of the impressions they make on others.
• Groups such as college football players and fashion
models tend to score higher on vanity, which includes a
fixation on physical appearance or on the achievement
of personal goals.
 Self-Consciousness
• Self-consciousness: awareness of self
• Researchers say that those who score high in:
• Public self-consciousness are more interested in
clothing and use more cosmetics
• Self-monitoring are attuned to how they present
themselves in social environments
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

• Identity marketing: consumers alter some

aspects of their selves to advertise for a
branded product
• Product consumption = definition of the self
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

• A British marketing firm paid five people to

transform themselves into human billboards for a
fantasy superhero game. This so called ‘identity
marketing’ technique required each participant to
legally change his or her name for one year to
‘Turok’, the hero of a video game series about a
time-travelling American Indian who slays
genetically enhanced dinosaurs.
• This tactic pushes the boundaries between people
and products. It is easy to see how the
consumption of products and services contributes
to the definition of the self.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT
Products that Shape the Self: You are What You Consume
Self-concept implies that people see themselves as they imagine others see
them. Because what others see includes a person’s clothing, jewelry,
furniture, car, and so on, it stands to reason that these products also
help to determine the perceived self. A consumer’s possessions place
him or her into a social role.
People use an individual’s consumption behaviors to help them make
judgments about that person’s social identity. We make inferences
about personality based on a person’s choice of leisure activities, food
preferences, cars, home decorating choices, etc. For example people
who are shown pictures of someone’s living room are able to make
surprisingly accurate guesses about his or her personality.
In the same way that a consumer’s use of products influences others’
perceptions, the same products can help to determine his or her own
self-concept and social identity.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

A consumer exhibits attachment to an object

to the extent that he or she uses it to
maintain his or her self-concept. Objects
can act as a sort of security blanket by
reinforcing our identities, especially in
unfamiliar situations.
For example, students who decorate their
dorm rooms with personal items are less
likely to drop out of college. This coping
process may protect the self from being
diluted in a strange environment.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

Symbolic self-completion theory: People

who have an incomplete self-definition tend
to complete this identity by acquiring and
displaying symbols associated with it.
Adolescent boys may use “macho” products
such as cars and cigarettes to bolster their
developing masculinity. These items act as
a ‘social crutch’ during a period of
uncertainty about identity.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

• One of the first acts performed by institutions that want to

repress individuality and encourage group identity, such as
the military, is to confiscate personal possessions.
• Victims of burglaries or the natural disasters commonly
report feelings of alienation, depression, etc.
• Studying post-disaster conditions, where consumers may
have lost literally everything but the clothes on their backs
following a fire, cyclone, flood, or earthquake, highlights
the dramatic impact of product loss.
• Some people are reluclant to undergo the process of
recreating their identity by acquiring new possessions.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

Self / Product Congruence

• Consumers demonstrate consistency between their values and the
things they buy.
• Self-image congruence models: Products will be chosen when
their attributes match some aspect of the self.
• The ideal self appears to be more relevant than the actual self as a
comparison standard for highly expressive social products such as
perfume. In contrast, the actual self is more relevant for everyday,
functional products. These standards are also vary by usage
situation.
• For example, a consumer might want a functional, reliable car to
commute to work every day and a flashier model with more “zing”
when going out on a date in the evening.
 Self/Product Congruence
• Consumers demonstrate their values through their
purchase behavior
• Self-image congruence models: we choose
products when attributes matches the self

Product Usage
= Self-Image
 Symbolic
Self-Completion
Theory
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

The Extended Self

• External objects that consumers consider a part of
themselves
• In some cultures, people literally incorporate objects into
the self – they lick new possessions, take the names of
conquered enemies (or in some cases eat them), or bury the
dead with their possessions.
• Understanding the importance of the extended self helps to
explain why in some cultures something as seemingly
inconsequential as the mishandling of a business card can
be a deal killer.
• Japanese business people view the card as an extension of
their selves and they expect it to be treated respectfully. A
business card should not be bent or ever serve double duty
as a tooth pick. Arriving in Japan without an ample stock
of business cards is akin to arriving barefoot.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

