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Chapter

Motivation and
Values
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should understand why:
1. It’s important for marketers to recognize that
products can satisfy a range of consumer needs.
2. The way we evaluate and choose a product
LEARNING

depends upon our degree of involvement with

the product, the marketing message, and/or the
purchase situation.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should understand why:
3. Our deeply held cultural values dictate the
types of products and services we seek out or
avoid.
LEARNING

4. Consumers vary in the importance they attach

to worldly possessions, and this orientation in
turn has an impact on their priorities and
behaviors.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should understand why:
5. Products that succeed in one culture may fail in
another if marketers fail to understand the
differences among consumers in each place.
LEARNING

6. Western (and particularly American) culture

have a huge impact around the world, although
people in other countries don’t necessarily
ascribe the same meanings to products as we
do.
 THE MOTIVATION PROCESS
 MOTIVATIONAL STRENGTH
 Biological Versus Learned Needs
• Drive Theory
• Expectancy Theory
 MOTIVATIONAL DIRECTION
 Needs vs. Wants
 Types of Needs
 Motivational Conflicts
• Approach-Approach Conflict
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
 Classifying Consumer Needs
• Specific Need and Buying Behavior
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Paradise: Satisfying Needs?
 CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT
 Levels of Involvement: From Inertia to Passion
• Inertia
• Cult Products
 The Many Faces of Involvement
• Product Involvement
• Message – Response Involvement
• Purchase Situation Involvement
 Measuring Involvement
• Teasing Out the Dimensions of Involvement
• Segmenting by Involvement Levels
• Strategies to Increase Involvement
 VALUES
 Core Values
 Applications of Values to Consumer Behavior
• The Rokeach Value Survey
• The List of Values (LOV)
• The Means-End Chain Model
• Syndicated Surveys
 Materialism: ‘He Who Dies with the Most Toys,
Wins’
 Consumer Behavior in the Aftermath of 9/11
 Introduction
Introduction
Brooke is certainly not alone in believing that eating green is
good for the body, the soul, and the planet. It is
estimated that 7% of the general population is vegetarian.
The forces that drive people to buy and use products are
generally straightforward, as when a person chooses what
to have for lunch. Often a person’s values – his or her
priorities and beliefs about the world – influence these
choices.
To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do
what they do. Why do some people choose to bungee
jump off a bridge or stand in queues for hours for tickets?
Marketing students are taught that the goal of marketing is to
satisfy consumers needs. However, this insight is useless
unless we can discover what these needs are and why
they exist.
 THE
THE MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION PROCESS
PROCESS
Motivation
Refers to processes that lead people to behave as they do.
Occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes
to satisfy. Once a need has been activated, a state of
tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to
reduce or eliminate the need.
Motivation need may be:
1. Utilitarian
ex: A desire to achieve some functional or practical benefit, as
when a person loads up of green vegetables for nutritional
reasons.
2. Hedonic
ex: An experiential need, involving emotional responses or
fantasies, as when we think longingly about a juicy steak.
 THE
THE MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION PROCESS
PROCESS
Goal:
• The end state that is desired by the consumer.
Marketers try to create products and services that will
provide the desired benefits and permit the consumer
to reduce this tension.
Drive:
• The degree of arousal present due to a discrepancy
between the consumer’s present state and some ideal
state, which creates a state of tension. The magnitude
of this tension determines the urgency the consumer
feels to reduce the tension.
 Ads Reinforce Desired States
• This ad for exercise
shows men a desired
state (as dictated by
contemporary Western
culture), and suggests a
solution (purchase of
equipment) to attain it.
 THE
THE MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION PROCESS
PROCESS
Want:
• A manifestation of a need created by personal and
cultural factors combined. For example, hunger is a
basic need that must be satisfied by all. The lack of
food creates a tension statw that can be reduced by the
intake of such products as pizza, raw fish or bean
sprouts. The specific route to drive reduction is
culturally and individually determined. Once the goal
is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation
recedes.
Motivation can be described in terms of:
• Strength: The pull it exerts on the consumer
• Direction: The particular way the consumer attempts
to reduce motivational tension
 MOTIVATIONAL
MOTIVATIONAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH
The degree to which a person is willing to
expend energy to reach one goal as
opposed to another reflects his or her
underlying motivation to attain that goal.
Biological vs. Learned Needs:
• Instinct: Innate patterns of behavior universal
in a species
• Tautology: Circular explanation (e.g. instinct
is inferred from the behavior it is supposed to
explain)
 MOTIVATIONAL
MOTIVATIONAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH
Drive Theory:
• Biological needs produce unpleasant states of arousal.
We are motivated to reduce tension caused by this
arousal (e.g., hunger – our stomach grumbles during a
morning class).
In a marketing context, tension refers to the
unpleasant state that exists if a person’s consumption
needs are not fulfilled. A person maybe grumpy if he
hasn’t eaten.
• Homeostasis: A balanced state of arousal
Goal-oriented behavior, which attempts to reduce or eliminate
the unpleasant state and return to a balanced one.
 MOTIVATIONAL
MOTIVATIONAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH

Those behaviors that are successful in

reducing the drive by satisfying the
underlying needs are strengthened and
tend to be repeated.
For example, your motivation to leave class
early to grab a snack would be greater if
you hadn’t eaten for 24 hours than if you
had eaten only 2 hours earlier.
 MOTIVATIONAL
MOTIVATIONAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH

Expectancy Theory:
• Behavior is pulled by expectations of
achieving desirable outcomes – positive
incentives – rather than pushed from within.
• For example, we choose one product over
another because we expect this choice to have
more positive consequences for us.
 MOTIVATIONAL
MOTIVATIONAL DIRECTION
DIRECTION
Motives have direction as well as strength. They are
goal oriented in that they drive us to satisfy a
specific need. Most goals can be reached by a
number of routes, and the objective of a company
is to convince consumers that the alternative it
offers provides the best chance to attain the goal.
For example, a consumer who decides that she needs
a pair of jean, to help her reach her goal of being
accepted by others can choose between Levis,
Wranglers, Diesel, Versace, and many others,
each of which promises to deliver certain
benefits.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Want: The particular form of consumption used to

satisfy a need.
For example, two classmates may feel their stomachs
rumbling during a lunchtime lecture. If neither
person has eaten since the night before, the
strength of their respective needs (hunger) would
be about the same.
However, the ways each person goes about
satisfying this need might be quite different. The
first person may be vegetarian and the second
person is non vegetarian.
What Do We Need?

