International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72 – 87 (2001)

Marine Resources from an Urban Moche

(470–600 AD) Area in the ‘Huacas del Sol
y de la Luna’ Archaeological Complex
(Trujillo, Peru)
E. ROSELLÓa,*, V. VÁSQUEZb, A. MORALESa AND T. ROSALESb
a
Laboratorio de Arqueozoologı́a, Depto. Biologı́a, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
b
ARQUEOBIOS, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de La Libertad,
Trujillo, Peru

ABSTRACT An analysis of the marine animal remains retrieved in a sector of Huacas de Moche archaeologi-
cal complex is presented. The area, 14C-dated between 470 and 600 AD (Moche IV/V), includes a
poorly diversified fauna with two dominating species (donax clam and hake) despite the large
number of secondary taxa (71). Such faunal spectrum corresponds to a secondary type of
cropping strategy, likely to go through some kind of cultural filter (market), thus indirectly
certifying the social complexity of Moche urban centres in general and the centralized and
redistributive nature of Moche economy in particular. From an environmental standpoint most of
the taxa indicate ‘normal’ (i.e. non-El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO)) conditions and their
abundance and ecological affinities correspond to what one could expect to find at present on
the shores of the Moche Valley. The fish assemblage, moreover, suggests the existence of a low
status population whereas complementary data indicate that a few of the taxa might not have
had exclusively dietary connotations. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: fishes; molluscs; crustaceans; birds; mammals; marine resources; diet; Moche;
Peru

Introduction early Moche times, together with an overex-

Most of the time span known as the Early
Intermediate Period in Peruvian prehistory (200
BC – 600 AD) saw the Valley of Moche domi-
nated by the Moche culture whose capital city
corresponds with the archaeological site known
as the Huacas de Moche (Figure 1). Investiga-
tions done in the 1970s by Pozorski (1976,
1979) on the subsistence systems of the mo-
chica kingdom evidenced a centralized econ-
omy with a de-emphasis on marine products
and a reliance on domesticated llama: ‘. . . to an
extent that most other meat sources were of minor impor-
tance’ (Pozorski, 1979, p. 175). Substantial tec-
tonic uplift, which apparently occurred during
* Correspondence to: Laboratorio de Arqueozoologı́a, Depto.
Biologı́a, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
e-mail: eufrasia.rosello@uam.es
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
ploitation of marine resources, were the reasons
invoked by Pozorski to account for the sharp
decrease of marine items in the diet of the
Moche people.
Research on Moche sites have been scarce
since the times of Pozorski and it has been only
during the last few years that a renewed interest
in this culture brought people to work again on
the Huacas de Moche complex (Armas et al.,
1997; Cárdenas et al., 1997; Vásquez & Rosales,
1997a,b). A 4-year project was started in 1995
by Chapdelaine (1997a,b) in the urban sectors
(i.e. the so-called ‘Zona Urbana Moche’ or, in
short, ZUM from here onwards) in an attempt
to understand the urbanism, social structure and
subsistence systems of the inhabitants of the
Moche capital. A second project, under the
supervision of Uceda (Uceda et al., 1997),
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
Figure 1. Map of the Valley of Moche showing the location of
the Huacas de Moche site (4–6) and some of its main
features. 1, Huanchaco; 2, City of Trujillo; 3, River Moche; 4,
Huaca del Sol; 5, ZUM; 6, Huaca de la Luna; 7, Cerro Blanco;
8, Salaverry.
concentrated on the Huaca de la Luna, one of
the two very large corporate mounds sandwich-
ing ZUM. The Huacas constituted ceremonial
centres and were run by a priestly class
(Chapdelaine, 1997a,b). The results from these
areas complement to a large extent those ob-
tained at the urban quarters (Cárdenas et al.,
1997; Uceda et al., 1997).
In this paper our main aim is to provide a
detailed record of the taxa of marine origin at
one of those urban sectors of ZUM in the hope
of complementing and helping to refine some of
Pozorski’s hypotheses. Due to the preliminary
stage of the researches at ZUM, we will not
attempt a detailed microspatial analysis of those
remains nor a diachronic one. Still, since Moche
culture seems to have been under the influence
of recurrent environmental events, in particular
El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO) epi-
sodes, a secondary aim was to explore marine
taxa as potential bioindicators of such phenom-
ena in the past.
Material and methods
The archaeological complex of the Huacas de
Moche is located in the Valley of Moche (8°S)
between the southern margin of the River
Moche and the northern perimeter of the ‘Cerro
Blanco’ hill, some 6 km from the centre of
Trujillo, capital of the La Libertad department,
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
73
and 7 km from the present coastline, 50 m
above sea level (Figure 1). In essence, it includes
an urbanized environment on the fluvial plain
sandwiched between two Huacas (i.e. pyra-
mids): that of the sun (‘Huaca del Sol’) on the
north-east and that from the moon (‘Huaca de
la Luna’) lying on the south-west less than 2 km
from the former (Figure 2). The total extent of
the ZUM runs around 2 km2 (Pozorski, 1979).
The site, probably the capital of the Moche
empire, is an extremely complex one due to the
developed urbanism it exhibits, the length of
the occupation (some five to six centuries) and
its sheer size. The city itself incorporated both
‘classical’ boroughs/quarters/districts as well as
‘domestic-productive’ units (i.e. small farms) (Ar-
mas et al., 1997; Cárdenas et al., 1997; Chapde-
laine, 1997a,b). The latter were run by
horticulturists of a certain rank within Moche
society who probably held farming fields out-
side the city and occasionally became special-
ized craftsmen. The inhabitants of the districts
were craftsmen of various kinds organized much
in the way of the European medieval cities, into
guilds (Armas et al., 1997). All this indicates an
elaborated social structure which is reflected in
the archaeological record.
The animal remains reported in this paper
come from the so-called architectural complex
(i.e. CA from here onwards) number 9 (Figure
3). CA-9 was the first neighbourhood from
ZUM to be completely excavated. Roughly
Figure 2. Partial view of the fluvial plain of the River Moche
where the urban quarters of the Huacas de Moche site lie,
sandwiched between the Huaca (pyramid) del Sol (foreground)
and Huaca de la Luna (background) with the Cerro Blanco hill
lying behind (photo E. Roselló).
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
74 E. Roselló et al.