• In some cultures, there is an elaborate etiquette

connected to giving and receiving cards. This
should be done solemnly and the card should be
studied, not shoved in a coat pocket to file later.
Failure to follow these rules can be seen as a
personal insult.
• Of course, since it’s a broad generalization, there
have been more than a few misunderstanding over
time. Cross-cultural business meetings have
occurred where the ‘Western’ business team
followed the ‘Eastern’ etiquette with grace, only to
be met by the ‘Eastern’ business team carefully
mimicking the ‘Western’ behavior of flicking
business cards across the table.
 CONSUMPTION
CONSUMPTION AND
AND SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT

• Four Levels of the Extended Self:

1) Individual Level: Personal possessions in self-definition. For
example, jewelry, cars, clothing, etc. “You are what you
wear” reflects the belief that one’s things are a part of one’s
identity.
2) Family Level: A consumer’s residence and furnishings. The
house can be thought of as a symbolic body for the family, and
often is a central aspect of identity
3) Community Level: Neighborhood or town from which one is
from. For farm families or other residents with a close ties to a
community, this sense of belonging is important.
4) Group Level: Social groups. Our attachments to certain social
groups also can be considered a part of the self. A consumer also
may feel that landmarks, monuments , or sports team are a part of
the extended self.
• Identity Theft:
• Criminal use of personal information to secure credit
Protection Against Identity Theft
Advertisements Extending the Self

• This Italian ad
demonstrates that our
favorite products are
part of the extended
self.
 Discussion
• Construct a “consumption biography” of a
friend, family member, or classmate.
• Make a list of his/her most favorite
possessions, and see if you or others can
describe this person’s personality just from
the information provided by this catalogue.
 Discussion Question

• Some consumers feel that a sports team is part of the

extended self. At www.flameheads.com they celebrate
fanaticism toward the Tennessee Titans football team.
• How does affiliation with a sports team affect self
perceptions? What other affiliations are part of the
extended self?
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
The Indian government banned a TV spot for Axe men's
deodorant: the spot shows a man who turns into a walking
chocolate figurine after he sprays himself with the brand's
Dark Temptation deodorant. As he walks through the city,
women throw themselves at him as they lick him and bite
off various parts of his body. Although the same ad played
in Argentina and Europe without any problem, traditional
Indian culture doesn't approve of such blatant imagery.
Sexual identity is a very important component of a
consumer’s self-concept. People often conform to their
culture’s expectations of how those of their gender should
act, dress, or speak, we refer to these sets of expectations
as sex roles. Of course, these guidelines change over time,
and they differ radically across societies. In India and
elsewhere, a society communicates its assumptions about
the proper roles of men and women as it defines ideal
behaviors for each gender.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
For example, women eat more fruit; men are more likely to
eat meat. Men are more likely to eat high energy foods
such as Frosted Flakes or Corn Pops, but women prefer
multigrain and low fat cereal.
The sexes also differ sharply in the quantities of food they
eat: when researchers at Hershey’s discovered that women
eat smaller amounts of sweets, the company created a
white chocolate confection called Hugs, one of the most
successful food introductions of all time.
Men are big root beer drinkers; women account for the bulk
of sales of bottled water.
Men are more likely to take their food and drink in larger
servings. When Lipton advertised its iced tea during the
Super Bowl, it told its viewers (predominantly male),
“This ain’t no sippin’ tea”, and encouraged them to chug it
down.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES

Gender Differences in Socialization

• A society communicates its assumptions about the
proper roles of men and women by stressing ideal
behaviors for each gender.
• Many women eat smaller quantities because they
have been trained to be more delicate and dainty
(which explains why many women eat before
going out on a dinner date so they won’t order too
much).
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
• Countries that are physically close to each other may send
very different messages.
• In comparison between Malaysian and Singaporean
commercials, for example, the researchers found that
Malaysian males tend to dominate ads for technical
products while females dominate in Singapore.
• Singapore women are more widely accepted as partners in
the business world.
• In Malaysia, men are portrayed more often in high-level
business / professional roles while in Singapore both
genders were portrayed equally.
• Women appear in commercials in Malaysia are less likely
to be shown in professional or executive roles.
 Culturally Bound Sex Roles