Biogenic Needs

Psychogenic Needs

Utilitarian Needs

Hedonic Needs
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Types of Needs
• Biogenic needs: Needs necessary to maintain
life, such as water, food, air and shelter
• Psychogenic needs: Culture-related needs (e.g.
need for status, power, affiliation, etc.) and
vary from environment to environment. For
example, an Australian consumer may be
driven to devote a good chunk of his income
to products that permit him to display his
individuality, wheras his Chinese counterpart
may work equally hard to ensure that he does
not stand out from his group.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants
• Utilitarian needs: Implies that consumers will
emphasize the objective, tangible aspects of products,
such as kilometers per liter in a car, the amount of fat
and protein in a hamburger.
• Hedonic needs: Subjective and experiential needs
(e.g. consumers might rely on a product to meet their
needs for excitement, self-confidence, fantasy, etc.)
Consumers can be motivated to purchase a product
because it provides both types of benefits. For
example, a mink coat might be bought because of
the luxurious image it portrays and because it
also happens to keep us warm through winter.
 Instant Gratification of Needs

• We expect today’s technical products to satisfy

our needs – instantly.
 Discussion Question

• Do sporting events, such as

a college football game,
satisfy utilitarian or
hedonic needs? Which
specific needs do they
address?
• Give some other examples
of utilitarian and hedonic
needs.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation is largely driven by raw emotions, or
what social scientists call affect. At the most basic
level, we are driven to heighten positive emotion,
or mood, and to reduce negative feelings.
• Our emotional reactions in turn influence the
likelihood that we will engage in an activity next
time—they positively or negatively reinforce us.
That explains why so many marketing activities
and messages focus on altering mood and linking
products or services to affect.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants
How Social Media Tap into Our Emotions
• Social media platforms also strongly relate to our moods.
Arby's offers an app to allow users to match their moods to
illustrated characters and items on the chain's Value Menu,
and view the moods of others across the Web.
• We may share particularly good or bad feelings on
Facebook or Twitter, or even resort to corny emoticons
like :) in texts or emails to convey how we feel. To push
sales of its Jell-0 brand, Kraft unveiled a “Mood Monitor”
on Twitter, in which it will randomly send coupons to
users it finds who type in a :( emoticon. Kraft will monitor
the Twittersphere and the company will launch coupons
whenever the national average of smiley faces dips below
51%. LOL!
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants
• In fact, it's so common for people to express their moods
and also their emotional reactions to products that these
posts can be a treasure trove for marketers who want to
learn more about how their offerings make people feel.
• A technique called sentiment analysis does this; this
refers to a process (sometimes also called opinion mining)
that scours the social media universe to collect and analyze
the words people use when they describe a specific product
or company.
• When people feel a particular way, they are likely to
choose certain words that tend to relate to the emotion.
From these words, the researcher creates a word-phrase
dictionary (sometimes called a library) to code the data.
• The program scans the text to identify whether the words
in the dictionary appear.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants
Motivational Conflicts
A goal has valence (value), which means that it can be
positive or negative. A positively values goal is one
towards which consumers direct their behavior; they are
motivated to approach the goal and will seek out
products that will help them to reach it. However,
consumers may be motivated to avoid a negative
outcome. They will structure their purchases or
consumption activities to reduce the chances of attaining
this end result.
For example, many consumers work hard to avoid rejection, a
negative goal. They will stay away from products that
they associate with social disapproval. Products such as
deodorant and mouthwash frequently rely on consumers’
negative motivation by depicting the onerous social
consequences of underarm odor or bad breath.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Goal valence (value) – consumer will:

• Approach positive goal
• Avoid negative goal
Example: Partnership for a Drug-Free
America communicates negative
consequences of drug addiction for
those tempted to start
Negative Consequences
• The Partnership for a
Drug-Free America
points out the negative
consequences of drug
addiction for those who
are tempted to start.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Three general types of conflicts:

• Approach-Approach Conflict
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Types of Motivational Conflicts

• Two desirable alternatives

• Cognitive dissonance

• Positive & negative aspects

of desired product
• Guilt of desire occurs

• Facing a choice with two

undesirable alternatives
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants
Approach-Approach Conflict:
• A person must choose between two desirable alternatives.
• For example, a student might be torn between going home for the holidays
or going on a skiing trip with friends. Or a student might have to choose
between two CDs at a music store.
• Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: A state of tension occurs when beliefs or
behaviors conflict with one another.
• Cognitive Dissonance Reduction: Process by which people are
motivated to reduce tension between beliefs or behaviors. Thus,
eliminate unpleasant tension.
A state of dissonance occurs when there is a psychological inconsistency
between two or more belief or behavior. It often occurs when a
consumer must make a choice between two products, both of which
possess good and bad qualities. Marketers can resolve an approach –
approach conflict by bundling several benefits together. For example,
CUB’s claim that its Pure Blonde Beer has superior taste and low
carbohydrates allows the drinker to have his beer and drink it too.
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
• Exists when consumers desire a goal but wish to avoid
it at the same time. Many of the products and services
we desire have negative consequences attached to
them as well. We may feel guilty when buying a
status-laden product such as a fur coat.
• The solution is the proliferation of fake furs, which
eliminate guilt about harming animals to make a
fashion statement. The success of diet foods, such as
those produced by Weight Watchers, that promise
good food without the calories.
Solutions to Approach-Avoidance Conflict
 Needs
Needs Versus
Versus Wants
Wants

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:
• Consumers face a choice between two
undesirable alternatives.
• Stress the unforeseen benefits of choosing one
option. For example, the option of either
throwing more money into an old car or
buying a new one.
• Marketers frequently address an avoidance-
avoidance conflict with messages that stree the
unforseen benefits of choosing one option
(e.g. by emphasizing special credit plans to
use to ease the pain of car payments.)
 How
How We
We Classify
Classify Consumer
Consumer Needs
Needs
Classifying Consumer Needs
Hendry Murray, delineates a set of 20 psychogenic needs
that (sometimes in combination) result in specific
behaviors such as:
• Autonomy: being independent
• Defendance: defending the self against criticism
• Play: engaging in pleasurable activities

In Thematic Apperception Technique (TAT – a personality

test), test subjects are shown four to six ambiguous
pictures and they’re asked to write answers to four direct
questions about the pictures:
• What is happening?
• What has led up to this situation?
• What is being thought?
• What will happen?
 How
How We
We Classify
Classify Consumer
Consumer Needs
Needs

McDonald’s
promises its coffee
will satisfy a
physiological need-
to wake up.
 How
How We
We Classify
Classify Consumer
Consumer Needs
Needs
The theory behind the test is that people will freely
project their own subconscious needs onto the
stimulus.
By getting responses to the picture, you are really
getting at the person’s true need for achievement
or affiliation or whatever other need may be
dominant.
Murray believed that everyone has the same basic set
of needs, but that individuals differ in their
priority ranking of these needs.
 Specific Needs and Buying Behavior

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT NEED FOR AFFILIATION

Value personal accomplishment Want to be with other people
Place a premium on products Focus on products that are used
that signify success (luxury in groups (alcoholic
brands, technology products) beverages, sports bars)

NEED FOR POWER NEED FOR UNIQUENESS

Control one’s environment Assert one’s individual identity
Focus on products that allow Enjoy products that focus on
them to have mastery over their unique character
surroundings (muscle cars, (perfumes, clothing)
loud boom-boxes)

