Commercial Timbers of the Caribbean

Present and Potential
Commercial Timbers
of
The Caribbean
With Special Reference to
• The West Indies
• The Guianas
• And British Honduras
by
Franklin R. Longwood
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service;

formerly at the Tropical Forest Research Center of the
Forest Service in Puerto Rico.
Agriculture Handbook No. 207
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

Washington, D.C. March 1962
Approved for reprinting July 1971
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is indebted to Dr. B. Francis Kukachka, U.S. Forest Product’s

Laboratory, Madison, Wis., for his assistance in preparing the timber descrip-
tions, and to Dr. Elbert L. Little, Jr., Forest Service Dendrologist, for his
exhaustive check and verification of the common and scientific names and
geographical distribution of the timbers and his thorough review of the text
and tabular material.
CONTENTS
Page Page
Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 Kopie - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69
Selection of important Caribbean timbers- - - - - - - 2 Kurokai - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70
Nomenclature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Kwarie - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72
Distribution and habitat- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Lignumvitae - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 73
Tree descriptions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Magnolia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 75
Description of the wood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 Mahoe - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 76
Weight and specific gravity- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 Honduras mahogany - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 76
Seasoning - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 West Indies mahogany - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 79
Shrinkage and movement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 Manbarklak - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 81
Strength properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12 Manni - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 82
Working properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 Manniballi - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 84
Resistance to decay - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14 Marblewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 85
Resistance to attack by termites and other Mora - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 86
insects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15 Nargusta - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 88
Resistance to marine borers - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17 Pakuri - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90
Permeability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18 Parakusan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 92
Wood uses - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 Caribbean pine- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 92
Supply - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 Podocarp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 95
Timber Descriptions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27 Purpleheart - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 96
Angelin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27 Resolu - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 99
Angelique - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28 Roble - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 99
Aromata - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30 Honduras rosewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 101
Baboen and banak - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30 Saman - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 102
Bagasse - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33 Santa-maria - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104
Balata - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34 Sara - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106
Balsa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36 Simarouba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 107
Baromalli - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38 Snakewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 108
Bethabara - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39 Sterculia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 110
Bois gris - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41 Suradan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 112
Broadleaf - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42 White tabebuia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 114
Bullhoof - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43 Tatabu - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115
Bustic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44 Tauroniro - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 116
Central American cedar - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45 Teak - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 118
Courbaril - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47 Tonka - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 120
Crabwood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49 Wacapou - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 121
Dakama - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52 Wallaba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 123
Determa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 53 Wamara - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 125
Dukali - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54 Yemeri - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 126
Encens - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 55 Yokewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 128
Gommier - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 55 Bibliography - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 131
Demerara greenheart - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 57 Appendix - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 139
Gronfoeloe - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60 Table 10.— Strength properties of Caribbean
Gumbo-limbo - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62 timbers in the green condition- - - - - - - - - - - - - 140
Haiari - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 63 Table 11.— Strength properties of Caribbean
Hura - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64 timbers in the air-dry condition- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 148
Inyak - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65 Table 12.— Maximum allowable stresses for
Kauta, kautaballi, marish - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 66 tropical timbers under different circumstances 156
Kereti silverballi - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68 Index to the timbers - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 158
III
Present and Potential Commercial Timbers
of The Caribbean
INTRODUCTION
The steady improvement of social and economic proportion of the softwood lumber imports is com-
conditions in the Caribbean countries has brought ing from within the Caribbean region. Neverthe-
about a comparable increase in the consumption of less? the volume of the softwood resources is so
timber and other wood products. Although the limited that the bulk of future requirements will
Caribbean region includes man millions of acres have to be supplied from the outside, largely from
of forests containing untold billions of cubic feet the United States.
of timber, most of the increased demand is met In British Honduras the pine industry has
by imports from outside the region. Softwoods reached its full development, and further expan-
are imported principally from the United States; sion must be based on the utilization of lesser
hardwoods, from Europe, Africa, and the Philip- known timbers. In fact,, the best pine stands in
pines. Many hundred, even thousands of different Central America are being consumed so rapidly
timbers are available in the Caribbean forests; that a sharp decline is predicted within the next
many of them are qualified for the uses filled by two or three decades. But in the Guianas the
imported timbers, yet the intra-Caribbean trade volume of exportable timbers is increasing with
in this commodity is limited to a few species. The advancement in the timber production industry.
present wood consumption in a large art of the In this area, vast tracts of unexploited hardwood
region consists mainly of imported softwood (co- forests remain untouched.
niferous) species for construction work and a lim- Many hundreds, even thousands, of different
ited use of homegrown hardwoods (broadleaf) for woods are available in the forests of the Carib-
furniture, construction, posts, and fuel. bean countries. Yet the local commerical produc-
Hardwood timber is, in general, plentiful tion and utilization and the exportation of timbers
throughout the continental area of the Caribbean from the area over the past, 300 years, and even
and on a number of the West Indies islands. But, today, are confined to a relatively few of these
some areas, including Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Bar- woods. Less than twenty timbers are of impor-
bados, and some of the smaller islands of the tance in the present export market. Consequently,
Lesser Antilles, are handicapped by a scarcity of many of the smaller islands and Central American
both hardwood and softwood species. countries import, and use softwood timbers where
The coniferous resources of the region are indigenous hardwood species would be satisfac-
largely confined to British Honduras, Honduras, tory. Also, many local hardwood timbers, if well
Nicaragua, and Mexico on the continent, and to a manufactured and if properly marketed in quan-
limited supply in Haiti, Cuba, Dominican Repub- tity, could satisfy similar needs in other countries
lic, and the Bahamas in the West Indies. Except- in the region.
ing British Honduras, all Caribbean countries are Furthermore, it is reasonable to assume that
importers of softwood timber, though British among the immense number of unused timbers
Guiana’s requirements are nearly met by local are many with qualities equal or superior to the
hardwoods. The Caribbean area is considered- in relatively few native hardwood timbers presently
this work to include the three Guianas and the accepted. Some probably possess outstanding
northern part of Venezuela and Colombia, Central beauty, durability, resistance to insects or marine
America, southern Mexico? the southern tip of organisms, or have such high strength properties
Florida, and the West Indies from Cuba and the that they would be readily accepted by the local
Bahamas to Trinidad and Tobago. An increasing and export trade.