Figure 3. Ground plan of the architectural complex number 9 (i.e. CA-9) with indications of the various urban structures. Full
circles identify those areas where marine animal remains have been found and the dotted-line circle in room 33 indicates the only
documentation of plundering by huaqueros (i.e. looters). See Table 1 and text for further details.

rectangular (17 m in its west end versus 16 m
in its east end), CA-9 is an impressive unit of
656 m2 in extent which incorporates no less
than 48 distinctive spaces, the context of
many as yet undefined (Table 1). The pres-
ence of living quarters, warehouses, kitchens
and even burials suggests no small degree of
autonomous functioning. Still, given its highly
urbanized nature, CA-9 must have been highly
dependent on external influx as far as food
stuffs are concerned. Three 14C dates (14609
60, 1400 9 60 and 15309 80 BP), taken on
different areas of the CA-9 structures indicate
an occupational sequence of slightly over a
century within phases Moche IV/V of the
Larco sequence (470 –600 AD) (Chapdelaine,
1997a,b).
All remains have been sieved through 3 mm
meshes (1/8¦) and individually cleaned, la-
belled and sorted into bags. Most of the ani-
mal remains at CA-9 were retrieved in one
thick layer of grey ash. Due to the lack of
context in most of the habitation units (Table
1), restriction of space for publication and
preliminary nature of this contribution, results
will be presented for CA-9 as a whole.

Table 1. Contextual definition of the different spaces identified at CA-9a

Area Context Area Context Area Context Area Context

9-1* 9-13* Dumpyard? 9-24* 9-35 Kitchen

9-2* 9-14* 9-25* Kitchen? 9-36 Deposit?
9-3 9-15 9-26 9-37 Deposit
9-4* 9-16* Entrance 9-27 Deposit 9-38
9-5 9-17* 9-28 Kitchen 9-39 Alley
9-6* 9-18* 9-29 Patio 9-40
9-7 9-19 9-30 Alley 9-41 Warehouse
9-8 9-20 9-31 Alley? 9-42 Deposit
9-9* 9-21 Deposit 9-32 Alley? 9-43 Platform
9-10 9-22* 9-33 Platform 9-44
9-11 9-23 9-34 Funerary 9-45
9-12* Kitchen 9S Alley 9E Alley 9N Corridor
a
Spaces where marine animal remains have been retrieved are identified by an asterisk.

Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
The identification was carried out with the
reference collections from ARQUEOBIOS at
the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. In some
cases we had to refer to publications. Such was
the case for crustaceans (Chirichigno, 1970; Del
Solar, 1972; Del Solar et al., 1981) and molluscs
(Dall, 1909; Keen, 1958, 1971; Olsson, 1961;
Vegas 1963; Peña, 1970, 1971; Marinkovich,
1973; Huaman Maita, 1974; Breure, 1978; Oso-
rio et al., 1979; Alamo & Valdiviezo, 1987).
Some of the bird remains were taken to the
Museum of Zoology ‘Juan de Ormea’ of the
UNT and to the Laboratory of Salango
(Ecuador) for comparison where some fish re-
mains were also identified. The fish reference
collection was inadequate for identifying all of
the potentially retrievable taxa in northern Peru-
vian waters and as our analysis was being com-
pleted at the time of the worst ‘El Niño’ of this
century, this prevented us from building up a
more reliable reference collection for fishes.
Accordingly, some of the fish remains have
either joined the unidentified bone category or
were identified down to genus or family level
only (Table 3).
Two methods of quantification have been
used. The number of identified specimens
(NISP) needs no further comments. The estima-
tion of minimum number of individuals (MNI)
varies according to group. Thus, in the case of
gastropods, fragments of either a complete apex
or peristoma have been recorded as one individ-
ual. For bivalves, the largest number of valves or
complete articular portions was taken as the
MNI. For polyplacophora the MNI was esti-
mated recording the largest number of plates,
whether central, cephalic or anal, from the same
position. Estimating the MNI for Crustacea is
difficult since the exoeskeleton was extensively
fragmented, making it impossible to know
which carapace or dactylopodite fragments be-
longed to the same individual. For this reason,
NISPs were taken as the sole indicator of Crus-
tacean abundance (Table 4). MNI estimations
on vertebrates rely heavily on methods for infer-
ring size and age (Clason, 1972; Hesse & Wap-
nish, 1985). In the case of fishes, for example,
most bones were first assigned, through direct
comparison with specimens of known size, to a
specific standard length which was then placed
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
75
within a particular size group from which MNIs
were estimated. For some species such exercise
must be taken with caution since our reference
collection did not harbour too complete a range
of sizes to allow for a reliable size assignment
and this had to be extrapolated from available
specimens; thus, a certain amount of guesswork
was involved. In the case of birds and mammals,
ontogenetic data, together with size differences,
were taken into account in order to break down
samples into age or size categories. In all cases
MNIs have been independently estimated for
each of the 14 contexts where faunal remains
have been retrieved (Figure 3). This undoubt-
edly might increase the unreliability of the MNI
as an estimator of abundance but the joint use
of the MNI and the NISP should partially cir-
cumvent some of the former’s inherent draw-
backs (Gautier, 1984; Grayson, 1984; Klein &
Cruz-Uribe, 1984).
Each faunal sample was, finally, broken down
into taphonomic groups sensu Gautier (1987).
Environmental inferences have been based on
personal observations and published data
(Chirichigno, 1970; Peña, 1970, 1971;
Chirichigno, 1974; Fischer et al., 1995).
Results
Tables 2–4 provide an overview of the marine
taxa from CA-9 with their absolute and relative
abundance. The total of 13150 remains from 73
taxa including molluscs (Gautier, 1987), crus-
taceans (Pozorski, 1979), fishes (Vásquez, 1997
manuscript), birds (Vásquez & Rosales, 1997b)
and mammals (Pozorski, 1979) are, in them-
selves, an underestimation of the original assem-
blage. NISPs are not provided for molluscs and
these would almost double the given MNI val-
ues from Table 2 (unpublished data).
In full, 81% of this assemblage (more than
90% had those mollusc NISPs been incorpo-
rated) is made up of the Peruvian donax clam
(Donax obesulus), with one fish taxon (hake, Mer-
luccius gayi ) contributing an additional 4% to
the total identified number of remains. The
remaining 71 taxa would barely account for
10% of the NISP and some 3% of that fraction
is provided by the unidentified fish remains
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
76 E. Roselló et al.
Table 2. Mollusc remains, expressed as MNI, from CA-9