10/12/2020
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 4-41
 How
How We
We Classify
Classify Consumer
Consumer Needs
Needs
Specific Need and Buying Behavior
• Need for achievement: To attain personal
accomplishment. Individuals with a high need for
achievement strongly value personal accomplishment.
One study of working women found that those who were
high in achievement motivation were more likely to
choose clothing they considered businesslike, and less
likely to be interested in apparel that accentuated their
femininity.
• Need for affiliation: To be in the company of other
people. This need is products and services that are
consumed in groups and alleviate loneliness. For
example, team sports, bars, shopping malls.
 How
How We
We Classify
Classify Consumer
Consumer Needs
Needs
• Need for power: To control one’s environment.
Many products and services allow consumers to
feel that they have mastery over their
surroundings. For example, large portable
radios, loud boom boxes, hopped-up muscle cars,
and luxury resorts that promise to respond to
every whim/sudden idea of their pampered
guests.
• Need for uniqueness: To assert one’s individual
identity. Products can satisfy this need by
pledging to focus attention on a consumer’s
distinctive qualities. For example, made to order
products, Cachet perfume claims to be “as
individual as you are.”
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs

A hierarchy of biogenic and
psychogenic needs that specifies
certain levels of motives. The basic
lesson of Maslow’s hierarchy is that one
must first satisfy basic needs before
progressing up the ladder.
For example, a starving man is not
interested in status symbols, friendship, or
self-fulfillment.
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
Consumers value different product attributes depending upon
what is currently available to them. For example,
consumers in the former Eastern bloc are now bombarded
with images of luxury goods, yet still have trouble
obtaining basic necessities.
In one study, Romanian students named the products they
hoped to acquire. Their wish lists included not only the
expected items, such as sports cars and the latest-model
televisions, but also staples such as water, soap, furniture,
and food.
In today's economic environment, the hierarchy helps to
explain why many consumers take a closer look at the
price and reliability of a product rather than whether it will
impress their friends.
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

The Hierarchy and Product Benefits

One study found that gardening could satisfy
needs at every level of the hierarchy:
• Physiological : “I like to work in the soil.”
• Safety : “I feel safe in the garden.”
• Social : “I can share my produce with others.”
• Esteem : “I can create something of beauty.”
• Self-actualization : “My garden gives me a sense of peace.”
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Levels of Needs in the Maslow Hierarchy
GM Appeals to Consumers’ Safety Needs
An Appeal to One’s Need for
Safety
 Appealing to
Consumers’
Physiological Needs.
When Microsoft Released Halo 2, Consumers were
Standing in Line Hoping for a Chance to Buy it
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy

• The application is too simplistic:
 It is possible for the same product or activity
to satisfy every need.
• It is too culture-bound:
 The assumptions of the hierarchy may be
restricted to Western culture. People in other
cultures may question the order of the levels
as specified.
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

• It emphasizes individual needs over group

needs
 Individuals in some cultures place more value
on the welfare of the group (belongingness
needs) than the needs of the individual
(esteem needs).
 Many Asian cultures value the welfare of the
group more highly than needs of the
individual.
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

Paradise: Satisfying Needs?

• Distinct differences regarding the
conceptualization of paradise between
American and Dutch college students
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
A consumer in Brighton, England loves a local restaurant
called the All In One so much that he had its name and
phone number tattooed on his forehead. The owner
remarked, “Whenever he comes in, he’ll go straight to
the front of the queue.”
This shown how people can get pretty attached to products.
A consumer’s motivation to attain a goal increases her
desire to acquire the products or services she believes
will satisfy that goal.
However, not everyone is motivated to the same extent – one
person might be convinced that she can’t live without the
latest style or modern convenience, whereas another will
not be interested in this item at all.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Involvement
Defined as “a person’s perceived relevance of the object
based on their inherent needs, values and interests.
• Object: A product or brand, services, an advertisement, or a
purchase situation

When there is a perceived linkage between a consumer’s

needs, goals, or values and product knowledge, the
consumer will be motivated to pay attention to product
information.
As involvement with a product increases, the consumer
devotes more attention to ads related to the product,
exerts more cognitive effort to understanding these ads,
and focuses more attention on the product-related
information in them.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement

Levels of Involvement: Inertia to Passion

 Type of information processing depends on
the consumer’s level of involvement
• Simple processing: Only the basic features of the
message are considered
• Elaboration: Incoming information is linked to
preexisting knowledge
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Inertia
A person’s degree of involvement is a Continuum, which:
ranges from disinterest to obsession.

Inertia (Low involvement consumption):

• Consumer lacks the motivation to consider alternatives, where
decisions are made out of habit because the consumer lacks the
motivation to consider alternatives.
Flow State (High involvement consumption):
• Consumer is truly involved with the product, ad or web site. We
can expect to find the type of passionate intensity reserved for
people and objects that carry great meaning for the individual.
For example, the passion of some consumers for famous people
demonstrates the high end of the involvement continuum.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Flow state occurs when consumers are truly
involved and is an optimal experience
characterized by:
• A sense of playfulness
• A feeling of being in control
• Concentration and highly focused attention
• Mental enjoyment of the activity for its own
sake
• Distorted sense of time
• A match between the challenge at hand and
one’s skills
Conceptualizing Involvement
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement

Cult Products:
• Command fierce consumer loyalty and
perhaps worship by consumers who are highly
involved in the product
• For example, Apple computers, Harley Davidson,
Krispy Kreme donuts and Beanie Babies.
Cult Products
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement

The Many Faces of Involvement

Several types of involvement:
• Product Involvement
• Message-Response Involvement (Advertising
Involvement)
• Purchase Situation Involvement
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
• A freelance software programmer who calls himself Winter is on a
mission to visit every Starbucks in the world. To date he's been to
more than 10,000 outlets in numerous countries.
• When he learned that a Starbucks store in British Columbia was
scheduled to close the next day, he spent $1,400 to fly there
immediately just to order a cup of coffee in the nick of time.
• He chronicles his odyssey on his Web site, starbuckseverywhere.net.
• OK, maybe Winter needs to get a life. Still, his passion demonstrates
that involvement takes many forms.
• It can be cognitive, as when a "gearhead” is motivated to learn all she
can about the latest specs of a new multimedia personal computer
(PC), or emotional, as when the thought of a new Armani suit gives a
clotheshorse goose bumps. What's more, the very act of buying the
Armani may be highly involving for people who are passionately
devoted to shopping.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Product Involvement
Related to a consumer’s level of interest in a
particular product. Many sales promotions are
designed to increase this type of involvement.