1
2 U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 207
In view of the expanding market and the un- Countries represented in the selection of tim-
certainty of the present resources of the small bers are as follows: British Guiana, French Gui-
number of timbers being utilized, the need for ana, Surinam, and British Honduras on the
using the lesser known species is of first impor- continent; Jamaica, Dominican Republic, and
tance. This applies both to the areas having abun- Puerto Rico in the Greater Antilles; Guadeloupe,
dant timber supplies and to the islands having Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
insufficient forest, reserves, yet many unused Grenada, Trinidad, and Tobago in the Lesser An-
timbers. tilles. Although Cuba and Haiti are not included
Lack of knowledge, particularly by the con- in this group, they are well represented by the
sumer, seems the principal deterrent to the utiliza- selections made for other islands in the Greater
tion of lesser known woods. Needed is informa- Antilles. But important timbers in other parts
t ion on physical and mechanical properties, as well of the Caribbean area are not discussed in detail
as knowledge of air seasoning, kiln drying, dura- unless they are also presently or potentially im-
bility, machining characteristics, and resistance to portant in the above countries or islands.
insects and marine organisms. Prospective users The conference by resolution directed the
should also have the benefit of reliable recom- Secretariat of the Caribbean Commission to ask
mendations on the acceptable uses for the different the Tropical Forest Research Center of the U.S.
timbers and an estimate of their present and po- Forest Service for assistance in the project. In
tential availability. answer to that request., this publication was pre-
In view of the above considerations, the Fourth pared. It presents, to the best of the author’s
Session of the West Indian Conference held in knowledge, a summary of all available and worth-
1950 recommended that a future conference be while information on the 71 important timbers in
convened to consider the agricultural potentiali- that part of the Caribbean area described above.
ties of the Caribbean area, with special reference
to developing the timber trade. Later, the objec- SELECTION OF IMPORTANT
tive was restricted to a study of the present and
potential timber trade. The conference, held at
CARIBBEAN TIMBERS
Port of Spain, Trinidad, in April 1953, was at- Foresters and other representatives of the Gov-
tended by representatives from most countries and ernment attending the 1953 Timber Conference in
islands of the Caribbean area. Port of Spain, Trinidad, selected an initial list of
Conference delegates agreed on the need for 54 timbers of present or potential commercial im-
compiling and publishing a list of the timbers of portance. The number was later increased to 71
present and potential regional importance. They as additional timbers were suggested. This num-
also agreed that this document should cover the ber will surely increase in the years ahead : Remote
entire Caribbean, including the independent re- areas will become more accessible to improved mar-
publics, and should contain all available informa- kets, and further studies will be made of the
tion on the selected timbers. The principal tim- quantity and quality of many woods, currently
bers described in the text were selected largely little known. The final selection of timbers cov-
by member countries of the Caribbean Commis- ered in this work and the species chosen are es-
sion and do not necessarily include all timbers of sentially as suggested by the participating
present or potential importance in the entire governments. The timbers are listed by their pre-
Caribbean region. ferred trade and botanical names in table 1.
TABLE 1.— Present and potential commercial timbers of the Caribbean
Trade name Scientific name Page Trade name Scientific name Page
Angelin -
Angelique -
- - - - - - - -
{ Andira inermis (W. Wright)
H.B.K.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A. spp.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Dicorynia guianensis Amsh. - -
27
27
28
Bethabara - - - - - - -
Bois gris- - - - - - - - -
Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl)
Nicholson - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Licania ternatensis Hook. f. - -
39
41
42
{
- - - - - - Broadleaf - - - - - - - - Terminalia latifolia Sw.- - - - - -
Clathrotropis macrocarpa Bullhoof - - - - - - - - - Drypetes brownii Standl. - - - - - - 43
{
Aromata - - - - - - - - Ducke - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30 Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A.
C. brachypetala (Tul.)Kleinh. - - 30 Bustic - - - - - - - - - - - D C .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44
Baboen - - - - - - - - - - Virola surinamensis (Rol.) D. spp. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44
Warb. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
{
30 Cedrela mexicana M. J. Roem.- 45
Bagasse - - - - - - - - - { Bagassa guianensis Aubl. - - - - -
B. tiliaefolia (Desv.) R. Ben. -
33
33
Cedar, Central
American
C. odorata L. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C. guianensis A. Juss. - - - - - - - -
45
45
Balata. - - - - - - - - - - Manilkara bidentata (A. DC.)
Balsa - - - - - - - - - - -
Chev. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ochroma pyramidale (Cav.)
34 Courbaril - - - - - - - - {
Hymenaea courbaril L. - - - - - - -
H. davisii Sandw. - - - - - - - - - - -
47
47
Urban - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36 Crabwood - - - - - - - Carapa guianensis Aubl.- - - - - - 49
Banak - - - - - - - - - - Virola koschnyi Warb. - - - - - - - - 30 Dakama - - - - - - - - - Dimorphandra conjugata
Baromalli - - - - - - - - { Catostemma commune Sandw. -
C. fragrans Benth. - - - - - - - - - -
38
38 Determa - - - - - - - -
(Splitg.) Sandw. - - - - - - - - - -
Ocotea rubra Mez - - - - - - - - - - - -
52
53
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 3
TABLE 1.— Present and potential commercial timbers of the Caribbean— Continued
Trade name Scientific name Page Trade name Scientific name Page
Timbers of similar characteristics are commonly only more favorable but almost, imperative for the
marketed in many parts of the world under a successful exploitation of the tropical forests.
common trade name. Examples of such group Consequently, species have been grouped in this
marketing are the commercial white oak, hickory, work according to the present marketing practices
and black gum timbers of the United States, which in the countries concerned when available knowl-
commonly include from two to ten or more dif- edge justifies such a grouping. Many additional
ferent species. Individual species of these and species are excluded for lack of information on
many other timbers are not available separately their physical and mechanical properties. The
on the commercial market. In the Caribbean area presently accepted groups will undoubtedly be en-
where several hundred species reach saw-log size, larged with added research and more practical
the opportunities for group marketing are not experience.
There is probably less variation between species Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale) is found widely
in any one limber group than is accepted in the in tropical America, including West Indies,
usual trade groupings used in other areas. Hence, Central America, and northern South America.
additional species can eventually be listed in many Some species, such as gommier (Dacryodes ex-
of the commercial groups without, exceeding the celsa), are confined to the West Indies, and a few,
accepted range of variability in commercial tim- such as one kind of magnolia (Talauma dode-
ber. In some instances, species listed as secondary capetala), are known from only one or a few is-
in importance can be included with the principal lands. Others, such as Honduras rosewood
species now listed under the accepted trade name. (Dalbergia stevensonii ), are restricted to Central
America? or occur also in the West Indies, as does
NOMENCLATURE Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea).