Temperature Taxon MNI % Substrate Supralitoral Mesolitoral Infralitoral

I Enoplochiton niger 1 — R “ “
I Acanthopleura echinata 1 — R “ “
I Fissurella maxima 1 — R “
I Fissurella lumbata 1 — R “
I Fissurella peruviana 1 — R “
I Fissurella sp. 2 — R “
I Collisella orbignyi 1 — R “
I Littorina peruviana 1 — R “
I Tegula atra 33 0.3 R “ “
I Prisogaster niger 184 1.6 R “ “ “
I Crepipatella dilatata 1 — R “ “
I Polinices uber 35 0.3 S “
I Concholepas concholepas 3 — R “ “
C Thais chocolata 119 1.0 R “
I Thais haemastoma 80 0.7 R “ “
I Xantochorus buxea 57 0.5 R “ “
I Nassarius dentifer 30 0.25 S “
W Olivella columellaris 7 — S “
I Mitra orientalis 7 — S “
W Prunum cuetum 35 0.3 R
C Choromytilus chorus 7 — R “ “
I Perumytilus purpuratus 6 — R “ “
I Semimytilus algosus 11 — R “
W Anadara tuberculosa 1 — M “ “
I Argopecten purpuratus 3 — S “
I Trachicardium procerum 1 — S “
C Protothaca thaca 6 S “
I Spisula adamsi 1 — S “ “
C Mesodesma donacium 1 — S “ “
I Donax obesulus 10 879 94.4 S “ “

Total 11 516 100

a
Temperature codes as follows: C, cold water; W, warm water; I, essentially indifferent (i.e. qualifies poorly as a temperature
indicator). Substrate codes as follows: R, rock; S, sand/silt; M, mangrove. Full circles represent depth range for each taxon.

(Table 3). Such general macrostructure of the
faunal samples deserves some further comments
at group level.
Molluscs
In addition to one fresh water (Helisoma peruvi-
ana; NISP= 1) and one terrestrial snail (Scutalus
proteus; NISP =145) the mollusc assemblage at
CA-9 includes two species of polyplacophora
(i.e. chitons) plus 18 gastropods and ten
bivalves. Most taxa are typical of the Humboldt
current communities and only two, namely the
mangrove clam Anadara tuberculosa (NISP=1)
and the snail Prunum curtum are bioindicators of
tropical/subtropical waters. All 35 shells from
the snail were intentionally perforated at the
level of the first spire suggesting an ornamental
use which has been already documented at
Peruvian sites (Vásquez, 1997 manuscript) and
which appears logical given the shiny perio-
stracum of this shell. This hypothesis, if con-
firmed, would remove P. curtum from the list of
edible species and turn it into evidence of trade
and commerce. The malacological data suggest-
ing warm pulses at CA-9 is therefore scant, to
say the least.
Inferences concerning the biotopes cropped
are heavily biased by the weight which D.
obesulus bears on the assemblage. The donax
clam is an intertidal inhabitant of sandy sub-
strates and the gathering of this mollusc pro-
vides evidence of a preferential cropping in
these biotopes. Such hypothesis gains ground
not only on actualistic terms (the seashore of
the Moche Valley at present is basically made
up of sandy beaches) but also on account of the

Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche 77
Table 3. Fish remains, expressed as NISP and MNI, from CA-9a

Taxon NISP % MNI % Depth Substrate Price ($) Habitats Size Capture

Mustelus sp. 3 0.3 3 1.4 B R/S 5 B SH

Mustelus /Galeorhinus 30 3 6 2.8 — R/S — B — SH
Rajidae 21 2 4 1.8 — S 1–2 B — SH
Rhinobatos planiceps 17 1.6 5.0 2.3 A/B S \10 B SH
Ariidae 5 0.5 2 0.9 — S — B — SH
Galeichthys peruvianus 60 5.8 15 7 A S 1–2 B SH
Sardinops sagax 76 7.3 12 5.6 A/B — 1–2 P BO
Opisthonema libertate 6 0.5 2 0.9 A — 1–2 P 26 (22) BO
Merluccius gayi 516 50 63 29.5 B/C R/S 1–2 D BO
Ophichthus sp. 1 — 1 0.4 A/B S 5 B — SH
Genypterus cf. maculatus 2 0.1 2 0.9 C R/S \10 BO
Serranidae 5 0.5 2 0.9 — R/S — D — BO
Paralabrax humeralis 15 1.4 8 3.7 B R/S 5 D 50 (30) BO
Cheilodactylus variegatus 2 0.1 1 0.4 B R/S 5 SH
Trachurus symmetricus 12 1.1 7 3.2 A — 1–2 P BO
Seriolella olivacea 1 — 1 0.4 A R/S 1–2 D BO
Anisotremus scapularis 3 0.3 3 1.4 B R \10 D/P SH
Labrisomus philippi 1 — 1 0.4 A R 5 B SH
Sciaenidae 44 4.2 9 4.2 — — — D — SH
Cynoscion analis 11 1 7 3.2 A S 5 D 45 (30) SH
Menticirrhus sp. 1 — 1 0.4 A/B R/S 1–2.5 D — SH
Micropogon altipinnis 2 0.1 1 0.4 A/B S \10 D 66 ( ) SH
Paralonchurus peruanus 87 8.4 11 5.1 A/B S 5 D 45 ( ) SH
Sciaena sp. 3 0.3 3 1.4 — — — D — SH
Sciaena deliciosa 69 6.6 17 8 A/B 1–2 D SH
Sciaena fasciata 1 — 1 0.4 B 5? D SH
Sciaena gilberti /starksi 1 — 1 0.4 B \10 D SH
Stellifer cf. minor 5 0.5 2 0.9 A/B S 1–2 D 25 () SH
Scomber japonicus 7 0.7 6 2.8 A — 1–2 P 50 (30) BO
Thunnidae 2 0.1 1 0.4 — — — P — BO
Sarda chiliensis 3 0.3 2 0.9 A — 1–2 P 79 (47) BO
Mugil sp. 17 1.6 10 4.7 A R/S 5 D/P 90 (30) SH
Paralichthys cf. adspersus 4 0.4 3 1.4 B R/S \10 B 50 (30) SH
Total identified 1033 100 213 100
Unidentified 502
Total studied 1535 100
a
Depth codes as follows: A, 0–2 m; B, 2–40 m; C, 40–200 m. Habitat codes as follows: B, benthonic; D, demersal; P, pelagic.
Capture codes as follows: SH, fishing at the shore; BO, boat fishing. Substrate codes as in Table 2.