For example, when Lifesavers announced that it

was going to eliminate the pineapple flavor
unless consumers went to its Web site and voted
to keep it, over 400,000 consumers heard the
call and saved the flavor.
 Product Involvement

• Product involvement is the consumer’s level of interest in

a product

Dairy Queen helped to

create the DQ Tycoon
videogame, which
boosts involvement as it
lets players run their
own fast-food franchise.
They have to race
against the clock to
complete mundane
tasks such as preparing
Peanut Buster Parfaits,
taking orders,
restocking the
refrigerator, and dipping
cones.
Emotions versus Cognitions
• Many marketing
messages, such as this
ad for a cosmetic
company in Taiwan,
focus on emotions
rather than cognitions.
Customizing for Product Involvement
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Message-Response Involvement (Advertising
Involvement)
Refers to the consumer’s interest in processing
marketing communications.
• Television is considered a low-involvement medium
because it requires a passive viewer who exerts
relatively little control over content.
• In contrast, print is a high-involvement medium. The
reader is actively involveed in processing the
information and is able to pause and reflect on what
he or she has read before moving on.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Purchase Situation Involvement
Refers to differences in motivation that may occur when
buying the same object for different contexts.
For example, when you want to impress someone you
may try to buy a brand or a product with a certain image
that you think reflects good taste.
When you have to buy a gift for someone in an
obligatory situation, like a wedding gift for a cousin you
do not really like, you may not care what image the gift
portrays. Or you may actually pick something cheap that
reflects your desire to distance yourself from that cousin.
• Example: wedding gift
• For boss: purchase expensive vase to show that you want to
impress boss
• For cousin you don’t like: purchase inexpensive vase to show
you’re indifferent
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement

Measuring Involvement
Research evidence indicates that a viewer
who is more involved with a tv show will
also respond more positively to
commercials contained in that show, and
that these spots will have a greater chance
of influencing his or her purchase
intentions.
High Involvement
 A Scale to Measure Involvement

To me (object to be judged) is:

1. important _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unimportant
2. boring _:_:_:_:_:_:_ interesting
3. relevant _:_:_:_:_:_:_ irrelevant
4. exciting _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unexciting
5. means nothing _:_:_:_:_:_:_ means a lot
6. appealing _:_:_:_:_:_:_ unappealing
7. fascinating _:_:_:_:_:_:_ mundane
8. worthless _:_:_:_:_:_:_ valuable
9. involving _:_:_:_:_:_:_ uninvolving
10. not needed _:_:_:_:_:_:_ needed

Zaichkowsky’s Personal Involvement Inventory Scale

 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Teasing Out the Dimension of Involvement
Involvement Profile containing five
components:
1. The personal interest a consumer has in a product
category, its personal meaning or importance.
2. The perceived importance of the potential negative
consequences associated with a poor choice of the
product (risk importance).
3. The probability of making a bad purchase.
4. The pleasure of value of the product category.
5. The sign value of the product category (how closely
it’s related to the self).
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Segmenting by Involvement Levels
Allow consumer researchers to capture the diversity of
the involvement construct, and it also provides the
potential to use involvement as a basis for market
segmentation.
For example, a yogurt manufacturer might find that even
though its product is low in sign value for one group of
consumers, it might be highly related to the self-concept
of another market segment, such as health food
enthusiasts or avid dieters.
The company could adapt its strategy to account for the
motivation of different segments to process information
about the product.
 Consumer
Consumer Involvement
Involvement
Strategies to Increase Involvement
Techniques to Increase Involvement:
 Appeal to the consumers’ hedonic needs. For example, ads using
sensory appeals generate higher levels of attention. The Donut King
campaign showing children enjoying themselves when eating donuts
lived up to the brand proposition that the world is a nicer place when
you take time out to spoil yourselft a little.
 Use novel stimuli, such as unusual cinematography, sudden silence,
or unexpected movements in commercials.
 Use prominent stimuli, such as loud music and fast action, to capture
attention in commercials. For example, larger ads increase attention
and viewers look longer at colored pictures as opposed to black and
white.
 Include celebrity endorsers to generate higher interest in
commercials.
 Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoing relationship
with them. For example, R.J. Reynolds Co. hosted nearly 3,700 Doral
smokers at its factory for Western line dancing lessons, bowling,
blackjack, and plenty of free cigarettes.
 Values
Values
Value: a belief that some condition is preferable to
its opposite
• Example: looking younger is preferable to looking
older. Another example, it’s safe to assume that most
people place a priority on freedom, preferring it to
slavery.
• A person’s set of values plays a very important role in
consumption activities. Consumers purchase many
products and services because they believe these
products will help to attain a value-related goal.
• Two people can believe in the same behavior (e.g.,
vegetarianism), but their underlying belief systems
may be quite different (e.g., animal activism vs. health
concerns).
 Values
Values
Core Values
General set of values that uniquely define a culture such as freedom,
youthfulness, achievement, materialism, and activity. Every culture
has a set of values that its imparts to its members. The differences in
values often explain why marketing efforts that are a big hit in one
country can flop in another.
Value system: A culture’s unique set of rankings of the relative
importance of universal values.
For example, North Americans have more favorable attitudes
towards advertising messages that focus on self-reliance, self-
improvement and the achievement of personal goals as opposed to
themes stressing family integrity, collective goals and the feeling of
harmony with others. Korean and Japanese consumers exhibited the
reverse pattern.
 Values
Values
A study by Wirthlin Worldwide found that the most
important values to Asian executives are hard
work, respect for learning, and honesty. North
American business people emphasize the values
of personal freedom, self-reliance, and freedom
of expression.
In many cases, values are universal.
What set cultures apart is the relative importance, or
ranking, of these universal values.
 Values
Values
 Enculturation:
• Process of learning the value systems of one’s
own culture
 Acculturation:
• Process of learning the value system of another
culture
 We figure out culture beliefs through:
• socialization agents such as parents, friends and teachers.
• Media. We learn a lot about a culture’s priorities by looking
at the values advertising communicates. For example, sales
strategies differ significantly between the U.S. and China.
American commercials are more likely to present facts about
products and suggestions from credible authorities, while
Chinese advertisers tend to focus more on emotional appeals
without bothering too much to substantiate their claims.
American ads tend to be youth-oriented, while Chinese ads
are more likely to stress the wisdom of older people.
people
Core Values

• Core values: values shared

within a culture
• Enculturation: learning the
beliefs and values of one’s
own culture
• Acculturation: learning the
value system and behaviors
of another culture
 Core Values
• Cleanliness is a core
value in many cultures.
 Values
Values
Applications of Values to Consumer Behavior
• Useful distinctions in values for consumer
behavior research
 Cultural Values (e.g. security or happiness)
 Consumption-Specific Values (e.g. convenient
shopping or prompt service)
 Product-Specific Values (e.g. ease-of-use or
durability)
• Virtually all consumer research is ultimately
related to identification and measurement of
values.
 Values
Values
• A study of product-specific values looked in depth at
Australians who engage in extreme sports such as surfing,
snowboarding, and skateboarding. The researchers
identified four dominant values that drove brand choice:
freedom, belongingness, excellence, and connection.
• For example, one female surfer they studied embraced the
value of belongingness. She expressed this value when she
wore popular brands of surfing apparel even when these
major brands had lost their local roots by going
mainstream.
• In contrast, another surfer in the study valued connection:
he expressed this as he selected only locally made brands
and supported local surfing events.
 Values
Values
• Some aspects of brand image, such as
sophistication, tend to be common across cultures,
but others are more likely to be relevant in specific
places.
• The Japanese tend to value peacefulness, whereas
Spaniards emphasize passion, and the value of
ruggedness appeals to Americans.
• Because values drive much of consumer behavior
(at least in a very general sense), we might say
that virtually all consumer research ultimately
relates to identifying and measuring values.
 Values
Values
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
• One of the most widely used measures of cross-cultural values is an
instrument developed by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher. This
measure scores a country in terms of its standing on five dimensions so
that users can compare and contrast values:
• Power Distance—The extent to which the less powerful members of
organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that
power is distributed unequally.
• Individualism—The degree to which individuals are integrated into
groups.
• Masculinity—The distribution of roles between the genders.
• Uncertainty Avoidance—A society's tolerance for uncertainty and
ambiguity.
• Long-Term Orientation—Values associated with Long-Term Orientation
are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short-Term Orientation
are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's
“face."
 Values
Values
The Rokeach Value Survey
• The psychologist Milton Rokeach
identified two types of values in the
Rokeach Value Survey:
• Terminal Values: Desired end states
that apply to many different cultures.
• Instrumental Values: Composed of
actions needed to achieve the
terminal values.
 Terminal and Instrumental Values

