SIMULATION OF THE POINT SPREAD FUNCTION FOR LIGHT IN TISSUE BY A

MONTE CARLO METHOD

P. VAN DER ZEE and D.T. DELPY

Department of Medical Physics and Bioengineering,

University College Hospital, Shropshire House, Capper
Street, London WClE 6JA, U.K.

SUMMARY

We have been able by a Monte Carlo technique to generate the point

spread function (PSF) for light in tissue for a generalized range of
tissue characteristics. We have demonstrated that these can be describ-
ed by an equation containing a gaussian, diffusion and exponential
term. The PSF equation will allow one to estimate the limits of spatial
resolution achievable with near infrared (NIR) imaging systems, and may
be used in image deconvolution algorithms. Additionally an equation
has been derived describing the average photon pathlength through the
tissue. Finally, the light transmission and reflection (backscatter-
ing) have been illustrated as functions of scattering and absorption
coefficients. These results can be used in attempting to quantify data
from non-invasive NIR spectroscopy systems.

INTRODUCTION
.
The technique of non-invasive near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is
being applied increasingly in the field of medicine (Jobsis, 1977).
This technique can provide continuous information on the changes
occurring in blood and tissue oxygenation. It has been applied
particularly in the area of cerebral monitoring, where for obvious
reasons, one cannot use invasive monitoring techniques. While
information on relative changes in oxygenation is of clinical
significance, quantitative data would be much more useful. If in
addition one could spatially localize the signal, it would then be
possible to produce an image of the tissues indicating variations in
oxygenation status (Jarry et al., 1984; Cope and De1py, in press).
Both these aims can only be achieved if the nature of light transport
in tissue is understood. We are currently using the NIR technique
clinically to monitor oxygenation and blood volume changes in the brain
of full term and premature infants (Wyatt et al., 1986). In addition,
we are also developing techniques for NIR imaging across the head of
the preterm infant (Arridge et al., 1986). A theoretical and experi-
mental study of light transport in tissue is an integral part of this
work.

I. A. Silver et al. (eds.), Oxygen Transport to Tissue IX 179

© Plenum Press, New York 1987
 For light in the NIR, tissue is a highly scattering material.
Data obtained from post-mortem brain indicate a scattering length
(length between interactions) of a few millimeters (Svaasand, Doiron
and Profio, 1981). Therefore, for infant head diameters of 5 to 9 cm,
light transport is dominated by multiple scattering. As a result, the
optical pathlength through the brain is significantly different from
the spacing between the optodes placed on the surface. For this
reason, it has not normally been possible to quantitate the spectro-
scopic data. Knowledge of the average photon pathlength in the tissue
would make this possible. Additionally, when attempting to image
through the tissues, multiple scattering will cause considerable
blurring of the image. If one could know the point spread function
(PSF) for light travelling through the tissues it would be possible to
assess the likely resolution achievable with various imaging schemes.
Techniques proposed for imaging range from a simple collimated light
source and camera, to CT systems and ultimately time-resolved detection.
Finally, if the PSF were known, one would be able to employ deconvol-
ution techniques to the images in order to enhance resolution.

There are various ways to calculate the transport of light through

a scattering and absorbing medium. One approach is to analytically
solve the wave equation or the diffusion equation (Gate, 1973; Svaasand
et al., 1981). However, for these equations to be solvable even for
the case of a uniform homogeneous medium, one has to make many approx-
imations which especially for imaging make the results of doubtful
value. It is also extremely difficult to incorporate any geometrical
information or inhomogeneities into the tissue model. A second
approach is to use the Monte Carlo technique (Wilson and Adam, 1983;
Maarek et al., 1986), which can easily accommodate complex tissue
models, but which requires considerable computation time. We have
chosen to use this technique and have employed it to calculate the form
of the point spread functions for light in tissues of varying absorp-
tion and scattering coefficients. From these, a general equation
describing these PSFs has been derived using a curve fitting routine.
With this equation one can rapidly calculate the point spread function
for any tissue thickness. Additionally, a general equation describing
the average photon pathlength through tissue has been derived. Finally,
a preliminary analysis of the variation of transmitted and reflected
intensities with absorption and scattering coefficients has been
carried out.

THE MODEL

We have developed a full 3D model of light transport in tissue,

using as a starting point the models described by Wilson and Adam
(1983) and Maarek et al. (1984). In our model the following assump-
tions have been made about the photon interactions in tissue:

1) Scattering takes place at discrete scattering centres.