preferential substrates and zonation of the ac-
companying taxa (Table 2). Most CA-9 gas-
tropods (Keen, 1958) are found on rocky
substrates whereas the opposite holds in the
case of bivalves (i.e. six are from sandy/silty
substrates). In terms of zonation, most species
concentrate on the mesolitoral (= intertidal)
zone. This means that gathering could have
been carried out at the beach without further
complications by unspecialized personel (i.e.
women and children). D. obesulus, still the most
common mollusc on both northern Peru’s shores
and markets, was also the dominant species at
Moche sites (Pozorski, 1979). This clam can
still be easily collected by hand in great num-
bers: specialized fishermen can collect up to 30
kg in 3 h of work at places such as Huanchaco
(personal observation and unpublished data).
The equipment includes various types of rakes
such as the ‘caván’ from Huanchaco and Huaca
Prieta. Rock mussels and snails require more
specialized instruments but it is normally the
dangerous biotopes they inhabit that restricts
their present day cropping to specialized gath-
erers called ‘mariscadores’ (lit., shellfish collec-
tors). Again, one can assume from the low
frequencies of rock-dwelling molluscs, that
rocky outcrops were rare habitats in terms of
food providers (at present, the Moche coastline
features these only at places like Salaverri,
Huanchaco and the mouth of the River Moche
itself).

Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
78 E. Roselló et al.
Table 4. Crustacean, bird and mammal remains, expressed as NISP and MNI, from CA-9a

NISP % MNI % ENSO

Platyxanthus orbignyi 66 67 — — NO
Arenaeus mexicanus 1 1 1 5 NO
Phalacrocorax bougainvillei 10 10 4 20 NO
Phalacrocorax sp. 1 1 1 5 NO
Sula variegata 3 3 2 10 NO
Sula cf. variegata 2 2 2 10 NO
Larus sp. 5 5 4 20 NO
cf. Butorides atratus 1 1 1 5 NO
Otaria byronia 8 8 4 20 NO
Lutra felina 1 1 1 5 NO
Total 98 100 20 100
a
None of the taxa indicate ENSO conditions.

It should be worth stressing that, whereas all
bivalves at CA-9 represent potentially edible
items, such is not the case for gastropods. A full
55% of gastropods (ten taxa) probably constitute
by-products of transport activities or alternative
gatherings (i.e. algae, mussels, etc.; Table 2).
These latter elements of the fauna should be more
properly placed within Gautier’s taphonomic
group no. 3 (‘carcasses’) instead of no. 1 (‘consump-
tion refuse’). Use of particular taxa as food items
does not preclude them from joining alternative
taphonomic categories. Thus, the grinding of the
donax shells for the production of lime, to be later
used in the consumption of coca, has long been
known (Sandweiss, 1979; Rollins et al., 1990;
Sandweiss & Rodrı́guez, 1991). In this case, as with
ornamental taxa, we would be dealing with
Gautier’s group no. 2 (‘workshop/manufacture
refuse’). The destruction of the shell which the
coca consumption implies does not allow one to
make any educated guesses of what fraction of the
CA-9 donax shells could have eventually ended
up in this second category.
Crustaceans
Crabs constitute marginal items of the CA-9
assemblage (Table 4). Both species are still com-
mon in the beaches of the Moche Valley and are
sold fresh in the Trujillo markets. Arenaeus mexicanus
has a latitudinal distribution which reaches to the
southern California peninsula whereas Platyxan-
thus orbignyi is a characteristic species of the
Humboldt current (Chirichigno, 1970; Del Solar,
1972; Del Solar et al., 1981; Fischer et al., 1995).
These two crabs are also collected in the intertidal
zone either by hand or with special traps (i.e.
‘cangrejeras’). They are found over both sandy and
rocky substrates, shifting from one to the other
without apparent problems (the portunid crab is
an able swimmer). Their meat is excellent and both
can be cooked or prepared fresh in various types
of ‘ceviches’ (i.e. macerated in lime juice).
Fishes
Although a smaller assemblage when compared to
molluscs, fishes undoubtedly constituted the most
important marine resource at CA-9. There are two
major reasons for this assumption:
1. Fishes are the most diversified group at CA-9.
This is not only due to the large number of
taxa present (Vásquez, 1997 manuscript; see
Table 3) but, above all, to the relatively low
abundance of the dominant taxa. In this way,
hake (M. gayi ) contributes a mere 50% of the
identified NISP (29.5% of the MNI). As a
consequence of this, several of the secondary
species, including the sardine, catfish and
various kinds of drums, make up significant
contributions to the assemblage’s grand total
(Table 3).
2. Although numerically the share of the total
animal assemblage at CA-9 is one to two orders
of magnitude below that of molluscs, their far
larger biomasses insures a dramatic reversal of
that situation when meat weights are consid-
ered (see below).
Fishes are also better documented, both biolog-
ically and ethnographically, than most other taxa
at CA-9. Even a casual survey of Table 3

Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
would immediately suggest a series of patterns.
Thus:
1. By far, the largest fraction of the ichthy-
ocenosis is that of fishes living either right
at the bottom (i.e. benthonic; NISP= 148
[15%]) or over the bottom (i.e. demersal;
NISP= 702 [72%]) with pelagic taxa ac-
counting for a mere 9% (NISP= 91) of the
assemblage (Table 3). Two of the most
common taxa (the hake and the Peruvian
banded croaker, Paralonchurus peruanus) for-
age slightly above the bottom but come
often to rest on it. However, the hake can
be also an active swimmer and become
pelagic at times when ‘El Niño’ events force
the species to undertake migrations (Afranio
Livia, 1985; Arntz & Fahrbach, 1996).
2. Although a majority of taxa at CA-9 (572
remains from 16 taxa which represent close
to 60% of the sample) dwell between 2 and
40 m of depth, nine species are to be found
in very shallow waters and only one or two
(including the hake) normally go deeper
than 40 m. This means that quite a few of
the taxa retrieved at CA-9 (22, represented
by 287 remains or 20% of the NISP), in-
cluding the croaker and remaining species of
drums, could be fished easily at beach level
with simple lines and nets.
3. Due to their locomotor capabilities, it is not
always easy to assign the type of substrate
over which a particular fish lives. Still, a
look at column 6 in Table 3 does seem to
suggest that sandy bottoms had been pre-
ferred over rocky substrates (most of the
benthonic and demersal taxa from rocky
substrates shift to sandy substrates without
any problem).
Despite difficulties in inferring the size of the
fishes retrieved, due to the statistical limitations
of our data, it was very clear that at CA-9 a
non-random distribution of sizes existed for
most species. In the case of hake, for example,
the results were as follows:
Size group 35 cm B35 cm 35 cm \35 cm 35 cm Total
MNI 2 7 30 11 2 52
Percentage 4 13.5 57 21 4 100
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
79
Thus evidencing a significant peak in medium
size hakes (M. gayi has been recorded at a
maximum TL of 50 cm) the modal TL value of
the present day commercial catches being of 45
cm (Afranio Livia, 1985).
The specimens from CA-9 correspond to ani-
mals weighing around 350 g (i.e. 290 –310 g
eviscerated weight) (Alcázar et al., 1983, plus
personal unpublished data). Similar regularities
have been found in the case of the sardine,
catfish and Peruvian drum (Sciaena deliciosa)
(Morales et al., in preparation). If one was here
considering the catches from a community of
fishermen, such distribution might suggest some
kind of technological contrivance (i.e. net mesh
size) or, less likely, an intentional targeting for
specific sizes1. Since CA-9 is a highly urbanized
context, where food was probably obtained
through markets, we should rather turn to eco-
nomic reasons for explaining such phenomenon.
All fishes retrieved are edible species and, as
such, probably all belong to taphonomic group
number 1 (Gautier, 1987).
Birds and mammals
Remains of marine birds and mammals at CA-9
can be labelled as anecdotal (barely 0.2% of the
identified remains or half that amount if mollusc
NISPs had been incorporated into the grand
total) yet they still have revealing stories to tell.
Thus, evidence for the consumption of birds
such as gannets (boobies), gulls and cormorants
is provided by the presence of cutmarks. Such
consumption has also been documented on eth-
nographic grounds (Antúnez de Mallada, 1985)
and is still practised throughout the Peruvian
coast (personal observation). Sea lion is a highly
sought resource for the quality of its meat. At
CA-9, its contribution to the diet was undoubt-
edly higher than that suggested by either its
NISP or MNI due to the size these animals
reach (i.e. up to 500 kg for males and up to 150
kg for females). Sea otter (Lutra felina) and the
egret Butorides cf. atratus probably do not repre-
sent consumption refuse. The egret, together
with another bird of marked coastal character,
the dove Zenaida asiatica (NISP=1), constitute
elements of the local terrestrial environments
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
80 E. Roselló et al.

around the ZUM area. None of the bones from
these two birds exhibits manipulative traces.
The radius from the adult otter, on the other
hand, had both its epiphyses removed and all
evidence seems to point to the presence of
either a functional instrument (cannula?) or a
stage in the fabrication of a more elaborated
one (flute?).
of large-sized taxa. Although at a coarse level of
resolution such biases might not be that impor-
tant, their consequences could prove disastrous
when attempting comparative analyses at finer
levels of resolution (i.e. diachronic, microspatial,
etc.).
Diet

Discussion Despite the impressive list of taxa, the diet of

marine origin at CA-9 boils down to one mol-
lusc and one fish, with three or four additional
Before tackling some of the issues the former
fishes providing some extra variety (Tables 2–
samples allow us to introduce, it would be useful
4). Actually, if biomasses were to be taken into
to straighten out a couple of taphonomic ques-
account, the picture emerging would change the
tions of general interest. To start, it should be
roles but not the list of main characters in this
clear that even though we are not dealing with
scenario. Thus, since the average donax repre-
assemblages directly reflecting cropping strate-
sents half a gram of edible tissue and the aver-
gies (for a series of bio-cultural ‘filters’ must
age 350 mm hake some 0.5 kg, 10879
have been involved in the production of the
individuals of the mollusc would amount to a
original thanatocenoses/taphocenoses) the ar-
mere 6 kg whereas the estimated MNI of 63
chaeozoological diversity at CA-9 implies a het-
hakes would more than quintuple that weight.
erogeneity of taphonomical histories worth
Such differences would, in fact, increase dramat-
recalling when attempting a holistic interpreta-
ically were NISP taken into account and consid-
tion of the whole assemblage. In particular, we
ered as representing a single individual each (i.e.
do not seem to have any primary deposits (i.e.
12 versus 250 kg), a scenario closer to the
zone 9-13 is a dumpyard; see Table 1) but,
former situation in view of the slight influence
instead, a majority of places where at this pre-
of the ‘Schlepp-effect’ on so many archaeologi-
liminary stage of the research we do not have a
cal faunas (Gautier, 1984). Reasoning along
clear idea how they ended up with bones. Such
these lines, fishes such as the various drums (i.e.
conditions demand flexible interpretations,
Paralonchurus peruanus, Sciaena deliciosa), guitarfish
knowing that ‘confidence intervals’ should be
(Rhinobatos planiceps) or even the catfishes (i.e.
placed on any hypothesis being put forward.
Ariidae and Galeichthys peruvianus; Table 3) per-
A second taphonomic issue deals with sample
haps represented more relevant food items in
representativeness and retrieval biases. At CA-9
the ZUM diet than the apparently dominating
only limited looting has been recorded, namely
donax shells. One way or the other, those long
a small hole at the centre of space 9-24 (Figure
lists of Tables 2 and 3 are mostly delusive.
3) but the 3 mm mesh of the sieves means that
When one turns to the social implications of
quite a lot of organic remains might still have
the faunal lists it appears that at CA-9 one is
been lost (Grayson, 1984). Table 5 summarizes,
confronting a poor sector of Moche society.
for the main groups and taxa, the reasons which
This is so for several reasons, mostly based on
might have contributed to their eventual over or
ethnological data (Antúnez de Mallada, 1985):
under-representation in the excavated samples.
Some hypotheses might be far fetched (i.e. no 1. The low proportion of molluscs in the diet.
conservation liquid has been recorded in Peru- When compared to fishes, and we are now
vian prehistory for the storage of marine food- reasoning on strictly actualistic grounds,
stuffs) (Antúnez de Mallada, 1985; Keatinge, molluscs (in particular snails, but also clams
1988) but in general, one should expect an such as the donax) command far higher
under-representation of the smaller-sized taxa, prices on Peruvian markets. Their consump-
both fish and shells, and an over-representation tion is, in most cases, considered a delicacy.

Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
Table 5. Hypothetical contingencies leading to biased representation of selected taxa at CA-9a
Taxon Over-represented
Sardine Many vertebrae
Peruvian Relatively large bones, well ossi-
croaker fied, diagnostic hyperostosis
Hake Monospecific genus, diagnostic
anatomy, relatively large bones
Catfish Diagnostic elements (spines,
etc.), well ossified many vertebrae
Large fishes/ Large and robust skeletal parts
shells
Small fishes/ Frequent
shells
Donax shell Overabundant?
Marinated fish Preferentially large size?
Gastropods Robust shells
Bivalves Abundant?
a
See text for further details.
In fact, it seems that this pattern has a long
tradition in Peru (Sandweiss, 1979; Alcázar
et al., 1983; Afranio Livia, 1985; Antúnez de
Mallada, 1985; Keatinge, 1988; Rollins et al.,
1990; Sandweiss & Rodrı́guez, 1991).
2. Most of the numerically important fish taxa
at CA-9 represent the cheapest options one
could get at Peruvian markets today. We
have artificially set up three categories of
‘poor’ (i.e. $1), ‘medium’ (i.e. $5) and ‘rich’
(i.e. \$10) fishes based on long term data
of periodical visits to markets. When these
are applied to the CA-9 fish assemblage
(column 7 in Table 3), it turns out that the
most common species except for the croaker
(i.e. sardine, catfishes, hake, drum and horse
mackerel), representing 84% of the identi-
fied NISP, belong to the lowest category,
with 13% more (including the croaker) in
the middle category (NISP=146) and a
mere 3% (NISP= 27 for six to seven spe-
cies, thus the truly anecdotal sector of the
ichthyocenoses) in the category of expen-
sive species. For two of us, Spaniards, it
comes as a shock to learn that one of our
most exquisite fishes (i.e. the hake, although
this time the nominal species M. merluccius)
was considered as food for the poor in Peru
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
81
Under-represented Probable outcome
Small size, fragile cranial bones Probably under-represented
Similar anatomies of many other Probably over-represented
drum species
Fragile cranial bones, boiled Neither over nor under?
bones easy to chew
Relatively small bones Neither over nor under?
Infrequent? Probably over-represented
Small skeletal parts, easy to Probably under-represented
chew fishes? Ground as fish
meal?
Small, fragile, ground for lime Probably under-represented
production?
Preferentially small size? No traces left!
Decalcified
Infrequent? Probably over-represented (in
particular vs. bivalves!)
Fragile shells Probably under-represented (in
particular vs. snails!)
(Morales et al., in preparation). This status
for hake, however, seems pervasive in the
South American Pacific for even as far down
as Tierra del Fuego (Chile) have we learned
about it (personal observation).
3. The consumption of marine birds, such as
gulls, gannets/boobies or cormorants. Again,
we evidence dramatic differences between
Spain and Peru, for consumption of such
items in the latter country, although not
considered ‘haute cuisine’, is not the type of
activity one would engage only in the most
desperate situation as would be the case for
Spain (Antúnez de Mallada, 1985; Keatinge,
1988). Since the Huacas de Moche site lies
7 km inland one can also rule out the
possibility that some remains joined the
taphocenosis as carcasses —a potential dan-
ger in coastal sites (Del Solar, 1981; Gautier,
1987).
Taken together, these three lines of evidence
suggest a dietary spectrum at CA-9 of the not-
so-well-off. At the present preliminary stage of
the research, where we are still lacking a lot of
the contextual/archaeological evidence, one has
to leave for a later time further precision as to
what specific sector/craft of Moche society one
is referring to here.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
82
In the meantime, it should be worth recalling
that several taxa, including 30% of the molluscs,
might have nothing to do with consumption
refuse.
Environmental issues
The recurrent complex and well studied phe-
nomenon of El Niño is prone to leave many
signatures on archaeological materials. Presence
of species alien to an area or sharp increase/
decrease of local populations are the two major
kinds in the case of archaeozoological samples.
At CA-9 we have plenty of evidence testifying
to a ‘normal’ situation but precious little data to
support an ENSO event. Thus:
1. Only four taxa are of tropical/subtropical
origin: (a) The mangrove snail, Anadara tuber-
culosa which, at present, only reaches down
to the gulf of Guayaquil (Fischer et al.,
1995); (b) the snail Prunum curtum, whose 33
shells had been intentionally perforated at
the level of the first spire and which has
long been known as an ornamental item at
Peruvian sites (Vásquez, 1997 manuscript);
(c) seven shells from Olivella columellaris with
a similar ornamental, thus allochthonous,
implication; and (d) the tallfin croaker, Mi-
cropogonias altipinnis, which reaches to the
latitude of Piura (4°S) and whose two verte-
brae at CA-9 testify to the marginality of its
presence at Moche.
2. Two additional molluscs occur from the
Panamanian zoogeographical province and
from the transition zone (i.e. Paita): Conchole-
pas concholepas (NISP =3) and Spisula adamsi
(NISP =1). However these taxa occasion-
ally appear further south as a result of pas-
sive drifting of larvae in the littoral currents
and thus can not be properly considered as
bioindicators of episodes of warming.
3. Conversely (i.e. considering indicators of
the cooling of the ocean) one could specu-
late with the presence of the Chilean ling
(Genypterus maculatus) and even with the ‘ap-
parent’ abundance of the donax shell. It is
known, for example, that D. obesulus in-
creases during episodes of cooler waters
(Sandweiss, 1979; Sandweiss & Rodrı́guez,
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. Roselló et al.
1991). Perhaps the most significant evidence
of cool and moist conditions at CA-9 does
not come from the sea but from land, since
the relative abundance of the terrestrial snail
(Scutalus proteus; Vásquez & Rosales, 1997b)
runs in parallel with either dense winter
mists or with summers following a rainy
season in the mountains.
The faunal assemblage reported here consti-
tutes representatives of the communities of in-
vertebrates and vertebrates that one would
expect under ‘normal’ conditions, notwithstand-
ing problems of resolution (the 130 years se-
quence at CA-9 would be too coarse a level of
analysis to investigate ENSO events of 1–2
years duration!). It does seem clear that from
470 to 600 AD, the archaeozoological evidence
does not suggest any significant episode of cli-
matic alteration in the Moche Valley. Those
same taxonomic diversities and abundances fur-
ther suggest that coastal conditions in the area