Instrumental Value Terminal Value

Ambitious A comfortable life
Capable A sense of
accomplishment
Self-controlled Wisdom
 Values
Values
The List of Values (LOV) Scale
• Developed to isolate values with more direct
marketing applications
• Identifies nine (9) consumer segments based on the
values they endorse
• Relates each value to differences in consumption
behaviors
For example,
• People who endorse the value of sense of belonging are older and
more likely to read Reader’s Digest and TV Guide, drink and
entertaint more, and prefer group activities more than people who
do not endorse this value as highly.
• People who endorse the value of excitement are younger and
prefer Rolling Stone magazine.
 Values
Values
The Means-End Chain Model
Assumes that very specific product attributes are linked at levels of
increasing abstraction to terminal values. The person has valued end
states and he or she chooses between alternative means to attain these
goals. Products are thus valued as the means to an end.
Laddering technique:
• A technique that uncovers consumers’ associations between attributes and
consequences. Consumers are helped to climb up the “ladder” of
abstraction that connects functional product attributes with desired end
states. Based on consumer feedback, researchers create hierarchical
value maps that show how specific product attributes get linked to end
states.
• For example,
• Danish people, health is the most important end state.
• The British also focus on health but saving money and avoiding waste
are more important than for people elsewhere.
• French people link oil (especially olive oil) to their cultural identity.
Hierarchical Value Maps for Vegetable Oil
in Three Countries
Hierarchical Value Maps for Vegetable Oil
in Three Countries
Hierarchical Value Maps for Vegetable Oil
in Three Countries
 Hierarchical Value Maps
for Vegetable Oil in Three Countries
 Values
Values
Means-End Conceptualization of the Components of
Advertising Strategy (MECCAS).
In this approach, the researches first generate a map
depicting relationships between functional product or
service attributes and terminal values. This information
is then used to develop advertising strategy by identifying
elements such as:
• Message Elements: The specific attributes or product features
to be depicted.
• Consumer Benefits: The positive consequences of using the
product or service.
• Executional Framework: The overall style and tone of the
advertisement.
• Leverage Point: The way the message will activate the
terminal value by linking it with specific product features
• Driving Force: The end value on which the advertising will
focus.
 Values
Values
Syndicated Surveys
A number of companies track changes in values
through large scale surveys. They sell the results
of these studies to marketers, who often pay a fee
to receive regular updates on changes and trends.

Voluntary Simplifiers
Believe that once basic material needs are
satisfied, additional income does not add to
happiness. For example, instead of adding yet
another SUV to the collection in the garage,
simplifiers are into community building, public
service, and spiritual pursuits.
 Values
Values
Cultural Creatives
• Still, it's clear that at least a sizable number of Americans' values are
shifting. In particular, marketers point to a segment of consumers they
call LOHAS—an acronym for "lifestyles of health and sustainability."
This label refers to people who worry about the environment, want
products to be produced in a sustainable way, and spend money to
advance what they see as their personal development and potential.
These so-called "Lohasians" (others refer to this segment as cultural
creatives) represent a great market for products such as organic foods,
energy-efficient appliances, and hybrid cars, as well as alternative
medicine, yoga tapes, and ecotourism.
• One organization that tracks this group estimates that they make up
about 16 percent of the adults in the United States, or 35 million
people; it values the market for socially conscious products at more
than $200 billion.
 Values
Values
• Numerous companies respond to these desires as
they develop new "green" formulations or partner
with other organizations to promote
environmentally friendly behavior.
• Clorox teamed up with the Sierra Club to promote
a new line of ecofriendly Clorox products in
exchange for a share of the profit. The cleaners are
made from natural ingredients such as coconuts
and lemon oil, contain no phosphorus or bleach,
are biodegradable, and are not animal-tested. Their
packaging bottles are recyclable and bear the
Sierra Club's name and logo—a giant sequoia tree
framed by mountain peaks.
 Values
Values
Greenwashing
• Despite the impact of the recession, many consumers still express concern
about the environmental impact of what they buy. Whether they will pay a
premium for green products is still open to debate. One problem for marketers
is somewhat self-inflicted: Consumers simply don't believe most of the green
claims companies make about their brands. Almost one-fourth of American
consumers say they have "no way of knowing“ if a product is green or actually
does what it claims. Their skepticism is probably justified:
• According to one report, more than 95 percent of consumer products marketed
as "green," including all toys surveyed, make misleading or inaccurate claims.
Another survey found that the number of products claiming to be green has
increased by 73 percent since 2009—but of the products investigated, almost
one-third had fake labels, and 70% made green claims without offering any
proof to back them up.
• All of this hype results in so-called greenwashing, and causes consumers not
to believe the claims marketers make and in some cases actually avoid brands
that promise they are green. One survey reported that 71 percent of
respondents say they will stop buying a product if they feel they've been
misled about its environmental impact, and 37 percent are so angry about
greenwashing that they believe this justifies a complete boycott of everything
the company makes.
Materialism:
Materialism:‘He
‘HeWho
WhoDies
Dieswith
withthe
theMost
MostToys,
Toys,Wins’
Wins’

Materialism refers to the importance people

attach to worldly possessions. For example, most
young people can’t imagine a life without cell
phones, MP3 players, and other creature comforts.