The trees and timbers of the Guianas and other
The timber trade names in this work were se- parts of northern South America for the most
lected principally by members of the interested part are different from those of Central America
governments. The author made only a few and the West Indies. Many timbers described
changes or modifications to clarify the origin of here are limited to South America (Catostemma,
certain timbers or to separate them more clearly Eperua, Goupia, Qualea, etc.). In the Guianas
from others with similar trade names. Trade are found many trees of the Amazon rain forest.
names used in the principal country of export are Trinidad, which is within sight of the continent.
preferred unless subject to confusion with the has trees of South American relationship, not
names of other timbers. The trade names accepted West Indian. However, some South American
in this work are generally in agreement with those trees extend slightly northward into Central
adopted by the British Standards Institute as America and the southern West Indies.
listed in its “Nomenclature of Commercial Tim- The section on Distribution and Habitat. of the
bers Including its Sources of Supply” (36). 1 one or more species providing each timber is based
Most tropical timbers are known by different on published information. For many species this
common names in each country or territory of section is not complete and may be subject to
origin and often by several names even within certain revisions as additional botanical classifica-
each territory. These names are sometimes vari- tions are made. Further botanical exploration
ations of connotations of the tree’s form, fruit, or will likely extend the distribution or range of
other morphological characteristics, the uses for many timbers and bring about some reclassifica-
its wood and other parts, or certain characteristic tion or combination of species. Many “species”
features of the tree or its products. Many of these have already been combined to increase the range
local names are misleading. Some are used re- of certain timbers. Further published accounts
peatedly for different species throughout the Car- of species occurrence and habitat will also allow
ibbean area. They are, on the whole, unreliable the correction of present knowledge.
and only of local value, but are listed in this work
to assist the reader in identifying local timbers TREE DESCRIPTIONS
with the preferred trade and accepted botanical
names. The section under each timber headed The Tree
The scientific names, including those mentioned should be of special interest to the forester and
incidentally, have been checked and conform to other technicians. It will help them correlate the
current usage under the International Code of other descriptive material with the botanical spe-
Botanical Nomenclature. Synonyms in use are cies where tree identity is in doubt. To the non-
also listed in the text and index. Further tax- technical reader, this information can provide a
onomic studies of tropical trees and woods may measure of the potential size and the quality of
result in slight revision of the nomenclature. products available from the trees. For example.
it should be clear to the reader that snakewood
(Piratinera guianensis), although moderately re-
DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT sistant to marine borers, does not grow to sufficient
Most tropical American tree species and tim- size, length, or in suitable form for use as marine
piling. Similarly, it is evident that Demerara
bers of related species are not uniformly dis- greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei ) is generally of ade-
tributed throughout the Caribbean area but may quate size for this use.
be arranged into several geographical groups. The text also shows the variation in tree size
Timbers found in one country may be absent from between countries and, to some extent, localities
a nearby country. Several examples will illus- and sites. Most writers tend to quote the upper
trate the main patterns of tree distribution of the size limits of trees growing on good sites rather
timbers described here. than the average or common size at maturity. De-
tailed botanical descriptions of trees do not appear
1
Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Bibliography, justified in a text primarily for the reader in-
p. 131. terested in timber products. This information is
available in other publications dealing especially 5. Quartersawed lumber cups and twists less
with the subject. in drying than flat-sawed lumber.
6. Quartersawed lumber shows up figures re-
DESCRIPTION OF THE WOOD sulting from pronounced rays, inter-
locked grain, and wavy grain more
Description of the physical characteristics of clearly than flat-sawed lumber.
each timber covered in this text is largely confined 7. Quartersawed lumber is generally more
to those macroscopic characteristics and other sup- costly to produce from the log.
erficial features easily seen by the unaided eye 8. Quartersawed lumber will surface-check
and easily understood by the average wood user. and split less in seasoning than flat-sawed
Each timber’s description is for the average of that lumber.
species or group of species. The wood of any 9. Quartersawed boards wear more evenly
species commonly varies between countries of ori- and often hold paint better than flat-
gin, from one locality to another, from tree to sawed boards.
tree, and even within the individual tree. Color Two other terms commonly used in wood de-
and grain are the most variable characteristics. scriptions are texture and grain. Texture is a
The description of the wood of each timber is term that describes the size of the vessels or pores;
a summary of the published information on that degrees of texture are very coarse, coarse, medium,
timber. Where differences between published ref- fine, or very fine. Grain is a description of the
erences exist, the most logical and generally ac- direction of the wood elements. The grain may
cepted description was used. As would be ex- be straight, wavy, or interlocked. When the grain
pected, disagreement concerning color and texture is straight, the fibers run parallel to the main axis
occurs most often. This is attributable in part of the tree and generally more or less straight to
to variation in the timber and in part to the lack the length of sawed lumber. Wavy grain, some-
of established standards for judging these prop- times termed curly grain, undulates back and
erties. forth across the surface of lumber. In interlocked
Descriptions frequently refer to tangential or or roey-grain timber, the. direction of the fiber
radial surfaces and transverse or end grain. alinement alternates at intervals, resulting in a
Tangential surfaces of boards or other specimens ribbon figure on the quartersawed surface. Split-
are those more or less parallel or tangent to the ting specimens having interlocked grain reveals
growth rings of the trees. Radial surfaces are at an uneven surface on the radial plane.
right angles to the growth rings. Transverse or
end-grain surfaces are perpendicular to the main
axis of the tree. Thus, if a board is cut from the WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
perimeter of a log, parallel to the growth rings, Solid wood with all air and moisture excluded
the wide surface of the board will be termed the is about 1.5 times the weight of water, regardless
tangential surface, the edges of the board will be of the species. The fact that the dry wood of most
radial surfaces, and both ends will show trans- species floats in water demonstrates that a large
verse or end-grain surfaces, sometimes called the part of wood consists of cell cavities and pores.
cross-sectional surfaces. Consequently, variations in the size of cell open-
Correspondingly, boards cut parallel to the per- ings and in the thickness of cell walls result in
imeter or growth rings of the tree are termed some species having more wood substance than
“flat-grained,” “flat-sawed,” or “plainsawed.” others and, thereby, a higher specific gravity or
Those cut across or at right angles to the growth weight. Specific gravity is thus a direct index of
rings are termed “quartersawed” or “edge- the amount of wood substance a piece of dry wood
grained” lumber. Certain advantages and dis- contains.
advantages are inherent in either plainsawed or Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the
quartersawed lumber (242). The principal differ- weight of a given volume of wood to that of an
ences are as follows: equal volume of water. The weight and volume
1. Flat-sawed lumber generally reveals better of wood change with the shrinkage and swelling
figure patterns resulting from growth caused by changes in moisture content. The
rings than quartersawed stock. weight changes with moisture content both above
2. Flat-sawed lumber is less subject to loss of and below the fiber saturation point (around 30
percent). However, volume changes only in wood
surface appearance and reduction in below the fiber saturation point, as shrinkage does
strength by round or oval knots or shakes not begin until this point is reached. Hence, a
and pitch pockets. figure for the specific gravity of wood is meaning-
3. Flat-sawed boards shrink less in thickness less unless it includes the moisture content at which
and more in width than quartersawed the weight and volume of the wood were deter-
boards. mined in arriving at the specific gravity figure.
4. Flat-sawed stock is less subject to collapse Specific gravity is commonly calculated on two
in drying than quartersawed lumber. bases: (1) True specific gravity; and (2) nomi-
nal specific gravity. True specific gravity is to the moisture content in question. Thus, by
generally based on the volume and weight of wood quoting the nominal specific gravity based oh
in either the air-dry or the green condition. Nom- green volume and ovendry weight, the reader is
inal specific gravities are usually based on volumes able to compute the true specific gravity for wood
when green and weights when ovendry. This at any moisture content.
specific gravity is based on conditions that could The weight of wood per cubic foot is determined
never occur simultaneously. However, true by multiplying true specific gravities by 62.4, or
specific gravity can be calculated from nominal by multiplying nominal specific gravities by the
specific gravity with perfect accuracy for wood product of 62.4 times the sum of one plus the
of any moisture content above the fiber saturation moisture content, of the specimen at the time of
point, (green timber), and with fair accuracy be- test. The weight per cubic foot for each timber
tween the fiber saturation point and air-dry by when air dry at about 12 percent moisture content
simply increasing it by a percentage corresponding and when green is given in table 2.