• This ad for Bijan illustrates how sex-role identities are

culturally bound by contrasting the expectations of how
women should appear in two different countries.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES

• In many societies, males are expected to

pursue Agentic goals – stress self assertion
and mastery.
• While females are taught to value
Communal goals – stress affiliation and
fostering of harmonious relations.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Gender versus Sexual Identity
A person’s biological gender does not totally determine
whether he or she will exhibit sex type traits
(Characteristics stereotypically associated with gender).
Masculinity and femininity are not biological characteristics.
A behavior considered masculine in one culture might not
be viewed as such in another. For example, the norm in
the U.S. is that male friends avoid touching each other,
while in some Latin and European cultures it is common
for men to hug and kiss one another.
Each society determines what ‘real’ men and women should
and should not do.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES

Sex-Typed Products
• Many products are sex-typed (i.e., they take on
masculine or feminine attributes and are
associated with one gender or another)
• For example, Princess phones,
boys’ and girls’ bicycles, and
Luvs color-coded diapers.
• A new brand of vodka called
Thor’s Hammer
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
In one study, subjects read two versions of a beer
advertisement, couched in either masculine or
feminine terms.
The masculine version contained phrases such as “X
beer has the strong aggressive flavor that really
asserts itself with good food and good company”
The feminine version made claims such as “Brewed
with tender care, X beer is a full-bodied beer that
goes down smooth and gentle”
People who rated themselves as highly masculine or
highly feminine preferred the version that was
described in (respectively) very masculine or very
feminine terms.
Appeal to masculine and feminine traits.
Appeal to masculine and feminine traits.
Female Sex Roles
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Female Sex Roles
• Female sex roles are still evolving

Younger women’s views of themselves are quite different from those of

their mothers who fought the good fight for feminism 20 or 30 years
ago. They may take for granted that they have certain rights that their
mothers had to fight for, and they have grown up with female role
models who are strong leaders, participate to a much greater degree in
organized sports.

97% girls aged 13 to 20 labelled themselves as feminists and believe a

women should receive the same pay for the same work a man does.
92% agree that a woman’s lifestyle choices should not be limited by her
gender .
89% say a woman can be successful without either a man or children.
56% believed that a man should always open the door for a woman.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES

Today, ¼ of urban, unmarried women say

they want to marry but not have kids.
Women were becoming more career-focused.
In traditional Islamic countries, women are
required to be completely covered in public
and they are not allowed to work as
salespeople in stores open to public.
Ads targeting
to women
Ads targeting
to women
Ads targeting to women
Product targeting to women
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Male Sex Roles
The traditional conception of the ideal male is a tough, aggressive,
muscular man who enjoys “manly” sports and activities.
Masculinism: The study of the male image and the cultural meanings
of masculinity
• Like women, men receive mixed messages about how they are
supposed to behave and feel. Modern men are expected to have the
sensitivity and dress style of gay men, with the machismo of a straight
guy, which term metrosexual with David Beckham and Brad Pitt the
representative pin-up boys.
• Men spend $7.7 billion on grooming products globally each year. For
example, male cleansers, moisturizers, sunscreens, and body spray.
• Men between the ages of 18 and 24 are 64% more likely to dye their
hair than the average adult male.
• Researchers are starting to see an interest among men in wearing
foundation makeup.
SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
 Male Sex Roles

• Masculinism: study of male

image and the complex
cultural meanings of
masculinity
• Three traditional
models of
masculinity:
• Breadwinner
• Rebel
• Man-of-action hero
Sex Role Assumptions
 Male Sex Roles (continued)