Materialists are more likely to value possessions

for their status and appearance-related meanings,
whereas those who do not emphasize this value
tend to prize products that connect them to other
people or that provide them with pleasure in using
them.
 Values of Materialists

• Materialists value visible symbols of success such as

expensive watches.
 Materialism:
Materialism:‘He
‘HeWho
WhoDies
Dieswith
withthe
theMost
MostToys,
Toys,Wins’
Wins’

Materialists
• Materialistic values tend to emphasize the well-being of
the individual versus the group, which may conflict with
family or religious values. That conflict may help to
explain why people with highly material values tend to be
less happy. Furthermore, materialism is highest among
early adolescents (12 to 13 years old) in comparison to
children or late adolescents—perhaps it's no coincidence
that this is the age group that also has the lowest level of
self-esteem.
• Materialists are more likely to value possessions for their
status and appearance related meanings, whereas those
who do not emphasize this value tend to prize products that
connect them to other people or that provide them with
pleasure when they use them. As a result, high materialists
prefer expensive products that they publicly consume.
 Materialism:
Materialism:‘He
‘HeWho
WhoDies
Dieswith
withthe
theMost
MostToys,
Toys,Wins’
Wins’

Characteristics of materialism”
• Tends to emphasize the well-being of the individual
versus the group
• People with highly material values tend to be less
happy
• America is a highly materialistic society
• There are a number of anti-materialism movements
Products valued by high materialists are more likely to be
publicly consumed and to be more expensive. For
example, jewelry, china or a vacation home.
Example for low materialists included a mother’s
wedding gown, picture albums, a rocking chair from
childhood or a garden.
 Materialism:
Materialism:‘He
‘HeWho
WhoDies
Dieswith
withthe
theMost
MostToys,
Toys,Wins’
Wins’

Materialism and Economic Conditions

• One byproduct of the Great Recession has
been to force many consumers to reconsider
the value of their possessions. As one
woman observed, "The idea that you need
to go bigger to be happy is false. I really
believe that the acquisition of material
goods doesn't bring about happiness." This
doesn't necessarily mean that people will
stop buying—but perhaps, at least for a
while, they will do so more carefully.
 Materialism:
Materialism:‘He
‘HeWho
WhoDies
Dieswith
withthe
theMost
MostToys,
Toys,Wins’
Wins’

• Ironically, bad economic conditions may make at least some people

happier. Research on the relationship between consumption and
happiness tends to show that people are happier when they spend
money on experiences instead of material objects, when they relish
what they plan to buy long before they buy it, and when they stop
trying to outdo their neighbors.
• One study reported that the only consumption category that was
positively related to happiness involved leisure: vacations,
entertainment, sports and equipment like golf clubs and fishing poles.
• This finding is consistent with changes in buying patterns, which show
that consumers have tended to choose experiences over objects during
the last couple of years. For example, they may choose to entertain
themselves at home rather than going out, or even to forgo a trip to
Disney World for a "staycation“ in the backyard.
 Discussion Question
• Materialists are more
likely to consume for
status. Can you think of
products and brands that
convey status?
• There is a movement away
from materialism in our
culture. Can you think of
products, ads, or brands
that are anti-materialistic?
 VALUE
VALUE
Consumer Behavior in the Aftermath of 9/11
The need for balance even more of a mantra for many after
September 11, 2001. Ceertainly no other event in our
recent history has forced such a dramatic and public re-
examination of consumer values.
A 2002 study found that 73% of Americans have postponed
treats and luxuries since the incident.
The threats to our safety and security have had a direct impart
on businesses ranging from travel and hospitality to home
improvement products and take-home foods as people
seek the sanctuary of their homes rather than venturing
out as much as they did before.
 VALUE
VALUE
One of the biggest value shifts is related to consumers’
willingness to sacrifice their privacy for security. Polls
taken since 2001 indicate a substantial number of
Americans favor increased security, including closer
monitoring of banking and credit card transactions.
Parents are placing ‘nannycams’ in their home to monitor
babysitters and using mobile phones to track down truant
children.
Many high-tech surveillance tools that were deemed too
intrusive before 9/11, including the FBI’s internet
eavesdropping system, are being unleased. Camera
equipped with facial-recognition software can pick out
known criminals in a crowd at airports, stadiums, and
other public areas.
 VALUE
VALUE

Cars and mobile phones equipped with

location technology make it possible to
track down people to within about 3.5
meters.
Meanwhile, sophisticated x-ray machines that
can see through people’s clothes may be
more widely deployed at airports, in
government buildings, and even in
corporate lobbies.
Consumer Behavior in
the Aftermath of 9/11

• Following 9/11, ads

addressed people’s
fears in various ways.
This ad was created as
part of the Advertising
Community Together
initiative.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• Innovations know no geographic boundaries; in modern
times they travel across oceans and deserts with blinding
speedế Just as Marco Polo brought noodles from China
and colonial settlers introduced Europeans to the "joys" of
tobacco, today multinational firms conquer new markets
when they convince legions of foreign consumers to desire
what they make.
• As if understanding the dynamics of one's own culture
weren't hard enough, these issues get even more
complicated when we consider what drives consumers in
other cultures. The consequences of ignoring cultural
sensitivities can be costly.
• Think about problems a prominent multinational company
such as McDonald's encounters as it expands globally—
even as today the iconic American chain's worldwide
operations are far bigger than its U.S. domestic business.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• During the 1994 soccer World Cup, the fast-food giant reprinted the Saudi
Arabian flag, which includes sacred words from the Koran, on disposable
packaging it used in promotions. Muslims around the world protested this
borrowing of sacred imagery, and the company had to scramble to correct its
mistake.
• In 2002, McDonald's agreed to donate $10 million to Hindu and other groups
as partial settlement of litigation involving its mislabeling of French fries and
hash browns as vegetarian (it cooked them in oil tainted with meat residue).
• Also in 2002, the company abruptly cancelled its plans to introduce its new
McAfrika sandwich in its Norwegian restaurants. The CEO of McDonald's in
Norway acknowledged on national television that introducing this menu item
at a time of growing famine in Africa was “coincidental and unfortunate."
• In India, the company doesn't sell any of its famous beef hamburgers. Instead,
it offers customized entrees such as a Pizza McPuff, McAloo Tikki (a spiced-
potato burger), Paneer Salsa McWrap, and even a Crispy Chinese burger, to
capitalize on the great popularity of Chinese food in India. It makes its
mayonnaise without eggs, and all stores maintain separate kitchen sections for
vegetarian and nonvegetarian dishes. Workers from the nonvegetarian section
must shower before they cross over to the other area.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• In 2005, McDonald's introduced the spicy Prosperity Burger in nine countries,
from South Korea to Indonesia, in recognition of the Lunar New Year.
• Today the chain's Big Tasty burger is an 840-calorie behemoth that consists of
a 5.5-ounce beef patty slathered in smoky barbecue sauce and topped with
three slices of cheese. The menu entrée was first introduced in Sweden, and it's
now available in other parts of Europe as well as in Latin America and
Australia.
• Although the Japanese are well-known for their healthy diets, McDonald's
numerous customers there are clamoring for high-calorie sandwiches—even as
the company's American consumers welcome new diet-friendly entrees like
the Fruit 'n Walnut salad. As part of its new Big America 2 campaign, McD's
in Japan offer the 713-calorie Idaho burger (topped with melted cheese, a
deep-fried hash brown, strips of bacon, onions, and pepper-and-mustard sauce)
and several other U.S.-themed items. It seems there's more than one way to
translate "Big America.“
• A McDonald's ad in France created some sangfroid because it features the
French hero, Asterix, and his merry band of warriors eating in the restaurant.
The character has been the topic of numerous movies and an Asterix theme
park is very popular. The spot deliberately does not show the characters
cramming burgers or fries, but some French bloggers are not amused.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• Rather than ignore the global characteristics of their
brands, firms have to manage them strategically. That's
critical, because future growth for most companies will
come from foreign markets.
• In 2002, developed countries in North America, Europe,
and East Asia accounted for 15 percent of the world's
population of 6.3 billion.
• By 2030, according to the World Bank, the planet's
population will rise to 9 billion—and 90 percent of these
people will live in developing countries.
• As corporations compete in many markets around the
world, the debate intensifies: Should an organization
develop separate marketing plans for each culture, or
should it craft a single plan to implement everywhere?
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
Adopt a Standardized Strategy
• As Procter & Gamble strategizes about the best way to
speak to consumers around the world, the company finds
large segments in many countries that share the same
outlooks, style preferences, and aspirations. These include
teenagers, working women who try to juggle careers and
families, and baby boomers.
• For example, brand managers find that teenage girls
everywhere have the same concerns and questions about
puberty, so the company makes the same content available
in 40 countries.
• This viewpoint represents an etic perspective, which
focuses on commonalities across cultures.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values