TABLE 2.— Specific gravity and weight of Caribbean timbers
Specific gravity based Weight per cubic

on— foot
Trade name Scientific name
Green Air-dry
volume and volume and Green Air dry
ovendry weight
weight
T ABLE 2.— Specific gravity and weight of Caribbean timbers— Continued,
Specific gravity based Weight per cubic

on– foot
Green Air-dry
volume and volume and Green Air dry
ovendry weight
weight
Pounds Pounds
Kurokai ------------------------------- { Protium decandrum
P. schomburgkianum
-------------------------------
-----------------------------
0. 53
. 48
0. 64
. 53
50
56
40
33
Kwarie------------------------------ { V. tomentosa
Vochysia guianensis -----------------------------
---------------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - -
. 40 . 54
. 43
67
67
34
27
Lignumvitae - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {G.Guaiacum
sanctum
officinale -----------------------------
------------------------------------------
} - - - - - - - - - 1. 28 - - - - - - - - 80
Magnolia---------------------------- Talauma dodecapetala-------------------------------- . 59 . 64 72 44
Mahoe------------------------------ Hibiscus elatus ------------------------------------ - - - - - - - - - - . 75 - - - - - - - - 47
Mahogany, Honduras: Swietenia macrophylla
Forest-grown - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 45 . 53 44 33
Plantation-grown --------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 42 . 50 40 31
Mahogany, West Indies ------------ Swietenia mahagoni ----------------------------- . 56 77 68 48
Manbarklak------------------------- Eschweilera subglandulosa------------------------- . 87 1. 08 78 67
Manni------------------------------ Symphonia globulifera -------------------------- . 58 . 72 67 44
Manniballi -------------------------- Inga alba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 57 - - - - - - - - 36
Marblewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Marmaroxylon racemosum -------------------- - - - - - - - - - - 1. 15 - - - - - - - - 72
Marish------------------------------ {Licania buxifolia -----------------------------------
L. macrophylla - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. 88
. 76
1. 09
. 93
75
71
68
58
Mora---------------------------- {Mora
M.
excelsa ----------------------------------------
gonggrijpii --------------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - -
. 78 1. 00
1. 03
77
- - - - - - - -
62
64
Nargusta---------------------------- Terminalia amazonia ---------------------------- . 66 . 80 71 50
Pakuri - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Platonia insignis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 80 50
{ }
- - - - - - - -
Swartzia jenmanii --------------------------------
Parakusan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - S. polyphylla - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 78 - - - - - - - - 49
S. schomburgkii -----------------------------------
Pine, Caribbean ------------------------ Pinus caribaea ------------------------------------- . 65 . 77 57 48
Podocarp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Podocarpus coriaceus --------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - . 51 41 32
Purpleheart - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {Peltogyne pubescens ----------------------------
P. venosa var. densiflora ----------------------
. 74
. 75
. 87
. 87
75
77
54
54
Resolu - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chimarrhis cymosa ------------------------------ . 75 - - - - - - - - 47
Roble - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {Tabebuia
T.
rosea ------------------------------------
heterophylla ------------------------------------
. 49
. 58
. 58
. 67
56
59
36
42
Rosewood, Honduras ----------------- Dalbergia stevensonii --------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - 1. 00 - - - - - - - - 62
Saman - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pithecellobium saman -------------------------- . 48 . 56 51 35
Santa-maria ---------------------------- Calophyllum brasiliense ----------------------- . 52 . 61 51 38
Sara - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Vouacupoua macropetala ---------------------- - - - - - - - - - - . 93 - - - - - - - - 58
Simarouba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - { Simarouba amara
S. glauca }
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 38 . 44 40 27
Snakewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Piratinera guianensis --------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - 1. 20 - - - - - - - - 75
Sterculia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sterculia pruriens --------------------------------- . 44 . 59 53 37
Suradan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hyeronima laxiflora ------------------------------ . 65 . 79 74 49
Tabebuia, white ----------------------- Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla- - - - - . 55 . 68 65 42
Tatabu----------------------------- Diplotropis purpurea --------------------------- . 78 . 93 78 58
Tauroniro - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Humiria balsamifera --------------------------- . 66 . 80 67 50
Teak: Tectona grandis
Forest-grown - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 68 62 42
Plantation-grown --------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------- . 69 63 43
Tonka------------------------------ Dipteryx odorata ---------------------------------- . 89 1. 08 81 67
Wacapou---------------------------- Vouacapoua americana ------------------------ . 79 . 95 75 59
Wallaba------------------------------ Eperua falcata ------------------------------------- . 78 . 93 76 58
Wamara------------------------------ { Swartzia leiocalycina ----------------------------
S. benthamiana ------------------------------------
. 87 1. 06
. 88
75
- - - - - - - -
66
55
Yemeri -------------------------------- Vochysia h o n d u r e n s i s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 37 . 45 67 28
Yokewood - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Catalpa longissima ------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - . 80 - - - - - - - - 50
1
Wood selected for export generally weighs 7 to 10 pounds per cubic foot air-dry with a specific gravity of 0.11 to 0.18
based on air-dry volume and weight.
Table 2 also carries both the nominal specific Table 3 groups the different timbers according
gravity based on green volume and ovendry to their ease of air-seasoning. The timbers,
weight of wood and the true specific gravity divided into three groups, are rated on the time
based on the air-dry volume and weight of the tim- required for each to season and the amount and
ber. Several different specific gravity values are severity of defects that normally occur. Of neces-
often reported in the literature for each timber, sity, only a small number of groups are used.
and sometimes cover a considerable range. This Thus, where two timbers are quite similar, one
is to be expected as many factors are included that may fall in the bottom of one c ass and the other
influence the density of wood, Density often in the top of the next lower class. This is un-
varies considerably between sites and country of avoidable. To a marked extent, the grouping
orgin and, as many of the timbers have extensive presents the average air-seasoning; it does not
distribution, a covsiderable range in density is ex- cover the possibilities of improving the seasoning
pected. The specific gravities and weights in table qualities of the different timbers by bettering
2 are, therefore, the averages of the individual seasoning practices.
published results from the areas included, Many timbers are degraded during seasoning
Most specific gravities and weights per cubic because of an excessive rate of drying. This can
foot quoted in the tables and text for air-dry wood be largely overcome by reducing air circulation;
are based on a moisture content of 12 percent. that is, by closer piling, by use of thinner stickers,
The change between 12 and 15 percent moisture and by placing shields or covers on one or more
content is so minor that no reference is made to the sides of the lumber stacks. Other factors such as
few data based on the higher moisture content. sticker spacing, width of lumber stacks, and ex-
Some difficulty is encountered in listing specific posure to sun or rain are important in the drying
gravities and weight per cubic foot for the wood rate and amount of seasoning defect.