Successive scattering lengths are calculated as: L = -In(R')/Mus,
where R' is a random number between 0 and 1, and Mus is the tissue
scattering coefficient;

2) scattering of light by the tissues is assumed to be

non-isotropic. There is now considerable evidence for this
supposition (Kullenberg, 1974; Maarek et al., 1984). The volume
scattering function, from which the scattering angle can be
derived tends to be strongly peaked in the forward direction. An
extensive search of the literature has, however, failed to find

180
 measured values for this function. We are currently performing
experiments to measure this function in living brain tissue. In
the meantime we have used a calculated form for this function.
This was calculated using Mie scattering theory (Bohren and
Huffman, 1983), and a range of particle sizes. Particle sizes
were selected by measuring the average size of neurones and other
structures in slices of brain tissue. The refractive index of
water (1.33) was used for the medium, and for the cell membranes a
value of 1.46. The relative refractive index was therefore 1.10.
These values can be compared with reported average values of 1.49
and 1.38 for rat gut, respectively in vitro and in vivo (Gahm and
Witte, 1986). The final volume scattering function was obtained
by summing the individual scattering functions for each particle
size. The resulting function, and the particle sizes employed are
shown in Figure 1;

3) absorption takes place at a molecular level and is therefore

equal to exp(-Mua*L), where Mua is the absorption coefficient and
L the pathlength. Here we differ from Wilson and Adam (1983) who
assume absorption to take place at the discrete scattering sites,
and scattering to be isotropic.

Volume Scatt.rlng Function

.66EII1

Partlcre radius (um)

0.15 1.20
.56E181 0.30 1.35
0.45 1.50

. .46EII1 0.80 3.25

.
0.75 3.80
~ 0.90 3.75
c 1.05 4.20
4.70
c

~ .36EI81
...

.26EII1

.16E+11
8 38 91 121 151 181
Angle(Deg)

Figure 1. Average tissue volume scattering function calculated from

Mie scattering theory for the range of particle sizes shown.

In the model, the path of a photon is simulated through a

homogeneous tissue slab, entering it perpendicular to the lower
surface. Photons are followed until they exit the tissue, when their
exit coordinates, angles and total pathlength are recorded. For each
PSF the model is run until 60000 photons have been transmitted through
the tissue. The resulting data can be displayed as a function of any
of the stored parameters (e.g. exit angle, flight time etc.).

181
Calculations have been performed for a fixed tissue thickness of 10 mm,
but for a wide range of scattering and absorption coefficients. The
range chosen (Table 1) encompasses the extremes of values quoted in the
literature (Svaasand et al., 1981; Svaasand and Ellingson, 1983).
Results from other tissue thicknesses can be obtained by simple scaling
of the scattering and absorption coefficients.

Table 1.

Mus (mm- 1 ): 4.0; 2.0; 1.0; 0.5; 0.333; 0.25; 0.2; 0.167

Mua (mm- 1 ): 1.0; 0.4; 0.167; 0.105; 0.077; 0.061; 0.05; 0.02

A non-linear least squares curve fitting routine has been applied

to the calculated PSFs and mean path lengths (Gaushouse, 1965). In
order to provide a good fit over the wide dynamic range of the data,
the logarithm of the chosen function has been fitted to the logarithm
of the data.

The choice of function to be used in the curve fitting process is

of critical importance. There are a large number of possible functions
that would fit the PSFs obtained from the Monte Carlo model. One could
for instance simply use a polynomial. This would, however, be
difficult to relate to the known physical parameters of the model and
would not provide much insight into the problem. We have therefore
chosen to use functions which one would expect to obtain from a
simplified analysis of the light transport problem. Whitman and Beran
(1970) have calulated the beam spread of light in a scattering medium
using a small angle approximation, and predict a beam profile that is
gaussian in nature. At the extreme of light transport in a highly
scattering medium, a photon diffusion model is applicable (Johnson,
1970) and a diffusion term would be expected. We therefore initially
attempted to fit the Monte Carlo-derived PSFs using a function
containing a gaussian and a diffusion term. Although providing a
reasonable fit, it was found necessary to add a third term of an
exponential form in order to describe fully the PSFs over the whole
range of absorption and scattering coefficients.