Ford is introducing a worldwide line of compact cars, under the Ford Focus name,
that will include hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and electric models. The company calls
the 2012 Focus its first truly global product because it was “purposely designed to
share as many parts as possible wherever it is built or sold.” Television and print
ads to promote the Focus will look similar around the world; they will stress
technological features like assisted parking and Wi-Fi hot-spot capability.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
Adopt a Localized Strategy
• Unlike Disney World in Orlando, visitors to the Walt Disney Studios
theme park at Disneyland Paris don't hear the voices of American
movie stars narrating their guided tours. Instead, European actors such
as Jeremy Irons, Isabella Rossellini, and Nastassja Kinski provide
commentary in their native tongues.
• Disney learned the hard way about the importance of being sensitive to
local cultures after it opened its Euro Disney Park in 1992. The
company got slammed because its new location didn't cater to local
customs (such as serving wine with meals). Visitors to Euro Disney
from many countries took offense, even at what seem to be small
slights.
• For example, initially the park only sold a French sausage, which drew
complaints from Germans, Italians, and others who believed their own
local versions to be superior. Euro Disney's CEO explained, “When we
first launched there was the belief that it was enough to be Disney.
Now we realize that our guests need to be welcomed on the basis of
their own culture and travel habits."
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• Disney applied the lessons it learned in cultural sensitivity to its newer Hong Kong
Disneyland. Executives shifted the angle of the front gate by 12 degrees after they
consulted a fengshui specialist, who said the change would ensure prosperity for the
park. Disney also put a bend in the walkway from the train station to the gate to make
sure the flow of positive energy, or chi, did not slip past the entrance and out to the
China Sea.
• Cash registers are close to corners or along walls to increase prosperity. The company
burned incense as it finished each building, and it picked a lucky day (September 12) for
the opening. One of the park's main ballrooms measures 888 square meters, because
eight is a lucky number in Chinese culture. And because the Chinese consider the
number four bad luck, you won't find any fourth-floor buttons in hotel elevators. Disney
also recognizes that Chinese family dynamics are different, so it revamped its
advertising: Print ads showed a grandmother, mother, and daughter who wear tiaras at
the park. In China, bonding between parents and children is difficult because of the
culture's hierarchical nature, so an executive explained, “We want to say it's OK to let
your hair down."
• Camping out with stopwatches, the company's designers discovered that Chinese people
take an average of 10 minutes longer to eat than Americans, so they added 700 extra
seats to dining areas. Now, Disney is building another theme park and resort in
Shanghai—but it's making more big changes to please Chinese visitors. The Chinese
government insisted that the new venue not resemble Disneyland, which is a symbol of
American culture. This one will be the only Disney park without classic American
features like a Main Street.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• Disney's experience supports the view of marketers who endorse an emic
perspective that stresses variations across cultures. They feel that each culture
is unique, with its own value system, conventions, and regulations. This
perspective argues that each country has a national character; a distinctive set
of behavior and personality characteristics.
• A marketer must therefore tailor its strategy to the sensibilities of each specific
culture. An emic approach to a culture is subjective and experiential: It
attempts to explain a culture as insiders experience it. Sometimes this strategy
means that a manufacturer has to modify what it makes or a retailer has to
change the way it displays the product so that it's acceptable to local tastes.
• When Walmart started to open stores abroad in the early 1990s, it offered a
little piece of America to foreign consumers—and that was the problem. It
promoted golf clubs in soccer-mad Brazil and pushed ice skates in Mexico. It
trained its German clerks to smile at customers—who thought they were
flirting. Now Walmart tries to adapt to local preferences.
• Its Chinese stores sell live turtles and snakes and lure shoppers who come on
foot or bicycle with free shuttle buses and home delivery for refrigerators and
other large items.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
China recently overtook Japan as
the world’s second-largest
economy, and some multinational
marketers are creating new brands
specifically for Chinese consumers.
Levi Strauss & Co. launched a more
accessible global brand, Denizen™,
in China and three other Asian
countries last fall. Following the
successful launch in Asia, the
company continues introducing the
brand in other global markets,
including Mexico and the U.S.A.
The Hermes luxury brand offers its
new ShangXia line (which means
“Up Down" in Mandarin), while
PepsiCo taps the Chinese taste for
green tea with Spritea, which it only
sells in mainland China.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
Cross-Cultural Differences Relevant to Marketers
• So, which perspective is correct, the emic or the etic? As
you might guess, the best bet probably is a combination of
both. Some researchers argue that the relevant dimension
to consider is consumer style, a pattern of behaviors,
attitudes, and opinions that influences all of a person's
consumption activities—including attitudes toward
advertising, preferred channels of information and
purchase, brand loyalty, and price consciousness.
• These researchers identified four major clusters of
consumer styles when they looked at data from the United
States, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany:
• Price-sensitive consumers
• Variety seekers
• Brand-loyal consumers
• Information seekers
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• Given the sizable variations in tastes within the United
States alone, it is hardly surprising that people around the
world develop their own unique preferences.
• Panasonic touted the fact that its rice cooker kept the food
from getting too crisp—until the company learned that
consumers in the Middle East like to eat their rice this way.
Unlike Americans, Europeans favor dark chocolate over
milk chocolate, which they think of as a children's food.
Sara Lee sells its pound cake with chocolate chips in the
United States, raisins in Australia, and coconuts in Hong
Kong. Crocodile handbags are popular in Asia and Europe
but not in the United States.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
Does Global Marketing Work?
• So, what s the verdict? Does global marketing work or not? Perhaps
the more appropriate question is, “When does it work?" Although the
argument for a homogenous world culture is appealing in principle, in
practice it hasn't worked out to well one reason is that consumers in
different countries have varying conventions and customs, so they
simply do not use products the same way. Kellogg, for example,
discovered that in Brazil people don’t typically eat a big breakfast—
they're more likely to eat cereal as a dry snack.
• In fact, significant cultural differences even show up within the same
country. We certainly feel that we've traveled to a different place as we
move around the United States. Advertisers in Canada know that when
they target consumers in French-speaking Quebec, their messages must
be much different from those addressed to residents of English-
speaking regions. Ads in Montreal tend to be a lot racier than those in
Toronto, reflecting differences in attitudes toward sexuality between
consumers with French versus British roots.
• Even Coca-Cola with global products has to modify its advertisements