of those timbers with two or more species. Where End splitting and end checking occur during
the difference between species is great, the gravity the seasoning of some timbers. But these faults
and weight are cited for each species. In other may be prevented by coating the ends of boards
cases, these are combined and represent the timber with a moisture-resistant paint, pigments, waxes,
group. Where this information is available for or other material to prevent the over-rapid loss
only one or two species of a trade group, it is stated of moisture at these places. A commercial mix-
for the individual species rather than the entire ture of asphalt and plastic roof coating has been
group. used by the Tropical Forest Research Center with
SEASONING excellent success; when end-coated with this ma-
terial, 60 species of tropical hardwoods were
Wood can be air-seasoned in the open or kiln- seasoned with no appreciable end defect. The
seasoned in dry kilns using artificial heat and nailing of end cleats or narrow wooden strips to
humidity. Few dry kilns are available in the the ends of boards or planks is of only limited
Caribbean area so most lumber is air-seasoned. value in air-seasoning; during kiln-seasoning this
Because of their diffuse porous nature, tropical practice can even cause end splits to develop or
hardwoods generally season with less defect than extend.
most ring porous woods in the temperate zones. The humidity and temperature conditions in
The tropical climate of the Caribbean area pre- the Caribbean area are very favorable for the
sents both favorable and unfavorable conditions development of sap-stain fungi in logs and lumber.
for air-seasoning. One combination bringing The best ways to prevent this type of damage are
about favorable conditions is high temperature early conversion of logs after felling or storage of
and relative humidity throughout the year that logs under water. The application of antiseptic
allow continuous and uniform drying. This re- sprays to ends and places from which the bark
duces the possibility of serious surface checking, is removed will also protect most species of logs
end splitting, cup, bow, and other seasoning for 1 or 2 months if wood-infesting insects are
defects. not prevalent. Unfortunately, insects are a prob-
On the other hand, lumber piles should be lem in tropical areas. To prevent their entry
roofed or under some cover for successful air- into logs and the transmission of fungi to the
seasoning; otherwise, the frequent tropical rains wood, applying an insecticide to the log is also
may prevent any appreciable amount of drying necessary. In some species, adding an end coating
during the rainy season or, for that matter, any
time of the year. When properly protected from is also required to prevent seasoning checks
ram, lumber will season through out the year in through which insects or fungi can enter (242).
most areas of the American tropics. Under cover, Molds and stains are confined largely to the sap-
lumber 1¼ inches thick will usually air-season in wood; their colors vary. Molds are not responsi-
2 to 6 months. Lumber will normally air-season ble for much staining. The discoloration caused
to a moisture content between 15 and 20 percent, by them is mostly superficial and largely due to
depending on the species, location, and time of the cottony or powdery surface growths easily
year. removed by brushing or light surfacing.
T ABLE 3.— Caribbean timbers grouped as to their ease of air-seasoning
Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name
Stains resulting from sap-staining fungi pene- or results in excessive seasoning degrade from the
trate into the sapwood (not heartwood) and can- too rapid loss of moisture during the early stages
not be removed by surfacing. The discoloration of drying. Stain may also be controlled by dip-
of the wood is visible as specks, spots, streaks, or ping, spraying, or brushing the wood with anti-
patches. At times it can be seen throughout the septic solutions, such as chlorinated phenols,
entire sapwood layer. Shortly after the lumber organic mercury compounds, and borax. Numer-
is cut from the logs, it may become infected by ous commercial products are also on the market
airborne fungi. Stains develop rapidly and for this use. Early treatment is imperative : once
noticeable discoloration may be evident within 24 sap stain is established it cannot be controlled by
hours after conversion. treating the wood surface with chemicals. Rapid
Stain may be controlled by piling products air-seasoning or kiln-drying below 20 percent
immediately after conversion., so that the wood’s moisture content is the most effective control
surface dries rapidly. This is often impractical, measure once sap stain is present.
Most information on kiln-seasoning of Carib- shrinkage. Shrinkage to 10 percent and 20 per-

bean timbers has been developed by the Forest cent moisture contents amounts to 2/3 and 1/3 of the
Products Research Laboratory in England. Fre- total shrinkage respectively.
queut reference is made in this text to the kiln Wood generally shrinks about twice as much in
schedules recommended for different, timbers in the direction of growth rings (tangential) as
their “Kiln Operator’s Handbook” (222). One of across the growth rings (radial) and very little
their more recent publications, No. 42, provides along the grain (longitudinal). Consequently,
new schedules for faster drying and more severe wood that contains cross grain (interlocked) or
kiln conditions. Any reader interested in kiln- irregular grain will shrink more longitudinally
seasoning of tropical American timbers should ac- than straight-grained wood because of the tangen-
quire these publications for details on kiln tial and radial surfaces. The total shrinkage in
schedules and recommended operating techniques. all directions quoted as one sum is termed volu-
The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, metric shrinkage.
Wis., also lists kiln schedules in its report D-1791 The relationship of radial shrinkage to tan-
that may be used for tropical hardwoods by ex- gential shrinkage is often an indication of the
perienced kiln operators. inherent tendency of a wood to cup and other-
wise distort during seasoning. Generally, woods
SHRINKAGE AND MOVEMENT that have a low ratio of tangential to radial
shrinkage season with less cupping and other de-
Freshly sawed lumber contains from 30 to more fects than woods with a higher ratio. Likewise,
than 300 percent water, based on the ovendry because of the greater shrinkage in the direction
weight of the wood. The percentage of moisture of the growth rings, “flat-sawed” or “plainsawed”
varies according to species. In the green con- boards are more a t to cup and surface check
dition, dense, close-grained wood contains less than “quartersawed” or “edge-grained” boards.
moisture than open-grained, less dense wood. As Flat-sawed boards are also subject to greater
an example, very heavy woods often contain 30 to shrinkage across the surface and less in thick-
40 percent moisture in the green condition, com- ness than quartersawed boards.
pared to as much as 300 percent or more in some I n genera!, heavier pieces of wood shrink
very light woods such as balsa. more than lighter pieces of the same species.