RESULTS

Figures 2 and 3 show the point spread functions calculated from

the Monte Carlo model for the extremes of the absorption and scattering
coefficient range. The data plotted represent all the exiting photons,
irrespective of exit angle. The figures are plotted on logarithmic as
well as linear scales in order to demonstrate the extent of the 'tail'
of the PSF. Figure 4 is the PSF for a mid range value of absorption and
scattering coefficients. The equation to which the PSFs have been
fitted is:

I(r) = P1exp(-r 2 *P2) + P3exp(-«1+(r/d)20.5»*P4)/(1+(r/d)2) +

P5exp(-r*P6) + K(O) (1)

where:
d is the tissue thickness,
P1exp(-r 2 *P2) is the gaussian term,
P3exp(-«1+(r/d)20.5»*P4)/(1+(r/d)2) is the diffusion term,
P5exp(-r*P6) is the exponential term, and
K(O) represents the intensity contribution of unscattered photons.

182
 Point Spr •• d Function
4

P1 :
15
P2:
0.58

-
P3 :
0.72
;I
P4:
2
• P5:
22

-
•
;I

PI:
0.7
'C K{O): 235

0
-I 3
Dlotanc.{mm)

Point 'pr • • d FUnction

2r---------~----~~~~----__,

~
o
•
-••
;I

;I

-11~==~~~--~----
-, 0
__======~,
Dlot.no.( • • )

Figure 2. Point spread func1:ions for the extreme of high absorption

and low scattering (Mua 1.0, Mus = 0.17). The functions
are displayed on linear (upper figure) and logarithmic
(lower figure) scales. The crosses represent the Monte
Carlo values, the solid line is calculated from the fitted
equation. Values for PL •• P6 and K(O) are given in the
upper figure.

183
 Point Spr.ad Funt l on
14~---------------------------------,
P 1: 1.1
P2 : 0 . 034

..
P3 : 8.8
~
P4 : 2 . 2
e P5 : 14 . 2

..•
~

P8: 0.25
K(O): 3.4E-13
""
0
-30 0 30
Dlatanc.(mm)

Point Spr.ad Function

3

r-
0
till

..
~

..•
~

""
-7
-80 0 80
Dlatence(mm)

Figure 3. Point spread functions for the extreme of low absorption and
high scattering (Mua 0.02, Mus 4). For further
explanation see Fig. 2.

184
 Point Spread Functio n
4oor ----- ----- ----- ----__________~
P 1:8.4E-4
P2: 13

..•
:I
P3:
P4:
272
18

..
:I P5: 3.4E-'4
pe: 1.8
K(O): 3.8

.J~
~~8--~--~~~~-O~~~--~~--~
Di.hnc e(mm) 8

Point Spread Functio n

e.5.-------------------------------~

,..
o

....
III

:I

....
:I

>C

-3.5~~~~--~--r_~--~~~~
-24 0 24
Dlatan ce(mm )
absorp tion
Figure 4. Point spread functio ns for interm ediate values of
scatte ring (Mua 0.105, Mus 0.5). For furthe r
and
explan ation see Fig. 2.

185
 The parameters Pl to P6 and K(O) can be related to tissue
absorption and scattering coefficients. Preliminary work has been
carried out to determine the form of these relationships. A final
analysis will not be attempted until an experimentally measured volume
scattering function has been obtained. Typical values for Pl ••• P6 and
K(O) for the illustrated PSFs are shown on the figures.

The mean photon pathlength, Mp, has however been analysed as a

function of Mua and Mus. It has been found to obey the following
equation:

Mp = d(1+Mus/(3+4.2Mua(5.3+Mus») (2)

The factor d is the tissue thickness and Mus and Mua the tissue
scattering and absorption coefficients respectively. Examples of this
fit as a function of the scattering and the absorportion coefficient
are shown in Figures 5 and 6 respectively.

,14Et12.--_ _ _ _ _....!!II~RII!LP!]!RT!.!!H_----lIIIS~'IL-______:_l·
Nax' ,13E+'2

,13E+'2 •

,lIE+'2

,1IE+.2+----,___-~--_._--"'T""--,----l
,IIE+II ,2IE+1I ,IIE+" ~f+1I ,IIE+II ,IIE+'I ,12E+II

Figure 5. Mean photon pathlength (ordinate; mm) as a function of

absorption coefficient, Mua, for a scattering coefficient
Mus = 1.0 a~d a tissue thickness of 10 mm.

The model also provides us with data on the transmission and

reflection coefficient (backscatter). Figure 7 shows the transmission
as a function of absorption for different scattering coefficients, and
in Figure 8 as a function of scattering for different absorptions.
Similar results for backscatter are shown in Figures 9 and 10.