were very similar to present day ones some
1500/1400 years ago.
The evidence in a wider context: the faunas from
Moche
Different faunal analyses have been carried out
thus far in the Huacas de Moche archaeological
complex (Pozorski, 1976, 1979; Cárdenas et al.,
1997; Vásquez & Rosales, 1997a,b). We have
similarly completed analyses of other quarters,
namely CA-7, CA-11, CA-12 and CA-15
(Morales et al., in preparation). Coincidences
and divergences arise when one compares the
results from CA-9 with those from other areas
and these are of different order of magnitude
and kind depending on the sample compared.
Similarities with other urban sectors are ap-
parent for the list of taxa retrieved and for major
patterns detected (i.e. overabundance of donax
shells, snail:clam ratio, most important fish taxa
and low frequencies of bioindicators of ENSO
events) but from here onwards differences pre-
vail. As an example, Figure 4 depicts the fre-
quency distribution of fishes at CA-9 and the
other sectors recently studied by our group. It
seems evident that the CA-9 ‘ichthyocenosis’ is
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
Figure 4. Frequencies of the main fish taxa in five archaeolog-
ical areas of ZUM.
by far the most diversified in terms of abun-
dance of common taxa and that such a situation
differs drastically from that recorded in other
quarters of the Moche capital. Although it is
clear that random events might have con-
tributed to such a story, we still believe that
those differences are not of such an order of
magnitude as to be wholly responsible for such
spatial differences (fish NISPs, in fact, are not
that different among samples [CA-7= 1355;
CA-11 = 336; CA-12= 4032; CA-15= 956]).
To determine whether the situations depicted
are reflecting the diets of various social groups
within Moche culture, different climatic epi-
sodes, seasonal fluctuations in fish availability or
any other phenomenon, one will have to wait
until context, 14C dates and complementary in-
formation are available for all sectors and spe-
cies involved, but the case is illustrative of the
‘micropatterning’ awaiting explanation at ZUM.
The report of Cárdenas et al. (1997) on the
monumental area of the moon pyramid is inter-
esting in that it deals with an animal assemblage
numerically quite similar to that of CA-9
(NISP =11.390) where molluscs (97.5%), in
particular donax (81%), again represent its main
faunal elements. (An additional similarity is the
almost identical NISP of the crab Platyxanthus
orbignyi (67 versus 66).) Although differences
exist in the contribution of the various sec-
ondary species (i.e. a slightly larger share of
rock molluscs at Huaca de la Luna) the major
difference between the urban and monumental
sectors concerns the fish assemblage. Thus, only
122 remains of marine fishes have been re-
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
83
trieved (barely 1% of the total NISP) with
drums, in particular the minor stardrum (Stellifer
minor), playing a ‘leading role’ (37% of the
identified NISP) and hake a rather secondary
one (7%). To these, 1204 Mugil cephalus
(stripped mullet) bones could be added but
these amphidromous taxa, together with 8071
remains from freshwater fishes (6980 Bricon amer-
icanus peruanus, 561 Pygidium dispar and 530 Lebi-
asina bimaculata) were retrieved at a particular
sector (tuberı́as) in two successive phases corre-
sponding to the transition from the Moche III
(phase 2) to the Moche IV (phase 3) stages of
the occupation at Huaca de la Luna (Cárdenas et
al., 1997, p. 131). The overabundance of such
freshwater/eurihaline taxa is taken by these au-
thors as evidence of a strong El Niño episode.
Indeed, the floods which accompany ENSO
events in the northern coast of Peru provoke a
massive transport of soil and organic materials,
freshwater fish and the freshwater crab Hypol-
lobocera sp., whose input into the coastal ecosys-
tems provokes a temporary bloom of specific
micro- and macroplanktonic elements and also
of different microphagous fishes, grey mullets in
particular (Arntz & Fahrbach, 1996). If the fishes
from the tuberı́as represent an ENSO episode,
how is it then that not a single specimen of the
freshwater crab (an edible species found at
ZUM) has been found? Also, if, as the authors
contend, these freshwater fishes have been con-
sumed, how can one reconcile their presence
with a catastrophic episode of floods? Would
people be fishing then? Flooding episodes last
for a few hours (personal observation) and, as
can be imagined, it is very difficult to fish under
those circumstances! Would people be collect-
ing dead fishes along the banks of the River
Moche once the floods were over? Would one
expect to retrieve so many remains from such
short-term episodes? After the floods most
freshwater fish populations either vanish or be-
come dramatically reduced, taking some time
before fishing itself can be resumed (Del Solar,
1981; Moseley & Feldman, 1982; Arntz &
Fahrbach, 1996). In fact, fishing for freshwater
fishes could only be carried out during normal
times and, if only for this reason, we reject the
idea of the fish assemblage at Huaca de la Luna
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
84
as evidence of a former ENSO event. To us, the
inescapable conclusion is that, despite similari-
ties, the diet and the animals present in the
monumental area of the Moche capital had
many reasons for being different from those of
the urban quarters. However, this hypothesis
needs to be probed in a truly rigorous way, one
which demands a far larger amount of con-
textual/complementary information than the
present available one. Still, the presence of
some plant taxa with ritual/symbolic/hallucino-
genic connotations lends support to the idea of
a ‘priestly area’ at Huaca de la Luna (Cárdenas et
al., 1997, pp. 144 –147). This, of course, does
not mean that during the periods from which
the Huaca de la Luna materials derive (i.e.
350 – 600 AD) some climatic catastrophe might
not have occurred, only that the evidence from
CA-9 rules such a hypothesis as momentarily
unnecessary for the second half of that time
period (i.e. 470 –600 AD).
The data from Pozorski (Pozorski, 1976,
1979) are more difficult to compare with ours in
that she does not refer to NISPs or MNIs but,
instead, makes use of an alternative type of
estimator, average meat volume, which cali-
brates ‘importance’ rather than ‘abundance’ as
such. An additional problem with Pozorski’s
data is that values are not expressed as discrete
units but rather as percentages from an un-
known magnitude (i.e. value). Still, some com-
ments seem pertinent. Thus, in the case of
marine resources, molluscs treble the meat con-
tribution of fishes (some 3% versus 1.2%) and
greatly surpass them in terms of sheer diversity
(26 versus five taxa). Of particular interest is the