Water is present in wood in two forms; as free There are, however, many exceptions where heavy
water in the cell cavities and intercellular spaces species shrink less than those that weigh less and
of the wood and as absorbed water held in the where lightweight woods have large shrinkage
walls of the wood elements. When the free water values. Recent studies at. Yale University (250)
is removed but all the absorbed water remains in show that tropical woods, with few exceptions,
the cell walls, the wood is said to hare reached the undergo lower shrinkage than United States
fiber saturation point. This condition occurs at woods of similar density. They found no cor-
about 30 percent moisture content but may vary relation between volumetric shrinkage and spe-
considerably between species. Shrinkage does not cific gravity, indicating something other than
occur in wood until this point has been reached. weight was the dominant factor controlling
However, as a piece of wood dries, the outer part shrinkage.
is reduced to a moisture content below the fiber Shrinkage during drying is to some extent a
saturation point sooner than the interior. Con- criterion of subsequent shrinkage and swelling
sequently, the whole piece may show some shrink- that will occur in the wood as a result of changes
age near the surface before the average moisture in atmospheric conditions. Wood is exposed to
content reaches the fiber saturation point. continuous daily and seasonal changes in relative
Wood shrinks as it loses moisture below the fiber humidity. Its tendency to absorb or give off
saturation point. Wood that, has reached the air- moisture to come into balance with the surround-
dry condition at. 15 percent moisture content has ing air is accompanied by swelling or shrinking
undergone about half the shrinkage possible. For of the wood. This movement may be in the same
each 1 percent loss of moisture-below the fiber proportions as the initial shrinkage in seasoning.
saturation point (30 percent moisture content), In the absence of specific movement values, it IS
wood shrinks about, one-thirtieth of the total pos- reasonable to assume a dimensional change of one-
sible shrinkage. Shrinkage values are normally thirtieth of the shrinkage from green to oven-
calculated and reported as the total shrinkage dry for each l-percent change in moisture content.
from green to ovendry wood, and expressed as a However, recent studies at the Forest Products
percent, of the original green volume. Research Laboratory in England show that all
For Caribbean timbers, shrinkage values are woods do not undergo dimensional changes in
presented on this basis in table 4, and in the sec- response to changed atmospheric conditions in
tions discussing shrinkage of the timbers in the proportion to their initial shrinkage values (108).
text. Shrinkage from green to 15 percent moisture They found that some woods shrink appreciably
content (the air-dry moisture content often used in drying, yet may undergo comparatively small
for timbers in this area) amounts to half the total dimensional changes in use.
T ABLE 4.— Shrinkage properties of Caribbean timbers
Shrinkage-green to ovendry

Radial Tangential Longitu- Volumetric
dinal
Percent Percent Percent Percent

3. 6 7. 1 0. 24 10. 6
4. 6 8. 2 . 16 14. 0
5. 3 12. 4 - - - - - - - - - - 17. 6
5. 2 6. 6 . 09 10. 2
6. 3 9. 4 . 23 16. 9
3. 0 7. 6 . 47 10. 8
4. 8 13. 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. 4 11. 7 - - - - - - - - - - 17. 1
6. 6 8. 0 . 16 13. 2
4. 1 4. 9 - - - - - - - - - - 8. 9
4. 5 8. 5 . 27 12. 7
4. 1 7. 6 . 51 14. 8
3. 1 7. 6 . 10 10. 4
3. 7 7. 6 . 26 10. 4
4. 1 6. 4 . 24 10. 5
8. 2 9. 6 - - - - - - - - - - 16. 8
4. 4 8. 4 . 08 11. 4
3. 7 7. 9 ----------- - - - - - - - - - -
4. 0 7. 7 . 14 12. 7
2. 3 3. 6 - - - - - - - - - - 8. 6
2. 7 4. 5 . 48 7. 3
3. 6 7. 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4. 5 8. 0 8. 18 12. 6
4. 2 6. 8 - - - - - - - - - - 10. 7
4. 8 8. 2 . 07 15. 4
2. 5 8. 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. 1 4. 2 - - - - - - - - - - 7. 6
2. 4 4. 2 . 42 6. 6
4. 6 5. 4 - - - - - - - - - - 6. 9
5. 8 10. 3 . 28 15. 9
5. 7 9. 7 . 15 15. 6
3. 1 7. 2 - - - - - - - - - - -----------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14. 3
7. 5 11. 7 . 21 17. 2
6. 8 10. 6 . 31 16. 2
6. 9 9. 8 . 36 18. 8
4. 8 7. 9 . 18 12. 7
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17. 3
6. 3 7. 8 - - - - - - - - - - 12. 9
5. 8 8. 4 - - - - - - - - - - 13. 2
3. 6 6. 1 . 16 9. 5
4. 1 5. 5 . 28 9. 7
2. 9 4. 6 . 34 7. 2
2. 9 4. 4 . 26 7. 1
4. 8 7. 1 . 03 12. 3
2. 3 5. 0 . 27 8. 0
5. 7 9. 2 13. 6
5. 3 9. 4 . 34 14. 4
5. 8 7. 7 13. 7
4. 6 7. 0 . 15 11. 8
7. 2 9. 7 . 09 15. 7
2. 3 4. 2 6. 8
2. 1 4. 6 . 37 5. 1
5. 0 7. 6 . 13 12. 0
4. 9 6. 9 . 12 13. 0
3. 6 6. 9 . 17 10. 0
- - - - - - - - - - ---------- 13. 3
2. 0 8. 0 . 17 9. 8
1
From Dalbergia sp.
Several factors may be responsible for this As it dries, wood increases in strength (260) but
phenomenon; the most apparent is the difference not until the fiber saturation point is reached.
in the fiber saturation point between species. However, not all strength properties are increased
Those woods having a low fiber saturation point with a decrease in moisture content. In fact,
are likely to shrink or swell more than woods hav- toughness or shock resistance, which is dependent
ing a high fiber saturation point. Another factor upon both strength and pliability, sometimes de-
is the range in moisture content of the different creases as the wood dries. This is largely due to
woods at any given range of atmospheric mois- the inability of dry wood to bend as far as green
ture conditions. The method of seasoning may wood before failure, even though it will sustain
also affect. the initial shrinkage. It may cause col- a greater load.
lapse or honeycombing, and thereby change the In general, the strength of wood increases about
wood structure enough so that subsequent move- in proportion to the increase in specific gravity.
ments do not correspond to the initial shrinkage Thus, in most woods, the heavier of two pieces or
values. Other minute but important cellular species at the same moisture content will be supe-
changes may also occur in seasoning that may alter rior in most strength properties. Yet there may be
the wood’s response to changes in moisture marked differences in certain specific properties
content. between timbers of the same weight due to differ-
Shrinkage and movement values have practical ences in the structure of the wood. This point is
application in determining the proper moisture illustrated by the toughness of ash compared to
content for woods used in different conditions. other woods of similar weight.