186
 .16EI82 IIftH Pft!H
llix' .IOE'12

/
.llE ltl

.HE '82

.13E182

.1lEt82

.1!E.e2

I
.!IE"2
.81('18 .IIE·11 .2IE'll .31['11 .4I[·il .SIE·ll
illS

Figure 6. Mean photon pathlength (ordinate; mm) as a function of

scattering coefficient, Mus, for an absorption coefficient
Mua = 0.105 and a tissue thickness of 10 mm.

187
 Tt.".ml •• ton(Mu.)

MVI

8.1 []• 0.5

0.1117
o 4.0
1[-12

... lE-83
"o
.... iE-14
0.111
1E-IS 0.5

1E-86
4.0

lE-87+-----::-I::-:-----:-r::,....-----:--c::----......,.-~
8. S 1.5 1.1
Aboorpllon Coefficient

Figure 7. Total transmission as a function of absorption coefficient,

Mua, for three scattering coefficients: Mus = 0.167; 0.5;
4.0.

Tr .......... ,. alon( MUI)

8.1 J::::::::::::::::::::~::================:::::::::.0.02
0.077
... lE-82

"....o 1E-83 MUI

o 0.02
•o 01.00. 77
lE-84

1£-86 1.0

1£-87+-------.-----:-------:::-------:---:-
4.5
Se.tt.rlno Co.'Ucle"t

Figure 8. Total transmission as a function of scattering coefficent,

Mus, for three absorption coefficients: Mua = 0.02; 0.077;
1.0.

188
 DISCUSSION

It can be seen from Figures 2, 3 and 4 that Equation (1) gives a

good fit to the Monte Carlo derived PSFs. The behaviour of P1 •. P6 as a
function of Mua and Mus has not yet been rigorously analysed although
some general trends can be seen from the results shown in Figures 2, 3
and 4. The derivation of these relationships remains a major element
of future work.

REFLECTIOH(Mua)
8.1
6E-82
4E-82
2E-82
1E-82
6E-83
4E-83
2E-83
1E-83
6E-84
4E-84
2E-14
1E-14
I. 5 '.5
Rbsorpt j on cotff j c j tnt
Figure 9. Total reflection (backscatter) as a function of absorption
coefficient, Mua, for a scattering coefficient Mus = 0.5.
Ordinate, log reflection.

The mean path1ength, as expected, increases with increasing

scattering, and decreases with increasing absorption. It can be seen
from Equation (2) that the mean path1ength is more sensitive to changes
in scattering than in absorption. This has encouraging implications
for the spectroscopic work, since scattering is likely to remain
reasonably constant, being dominated by the relatively static tissues.
It must be noted, however, that variations in mean path1ength with
changes in absorption or scattering will also alter the effective
volume from which the signal is derived. The data on light
transmission as a function of absorption (Fig. 7) show that Log (T) is
not a linear function of absorption. It can be seen that this
non-linearity is most pronounced at high scattering coefficients. This
confirms the experimental observations that Beers law does not apply in
the presence of scattering. Log (T) as a function of scattering (Fig.
8) can also be seen to be a non-linear function, the rate of change
being largest for low absorption.

189
 When looking at the results for backscattering, it should be borne
in mind that in the model we have assumed no reflection at the tissue
boundaries due to differences in refractive index between the tissue
and the surrounding medium. From the plot of reflection (backscatter)
as a function of absorption (Fig. 9) it is apparent that Log(R)
increases rapidly and in a non-linear way with decreasing absorption.
This is because at lower absorption, scattering from greater depths
starts to contribute to the reflected signal. Figure 10 shows Log(R)
as a function of scattering. As expected, reflection is strongly
dependent on scattering, although as scattering increases, one would
expect R to approach a limiting value. Finally, it should be
remembered that the reflection depends also on the shape of the volume
scattering function.

REFLECTION (1115)
'.2
1.1

6E-'2
4E-12

2E-'2

1E-'2

2E-I3i----.,...---"""'T"-----r---...,.
Scatt,ring cotfficitnt
Figure 10. Total reflection (backscatter) as a function of scattering
coefficient, Mus, for an absorption coefficient Mua
0.077. Ordinate, log reflection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work was carried out with funding provided by the Wolfson
Foundation, the Science and Engineering Research Council and Hamamatsu
Photonics Ltd.

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