total absence in Pozorski’s samples of those
fishes which seem to have been common both
at CA-9 and at other ZUM areas studied by us
(i.e. hake, sardine, catfish, etc.; see Figure 4).
This fact is all the more disturbing since the
match, in terms of diversity but also meat con-
tribution, of our mollusc assemblages and hers
seems very clear (Pozorski, 1979, pp. 166 –168).
Perhaps mesh screen size (1/4¦ inch in her case)
might have played a role here but the fact
remains that what we believe are indications of
an industrial fishing activity during Moche times
might have passed unnoticed to Pozorski at the
time of her study. It should be stressed that this
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. Roselló et al.
is also the first time that hake is recorded in
Peruvian archaeological sites (E. Reitz and E.
Wing, both verbal communications).
Such differences notwithstanding, the major
pattern evidenced by Pozorski, although not
related to marine resources, has been substanti-
ated in our analyses. Thus, llamas, which ac-
cording to Pozorski represent 68% of all the
meat consumed in her Moche samples (one full
22% additional ‘meat’ going to unidentified
mammals most probably llama too; Pozorski,
1979, p. 169), constitute the main meat
providers in our samples as well. At CA-9, for
example, 224 remains representing no less than
41 individuals would account for some 90% of
all the animal biomass even by the most conser-
vative of estimations (e.g. taking an extremely
low figure of 60 kg of meat per animal, llamas
would outweigh all animal resources by one full
order of magnitude!).
Conclusions
The necessarily preliminary nature of our re-
search at Moche demands that many questions
remain open at this stage. Within the restricted
field of marine resources, for example, we have
probably underestimated the role of algae as
providers of food and it is difficult to see how
one can circumvent such a drawback in the
future, for algae leave few traces in the ar-
chaeobiological record. Finally, in this review of
pending issues, we have also a long way to go in
the non-dietary implications of faunal items. We
have mentioned the use of shell limestone in the
consumption of coca and also the fact that some
taxa had ornamental uses or perhaps simply
ended in the taphocenoses as hitch-hikers of
particular species. The taphonomic group distri-
bution, both at CA-9 and ZUM, is more or less
worked out at a coarse level of analysis but
there are a lot of specifics to be completed.
Still, one must acknowledge the robustness of
some of the patterns emerging at CA-9, for
these have not only proved in accordance with
published and unpublished data on both the
urban and monumental sectors of the Huacas de
Moche complex but also seem to constitute
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 11: 72–87 (2001)
Marine Resources from an Urban Moche
pervasive trends throughout Peruvian coastal ar-
chaeology (Moseley & Feldman, 1982; Sand-
weiss et al., 1983; Keatinge, 1988; Sandweiss,
1988).
One issue that bridges the gap between what
has been documented and not concerns the
absence of anchovies (Engraulis sp.). This fact is
remarkable for anchoveta (E. ringens) is still the
most important commercial fish in Peru. An-
choveta was also the reason for catapulting Peru
to the top position of fishing nations in the
world (12 million metric tons in 1972, some
20% of that year’s total fish catch!) and is a
coastal taxon whose cropping does not require
sophisticated gear. All these reasons, together
with complementary archaeological ones, have
been modelled into the MFAC (Marine Founda-
tion of Andean Civilization) hypothesis first put
forward by Moseley (1975) and latter refined by
Moseley & Feldman (1982). Despite much criti-
cism, Moseley and Feldman’s reasoning is sound
and subject to refutal, thus truly scientific. But
the data gathered on Peruvian archaeoichthyo-
cenoses since the hypothesis was first put for-
ward do not in any way lend support to it.
Perhaps there is a combination of factors play-
ing against the retrieval of anchovies at Peruvian
sites (i.e. too coarse sieving, no flotation, an-
chovetas being turned into fish meal [i.e.
ground], marinated [i.e. decalcified], etc.).
However, when one is considering an event
involving so many millions of specimens, one is
truly at pains in trying to explain the total
absence of anchoveta remains at places like
ZUM where industrial fishing seems to have
been a well established craft as the relative
abundance of hake and sardine suggest. Why,
then, not a single remain from anchovetas?.
Similarly, all upwelling regions of the world’s
oceans feature a complement of at least one
phytoplanctophagous (i.e. anchovy, anchoveta)
and one zooplanctophagous (i.e. sardine) clu-
peiform. The Humbolt current is no exception
to this rule (Chirichigno, 1974; Arntz &
Fahrbach, 1996). Again, if one retrieves sar-
dines, why not remains from its phytoplanc-
tophagous counterpart? It is questions of this
kind, like those related to the study of
palaeoENSO events, that provide the fuel to
‘keep the engine going’ in what now truly seems
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
85
to be a breathtaking window open into the past
of Peru’s coastal valleys.
Acknowledgements
All the research reported in this paper, whether
published or unpublished, constitute part of the
bioarchaeological investigations carried out as
part of the 1995 –1998 Zona Urbana Moche
(ZUM) Project directed by C. Chapdelaine.
The authors would like to thank Professor
Chapdelaine for offering us the study of the
animal remains, and also for providing vital
complementary information for their interpreta-
tion as well as for granting us permission for its
publication. Thanks are also given to K. Moore
(Philadelphia), E. Reitz (Atlanta) and E. Wing
(Gainesville) for critically reviewing the draft
and providing useful insights. Two unknown
referees have similarly reviewed the paper and
added useful criticisms. The participation of two
of us (Eufrasia Roselló and Arturo Morales) has
been facilitated by Grant PB94/0186 of the
Spanish National Research Council (DGICYT)
and also by travelling and lodging aids from
both Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM)
and the Departamento de Ciencias Sociales of
the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo (UNT).
Finally, as always, Sylvia Martı́n is warmly
thanked for her patience in typing the
manuscript.
Notes
1. Many fishes exhibit an age-related occupation of
the space, with juveniles in shallow waters, old
adults in very deep waters, etc. Concentrating
fishing effort at a particular spot, therefore, may
bring about, as a side effect, a preferential capture
of particular size groups.
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