to local taste, such as use local actors.
 Cross-Cultural
Cross-Cultural Values
Values
• The researchers grouped consumers who evaluate global brands in the
same way. They identified four major segments:
• Global citizens—The largest segment (55 percent of consumers) uses the
global success of a company as a signal of quality and innovation. At the
same time, they are concerned about whether companies behave
responsibly on issues such as consumer health, the environment, and
worker rights.
• Global dreamers—The second-largest segment, at 23 percent, consists of
consumers who see global brands as quality products and readily buy into
the myths they author. They aren't nearly as concerned with social
responsibility as are the global citizens.
• Antiglobals—Thirteen percent of consumers are skeptical that
transnational companies deliver higher-quality goods. They dislike brands
that preach American values, and they don't trust global companies to
behave responsibly. They try to avoid doing business with transnational
firms.
• Global agnostics—The remaining 9 percent of consumers don't base
purchase decisions on a brand's global attributes. Instead, they evaluate a
global product by the same criteria they use to judge local brands and
don't regard its global nature as meriting special consideration.
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Values
The Diffusion of Consumer Culture
• Coca-Cola is the drink of choice among young people in
Asian countries, and McDonald's is their favorite
restaurant. The National Basketball Association sells $500
million of licensed merchandise every year outside of the
United States.
• Walk the streets of Lisbon or Buenos Aires, and the sight
of Nike hats, Gap T-shirts, and Levi's jeans will accost you
at every turn. The allure of American consumer culture
spreads throughout the world—but with a lot of pushback
in many places. Critics in other countries deplore the
creeping Americanization of their cultures because of what
they view as excessive materialism.
• A survey in Beijing found that nearly half of all children
under 12 think McDonald's is a domestic Chinese brand!
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Values
Emerging Consumer Cultures in Transitional Economies
• More than 60 countries have a gross national product of less than $10 billion,
and there are at least 135 transnational companies with revenues greater than
that. The dominance of these marketing powerhouses creates a globalized
consumption ethic. Tempting images of luxury cars, glam rock stars on MTV,
and modern appliances that make life easier surround us wherever we turn.
People the world over begin to share the ideal of a material lifestyle and value
well-known brands that symbolize prosperity. Shopping evolves from a
wearying, task-oriented struggle to locate even basic necessities to a leisure
activity. Possessing these coveted items becomes a mechanism to display one's
Status.
• After the downfall of communism, Eastern Europeans emerged from a long
winter of deprivation into a springtime of abundance. The picture is not all
rosy, however. It’s not easy for many people who live in transitional
economies to attain consumer goods. This term describes countries such as
China, Portugal, and Romania that struggle as they adapt from a controlled,
centralized economy to a free-market system. In these situations, rapid
changes occur in social, political, and economic dimensions as the populace
suddenly is exposed to global communications and external market pressures.
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Values
• As the global consumption ethic spreads, rituals and product
preferences in different cultures become homogenized. For example,
some urbanites in Muslim Turkey now celebrate Christmas even
though gift-giving is not customary in many parts of the country—
even on birthdays.
• In China, Christmas fever grips China's newly rising urban middle
class as an excuse to shop, eat, and party. People there snap up
Christmas trees, ornaments, and Christian religious objects (even
though the street vendors who peddle images of Jesus and Mary can't
always identify who they are). Chinese consumers embrace Christmas
because to them the holiday is international and modern, not because
it's a traditional Christian celebration.
• The government encourages this practice because it stimulates
consumer spending. To make the holiday even merrier, China exports
about $1 billion worth of Christmas products every year, and its
factories churn out $7.5 billion of the toys people worldwide put under
their trees.
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Values
• Does this homogenization mean that in time consumers who live in Nairobi,
New Guinea, or the Netherlands will all be indistinguishable from those in
New York or Nashville? Probably not, because the meanings of consumer
goods mutate to blend with local customs and values.
• For example, in Turkey some urban women use their ovens to dry clothes and
their dishwashers to wash muddy spinach. A person in Papua New Guinea
may combine a traditional clothing style such as a bilum with Western items
such as Mickey Mouse shirts or baseball caps.
• These processes make it unlikely that global homogenization will overwhelm
local cultures, but it is likely that there will be multiple consumer cultures,
each of which blends global icons such as Nike's pervasive “swoosh" with
indigenous products and meanings.
• In Vietnam, for example, local fast-food chains dominate the market as they
duplicate a McDonald's approach but add a local flavor. The country's hugely
successful Kinh Do red and yellow outlets sell specialties like dried squid
buns. In the Philippines, the Jollibee Foods Corp. burger chain also copies the
McDonald's look—and it outsells McDonald's there.
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Values
• Creolization occurs when foreign influences integrate with
local meanings.
• In India, handicapped beggars sell bottles of Coke from
tricycles, and Indipop, a popular music hybrid, mixes
traditional styles with rock, rap, and young Hispanic
Americans bounce between hip-hop and Rock en Espanol,
blend Mexican rice with spaghetti sauce, and spread peanut
butter and jelly on tortillas.
• In Argentina, Coca-Cola launched Nativa, a soft drink
flavored with the country's traditional yerba mate herbal
tea, as part of a strategy to broaden its portfolio with
products it makes from indigenous ingredients.
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Values
• The creolization process sometimes results in bizarre permutations of
products and services when locals modify them to be compatible with
their customs. Consider these creolized adaptations, for example:
• In Peru, Indian boys carry rocks painted to look like transistor radios.
• In highland Papua New Guinea, tribespeople put Chivas Regal wrappers
on their drums and wear Pentel pens instead of nosebones.
• When an African Swazi princess marries a Zulu king, she wears a
traditional costume of red touraco wing feathers around her forehead and a
cape of windowbird feathers and oxtails. But guests record the ceremony
on a Kodak movie camera while the band plays "The Sound of Music."
• The Japanese use Western words as a shorthand for anything new and
exciting, even if they do not understand what the words mean. They give
cars names such as Fairlady, Gloria, and Bongo Wagon. Consumers buy
deodoranto (deodorant) and appuru pai (apple pie). Ads urge shoppers to
stoppu rukku (stop and look), and products claim to beyuniku (unique).
Other Japanese products with English names include Mouth Pet (breath
freshener), Pocari Sweat ("refreshment water"), Armpit (electric razor),
Brown Gross Foam (hair-coloring mousse), Virgin Pink Special (skin
cream), Cow Brand (beauty soap), and Mymorning Water (canned water).
 Chapter Summary

• Products address a wide range of consumer needs.

• How we evaluate a product depends on our
involvement with that product, the marketing
message, and the purchase situation.
• Our cultural values dictate the products we seek
out and avoid.
• Consumers vary in how important possessions are
to them.
Introduction
Introduction