• Metrosexual: straight, urban male who exhibits strong

interests and knowledge that run counter to traditional
male sex role
• Ubersexuals: the best of the metrosexuals
• How relevant is the metrosexual stereotype today?
 Ads
targeting
to the Male
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Androgyny
• Refers to the possession of both masculine and feminine traits
• Sex-typed people: Stereotypically masculine or feminine
• Androgynous people: Mixed gender characteristics

Differences in sex-role orientation can influence responses to

marketing stimuli. For example, research indicates that
females are more likely to undergo more elaborate
processing of message content, so they tend to be more
sensitive to specific pieces of information when forming a
judgment, whereas males are more influenced by overall
themes.
Women with relatively strong masculine component in their
sex-role identity prefer ad portrayals that include
nontraditional women.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Gender-Bending Products
Smart marketers try to think about new markets for their
products. Some companies that sell exclusively to one
gender therefore may decide to test the waters with the
other sex when they promote gender-bending products—
a traditionally sex-typed item adapted to the opposite
gender. Here are some recent gender benders:
• Harley-Davidson backed a Guinness World Record attempt for the
number of women motorcycle riders trained in one weekend. Its
dealerships host women-only Garage Parties.
• •In Aurora, Colorado, Best Buy opened an electronics store
designed for women that displays flat-screen TVs and appliances
in home-like settings. The company enlisted local women to
provide ideas; the design includes a private room for new moms
complete with free diapers and a rocking chair.
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender (GLBT)
Consumers
• GLBT population is an attractive segment to marketers
• The 1990’s saw big corporations actively court this
market segment
• 4% to 8% of U.S. population
• Spend $250–$350 billion a year
• Segments within the GLBT community
• Super Gays
• Habitaters
• Gay Mainstream
• Party People
• Closeted
 SEX
SEX ROLES
ROLES
The proportion of the population that is gay or lesbian us difficult to
determine and efforts to measure this group have been controversial.
One barrier to computing an accurate estimate is that some respondents
are reluctant to answer questions about their sexual orientation.

The 2000 Census reported 1.2 million same-sex “unmarried” partners in

the U.S., and this number excludes single gays and lesbians.
The GLBT market is at least as large if not larger than the Asian
American population (currently at around 12 million people).
The GLBT consumer market spends in the range of $250 to $350 billion a
year. Almost 12 times more likely to hold professional jobs, twice as
likely to own a holiday home and 8 times more likely to own a
notebook computer compared to heterosexuals.
Current marketing activities in GLBT areas:
• Recognizing that gay consumers tend to be active Web surfers.
• MTV Networks and Showtime are developing a plan to create the first
cable channels aimed directly at gay viewers.
• The first gay central character in a comic book was unveiled in late 2002.
 Targeting GLBT Consumers
• This ad for Alize, a
cognac drink, is geared
toward lesbians.
 Body Image

• Body image: a
consumer’s
subjective evaluation
of his/her physical
self
• Body cathexis:
person’s feelings
about his or her own
body
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Body Image:
• Refers to a consumer’s subjective evaluation of his or her physical
self