Movement values are often important in the selec- Strength tests of 126 tropical American hard-
tion of wood for certain uses. The preference for woods, conducted at Yale University (250), show
teak for ship decking is a prime example of this. that tropical timbers in the green condition are
usually superior in bending strength, crushing
STRENGTH PROPERTIES strength, and a number of other properties to hard-
woods of similar density growing in the United
The uses for many timbers are based largely on States. After seasoning, however, the tropical
their strength or mechanical properties. Tests woods generally show less improvement in most
of mechanical properties have been conducted on strength properties than domestic woods. As a
most of the Caribbean timbers discussed in this result, tropical woods lose much of their superi-
report. Tables 10 and 11 in the appendix present ority in strength over woods from the United
results of tests for green and air-dry wood for States after air-drying. Also tropical woods are
most of the timbers covered in the text. For com- commonly lower in cleavage and tension perpen-
parison, data for a number of well-known woods dicular to the grain when air-dried than when
from Europe and the United States are also green.
included. The strength properties cited in the tables and
Tests were made on small clear specimens 2 by 2 discussed later in the timber descriptions are listed
inches or smaller in cross section and of specific below. The descriptions are largely from the
lengths, according to the test specifications. Wood Handbook (242) and Technical Bulletin
Standard testing procedures of the American So- 479 (160) prepared by the U.S. Forest Products
ciety for Testing Materials or the “Monnin Sys- Laboratory.
tem” as used in most European countries were Fiber stress at proportional limit in static bend-
followed (13). Actually, these values are not safe ing.— This property is the measure of the com-
working stresses because they were obtained for puted stress at, which the strain (or deflection)
material free from all defects, such as knots, becomes no longer proportional to the stress
checks, shakes, and distorted grain that have an (load). It is, therefore, the stress load) at which
appreciable effect on the strength of seasoned tim- the load-deflection curve departs from a straight
ber. line. This is the upper limit to the stresses or
Anyone designing timber structures will find loads that can be used in. the design of permanent
table 12 in the appendix of some value, as it shows structures.
the maximum allowable stresses for certain tropi- Modulus of rupture in static bending.— This is
cal timbers under different circumstances. Data a measure of the capacity of a beam to support a
for these tables were taken from J. Ph. Pfeiffer’s slowly applied load for a short time. Of particu-
“De Houtsoorten Van Surinam” (Surinam Tim- lar importance in timbers subject to transverse
bers), v. 2, pp. 192-193 (175). The conversion bending, it is used to determine the safe working
from kilograms per cubic inch to pounds per cubic stresses (loads) for timbers of different species
inch was computed in the Central Secretariat of and with certain defects.
the Caribbean Commission (50). Any changes Modulus of elasticity in static bending.— A
in species botanical names from those listed by measure of stiffness or rigidity. In a beam, the
Pfeiffer were made in accordance with a more modulus of elasticity is a measure of its resistance
recent publication by the Surinam Forest Service. to deflection (bending); hence, the greater the
stiffness the less the deflection. It is useful for grain by the wood. It is useful in comparing
computing the deflection of beams, joists, and species and for estimating the resistance of timber
stringers under loads that do not cause stresses to forces acting across the grain.
beyond the proportional limit. It, is also used in Shear (parallel to the grain) .– A measure of the
computing the load that can be carried by a long ability of timber to resist slipping of one part
column. upon another along the grain. It is an important
Work to proportional limit in static bending.` property in beams, where the stress tends to cause
A measure of the energy absorbed by a beam when the upper half of the beam to slide upon the lower
it is stressed to the proportional limit. While the and in timbers fastened by bolts and other con-
values cannot, be used directly in strength calcula- nectors.
tions. they are a comparative measure of the tough- Cleavage.–The maximum load required to
ness of a piece to the elastic limit. It is also a cause splitting. It is an important factor where
value by which different species can be compared timbers are nailed or bolted. However, a low
in their ability to absorb shock without permanent cleavage value can be advantageous where timbers
damage. must, be split prior to use.
Work to maximum load in static bending.– Toughness.– A measure of the ability of a wood
The ability of timber to absorb shock with some to withstand shock or impact loads. It is a means
permanent deformation and more or less injury to of comparing species and of selecting stock of
the timber. It is a measure of combined strength known properties, particularly when used in con-
and toughness of wood under bending stresses, and junction with specific gravity.
is of particular importance where timbers are
subjected to considerable bending under heavy WORKING PROPERTIES
loads.
Fiber stress at proportional limits in compres- The working properties of the different timbers
sion parallel to the grain.-The greatest stress at are often an important factor in their selection
which the compressive load remains proportional for specific uses. These properties are important
to the shortening of the specimen. This property when either hand or machine tools are used, for
helps to determine safe working stresses for short timbers vary in their workability as they do in
columns as well as design values for bolted joints other properties. The section on working proper-
and similar values. ties for each timber summarizes the published in-
Maximum crushing strength in compression formation concerning the various operations in
parallel to the grain.– The maximum capacity of woodworking. Unless otherwise stated, the de-
a short, piece to withstand loads applied on the end scriptions are for air-dry timber, ordinarily from
grain. It is a means to estimate the endwise 12 to 18 percent moisture content. One general
crushing of wood in short structural timbers, de- exception are the tests at the U.S. Forest. Products
sign of bolted joints, and other similar uses in the Laboratory in which wood was seasoned to 6 per-
development of safe working stresses. It is of cent moisture before testing (68).
considerable importance where short columns or Table 5 lists the different timbers by their work-
props are to be used. ing qualities, including the ease with which the
Modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to timbers can be sawed or machined, as well as the
the grain.– A measure of stiffness useful in cal- quality or grade of the machined surface. A wood
culating the strength of long columns. that works with considerable ease but produces
Hardness.– Represents the resistance of wood many defective pieces would not be classed as a
to wear and marring. Values are presented for timber that is “easy to work.” However, the more
end-grain surfaces and side-grain surfaces. Side- dense woods tend to be more difficult to machine.
grain values are the calculated average for the In the absence of a specific method for rating
radial and tangential surfaces combined. Hard- the different working properties, the ratings are
ness is important when timber is used for such based on the general opinion and experience of
purposes as flooring, furniture, paving blocks, woodworkers and research technicians as reported
bearing blocks, and railway ties. in various publications. Consequently, a timber
Compression perpendicular to grain-fiber stress at the bottom of one class may not be much dif-
at proportional limit.– The maximum across-the- ferent from one in the top of the next lower class.
grain stress of a few minutes duration that can be The machining tests on Caribbean timbers hare
applied through a plate covering only part of a usually been made under standard working con-
timber surface without causing injury to the tim- ditions on commercial machines. Ordinarily de-
ber. It is especially useful in deriving safe work- veloped for timber of average properties, these
ing stresses for computing the bearing area for working conditions are often not entirely suitable
beams, stringers, and joists and in comparing for very dense or light timber, or for those woods
species for railway ties. having a particular machining problem. Conse-
Tension perpendicular to grain.– An expression quently, the working properties of many timbers
of the average maximum stress sustained across the can be improved under different or special ma-
TABLE 5.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their working properties
chining conditions. Changing the cutting angle, least. it seems unlikely that machining difficulties
feed rate, spindle or rim speed, or using special would restrict their use much” (68).
cutters or saw blades can often improve the ma-
chinability of a timber. Tests at the U.S. Forest RESISTANCE TO DECAY
Products Laboratory have indicated that “in gen-
The ability to resist decay is important when
eral the tropical hardwoods machined as well as do woods are selected for certain uses, but it is of little
our native hardwoods and with most of them at consequence where the wood will not be subject to
conditions favorable for decay. Decay is an ever- but in graveyard tests, it is sometimes very diffi-
present hazard in the tropics where the conditions cult in timbers without, well-defined heartwood to
of moisture and temperature are ordinarily ideal be certain whether the posts used contain heart-
for the development of fungi. Unless preserva- wood or sapwood. This may be the reason for
tive treatment is applied, only timbers with con- some of the discrepancies between different grave-
siderable decay resistance should be used for posts, yard tests.