• A person’s physical appearance is a large part of his or her

self-concept.
• A man may think of himself as being more muscular than
he really is.
• A woman may feel she appears fatter than is the case.
• Thus, marketing strategies are to exploit consumers’
tendencies to distort their body images by preying on
insecurities about appearance, thereby creating a gap
between the real and ideal physical self and consequently,
the desire to purchase products and services to narrow that
gap.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Body Cathexis:
• A person’s feelings about his or her body
• Strong body cathexis = frequent purchases of
“preening” products like hair conditioner, blow dryers,
cologne, facial bronzer.
• The word cathexis refers to the emotional
significance of some object or idea to a person,
and some parts of the body are more central to
self-concept than are others.
• One study of young adults’ feelings about their
bodies found that the respondents were the most
satisfied with their hair and eyes and had the least
positive feelings about their waists.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Ideal of Beauty
• A particular model, or exemplar, of appearance
• A person’s satisfaction with the physical image he
or she presents to other is affected by how closely
that image corresponds to the image valued by his
or her culture.
• The ideals of beauty for both men and women
may include physical features (big breast or small,
bulging muscles or not) as well as clothing styles,
cosmetics, hair-styles, skin tone (pale vs. tan), and
body type (petite, athletic, voluptuous, etc.).
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Is Beauty Universal?
• Men are attracted to an hourglass shape
• Women prefer men with a heavy lower face, above-average height, and a
prominent brow
Recent research indicates that preferences for some physical features over
others are “wired in” genetically and that these reactions tend to be the
same for people around the world.
People appear to favor features associated with good health and youth, attributes
linked to reproductive ability and strength. For example, large eyes, high
cheekbones, and a narrow jaw.
The balanced or symmetrical facial features are a cue used by men and women to
decide who is attractive.
Men are more likely to use a woman’s body shape as a sexual cue, and one
explanation is because feminine curves provide evidence of reproductive
potential.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
The Western Ideal
People use cues such as skin color and eye shape to
make inferences about a person’s status,
sophistication, and social desirability.
For example, in Asian cultures, historically light skin
was equated with wealth and status. People
associated dark skin with the laboring class that
toils in the fields.
The Western Ideal beauty such as big round eyes,
tiny waists, large breasts, blond hair, and blue eyes
is being adopted by cultures.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
• Some people have to literally go under the knife to achieve
these ideal attributes. For example:
• There is an increase in the number of Australian using plastic
surgery to enhance their appearance
• The Thai public abandons the round face, arched eyebrowns and
small mouth of the classical Thai look in favor of a Western ideal.
In a poll conducted, majority of the winners were of mixed blood
• The Most Beautiful Girl in Nigeria performed very poorly in the
Miss World competition. However, when there is a winner from
African, the new Miss World didn’t possess the voluptuous figure
prized in African culture
• Korean women are lifting their noses, shaving their jaws and
widening their eyes in pursuit of a Western image of beauty. The
newest craze is a leg job to reduce the size of thick calves that are
common in Korea as women seek the slender legs of Western
supermodels
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

An ad on Malaysian television shows an

attractive college student who can’t get a
second glance from a boy at the next desk.
“She’s pretty,” he says to himself, “but …”
Then she applies Pond’s Skin Lightening
Moisturizer by Unilever PLC and she
reappears looking several shades paler.
Now the boy wonders, “Why didn’t I notice
her before?”
 Beauty Ideals in the 1950’s

• This 1951 bathing beauty exemplified an ideal of American

femininity at that time.
 Is the Western Ideal Getting Real?

• Unilever learned that consumers didn’t believe

beauty products really work because the women in
the ads were so unrealistic
• Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Ideals of Beauty over Time
• Periods of history tend to be characterized by a specific “look”
• Sexual dimorphic markers: Aspects of the body that distinguish
between the sexes

Specific “looks”/ideals of beauty

• Early 1800s: “delicate/looking ill” appearance
• 1890s: voluptuous, lusty
• 1990s: “waif” look like bodies resemble young boys
• Bad economy: mature features with small eyes, thin cheeks
• Good economy: babyish features like large eyes, full
cheeks
• Modern: high heels, body waxing, eyelifts, liposuction
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Although beauty may be only skin deep, throughout history
women have worked very hard to attain it or have it
attained for them. They have starved themselves, painfully
bound their feet, inserted plates into their lips, spend
countless hours under hair dryers, in front of mirrors, and
beneath tanning lights, and opted for breast reduction or
enlargement operations to alter their appearance and meet
their society’s expectations of what a beauty woman
should look like.
Modern women still endures such indignities as high heels,
body waxing, eyelifts, and liposuction and spent on
cosmetics, clothing, health clubs, and fashion magazines.
Women have become more athletic, more in business world
and more inclined to put themselves through fitness
regimes, their bodies have changed.
Ideals beauty of men in terms of facial features, musculature,
and facial hair.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Working on the Body
Because many consumers are motivated to match
some ideal of appearance, they often go to great
lengths to change aspects of their physical selves.
From cosmetics to plastic surgery, tanning salons
to diet drinks, a multitude of products and services
are directed towards altering or maintaining
aspects of the physical self in order to present a
desirable appearance.
It is important for many marketing activities to
keep in mind the physical self-concept.
 Working on the Body

• Fattism
• Body Image Distortions
• Cosmetic surgery
• Breast Augmentation
• Body decoration and
mutilation
• Tattoos
• Body piercing
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

Fattism
• Our society is obsessed with weight
• We are continually bombarded by images of
thin, happy people
• Study found that teens who watched TV three
or more nights per week were 50% more likely
to feel too fat than were other girls
• In Egypt, overweight female newscasters had
three months to shed those extra kilos or they
would be fired
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

Body Image Distortions

• Women’s ideal figure is much thinner than their
actual figure
• Anorexia: Starving oneself in a quest for
thinness
• Bulimia: Binge eating followed by purging
(vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or over-
exercising)
• Body dysmorphic disorder: An obsession with
perceived flaws in appearance
Unrealistic Body Shape Expectations

• This ad for an online

weight-loss site drives
home the idea that the
media often communicate
unrealistic expectations
about body shape.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

Cosmetic Surgery
• Consumers are increasing electing to have
cosmetic surgery to change a poor body image
or enhance appearance.
• Men are increasingly having cosmetic surgery
too.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

Breast Augmentation
• Our culture tends to equate breast size with sex
appeal.
• Some women have breast augmentation
procedures because they feel larger breasts will
increase their allure.
• While conducting focus groups on bras, small-
chested women typically reacted with hostility
when discussing the underwear.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Body Decoration and Mutilation
• Purpose of Decorating the Self:
• To separate group members from nonmembers
• To place the individual in the social
organization
• To place the person in a gender category
• To enhance sex-role identification
• To indicate desired social conduct
• To indicate high status or rank
• To provide a sense of security
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Decorating the self serves a number of purposes:
 To separate group members from nonmembers. For
example, teens go out of their way to adopt distinctive
hair and clothing styles that will separate them from
adults
 To place the individual in the social organization. For
example, young men in Ghana paint their bodies with
white stripes to resemble skeletons to symbolize the death
of their child status.
 To place the person in a gender category. For example,
western women wear lipstick to enhance femininity.
 To enhance sex-role identification. For example, the
modern women use of high heels, which podiatrists agree
are a prime cause of knee and hip problems, backaches,
and fatigue, can be compared with the traditional Asian
practice of foot-binding to enhance femininity.
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
 To indicate desired social conduct. For example,
in Western society some gay men may wear an
earring in the left or right ear to signal what role
(submissive or dominant) they prefer in a
relationship.
 To indicate high status or rank. For example, in
our society, some wear glasses with clear lenses,
even though they do not have eye problems, to
enhance their perceived status.
 To provide sense of security. For example,
consumers often wear lucky charms to protect
them from the evil eyes.
Distorted Body Image
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE
Tattoos
• Tattoos – both temporary and permanent – are a
popular form of body adornment
• People use this body art to make statements about
the self, and these skin designs also serve some of
the same functions that other kinds of body
painting do in primitive cultures
• Today, a tattoo is a fairly risk-free way of
expressing an adventurous side of the self
• Temporary tattooes are a popular alternative to
permanent branding. Many marketers are using
them to promote their brands
 Tattooing

• Tattooing is becoming
mainstream. This
Spanish ad for Nike
tennis products says,
“Rest in heaven, not on
the court.”
 BODY
BODY IMAGE
IMAGE

Body Piercing
• Decorating the body with various kinds of
metallic inserts become a popular fashion
statement.
 Chapter Summary

• Self-concept as an influence on behavior

• The role of products in defining self-
concept
• The influence of sex-role identity on
purchases
• Self-esteem and our body image
• Cultural expectations of appearance
Introduction
Introduction