poles, railway ties, foundations, and other uses. Table 6 lists the timbers by durability classes, ac-
where the timber may become damp or wet. De- cording to the published results of field and labo-
cay resistance is not important where wood is used ratory tests. Four classifications are used: Very
for furniture, cabinetwork, millwork, and other resistant, resistant, moderately resistant, and non-
interior or protected uses. Then too, wood will resistant. When authors report differences in
not ordinarily decay in exterior uses where it is tests and results, the most consistent or reliable
subject to frequent wetting, unless the construction rating is used. Timbers reported to be quite vari-
is such that the wood is prevented from drying out able in durability and those rated on the basis of
after each wetting. general reputation alone are indicated by
Most decay occurs in wood with a moisture con- footnotes.
tent above the fiber saturation point–about 30
percent moisture content. On the other hand,
wood that is continuously water soaked or con- RESISTANCE TO ATTACK BY
tinuously dry will not decay. Thus, the under- TERMITES AND OTHER INSECTS
water portion of piling and bridgework or air-dry
timber at 20 percent or less moisture content is The sections on durability in the timber descrip-
safe from damage. Wood kept at the air-dry tions contain a brief summary of the published
moisture content of 15 to 20 percent in the Carib- information on damage by wood-attacking insects.
bean area is, consequently, in no danger of decay. Unfortunately, very little information is available
However, decay is almost certain to occur if the concerning insect attack on the Caribbean timbers
construction allows any part of a board or timber except for the comprehensive laboratory tests con-
to remain wet for long periods of time. ducted by G. N. Wolcott (262, 263) on the resis-
The description in the text of the decay resist- tance of woods to attack by the West Indian
ance of each timber is based on the durability of dry-wood termite (Cryptotermes brevis Walker)
untreated heartwood, which is more durable than and a less comprehensive study of damage by sub-
sapwood. It is doubtful if the sapwood of any terranean termites of Trinidad timbers (39).
species is durable without preservative treatment. Most information on other insect damage to logs
Information on durability was available from pub- and sawed products is based on casual observa-
lished results of graveyard tests, pure culture tions and experience which, although generally
laboratory tests, and from published observations reliable, is often influenced by local conditions
on the durability of the different woods while in peculiar to a small area.
use. The most common wood-attacking insects in the
Information derived from graveyard tests, in Caribbean region are the ambrosia beetles (Scoly-
which untreated heartwood posts of tropical tidae and Platypodidae), both dry-wood and
species (either round or square) are set in the subterranean termites (Order Isoptera), and
ground and inspected periodically for decay, is powder-post beetles (Bostrychidae and Lyctidae).
available from Surinam, British Guiana, Trinidad, Ambrosia beetles, more often called pinhole borers,
St. Lucia, Panama, Puerto Rico, England, and are a common menace in green logs and lumber
the United States. The results sometimes vary and sometimes attack living trees. Both un-
between countries but are generally in good seasoned sapwood or heartwood may be attacked.
agreement. Attack by these insects is evidenced by numerous
In pure culture tests small heartwood specimens holes 1/50 to 1/8 inch in diameter, according to the
are exposed to fungal attack under closely con- species of pinhole borer responsible. Entry of
trolled laboratory conditions, and the relative pinhole borers is often associated with staining
durability of different woods is determined on the of the wood around the holes. Damage by this
basis of the loss in weight through decay. The insect is liable to be severe if logs are not con-
results of these tests at Yale University and the verted soon after felling or if they are not pro-
U.S. Forest Products Laboratory are in very good tected by insecticide sprays.
agreement. However, the results of graveyard Attack ceases when the timber is seasoned.
tests and pure culture tests are not in agreement Damage can be prevented in freshly sawed lumber
for some timbers. When this occurs, the labora- or living beetles destroyed by dipping the prod-
tory tests generally show the higher decay resist- uct in a water solution containing 0.2 percent of
ance. It appears that the laboratory tests gamma benzene hexachloride. It is also a com-
conducted under closely controlled conditions may mon practice to include in the same solution an
be the most reliable. In the laboratory, it is not ingredient to prevent sap stain and keep the
difficult to distinguish heartwood from sapwood; lumber bright.
TABLE 6.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to decay
1 2
Variable in decay resistance. Based on reputation for durability; not substantiated by research.
Subterranean termites are a more widespread serves as a means of identification. Later, small
menace in the Caribbean area than the dry-wood holes are left in the surface of the wood when the
termite. Subterranean termites develop and winged adults emerge. Powder-post infestations
maintain their colonies in the ground, but reach can be prevented or controlled by sterilizing the
their food supply by building tunnels through wood with steam or by soaking it in DDT, pen-
the earth and over obstructions to the wood above. tachlorophenol, or other suitable insecticide.
The must keep contact with the ground or perish Tropical hardwoods may also be attacked by
for lack of moisture. Although this insect often wood-boring grubs, roundheaded borers, flat-
works in obscure locations, the presence of the headed borers, and other wood-boring insects. As
above-ground tunnels signifies their presence. a rule, they are considerably less destructive than
Termites can be controlled by thoroughly poison- the insects discussed above.
ing the soil beneath and adjacent to wooden
structures, by placing barriers or shields between RESISTANCE TO MARINE BORERS
the ground and wooden members, or by using
treated or termite-resistant wood. No timber is known to be entirely resistant to
Dry-wood termites are more difficult to control marine borers or teredo. A number of Caribbean
than subterranean termites because they are able timbers do exhibit a high resistance to these marine
to exist concealed in either damp or dry wood animals. However, the service life of these timbers
without contact with the ground. Consequently, is often influenced by local conditions and the
their depredations are often severe before their particular species of marine borers present. Of
presence is noted; and once found, they are still course, resistance of timbers to marine boring ani-
difficult to exterminate except by thorough fumi- mals is important only when the timber is used
gating. Most control methods, such as dipping in salt or brackish waters. Timbers that show
infested wood in insecticides and injecting poison- high resistance to teredo in Caribbean waters are
ous dust or solutions into the nests or tunnels, are sometimes far less resistant along the Atlantic
not successful in the Caribbean areas, where these coast of the United States or in the vicinity of
insects are the most active. Hawaii. Similarly, timbers may vary in their
Attack by the winged adults can be controlled resistance between salt and brackish waters. These
by full-length treatment of all wood with wood differences are considered to be the result of dif-
preservatives or insecticides or by using wood ferent types and species of marine borers from one
having a. high natural resistance to their attack. place to another.
However, the slow volatization of many preserva- The silica content of the wood may be important
tives eventually reduces their toxicity to a point in resistance to marine borers as many of the most
where the termites can survive. In the absence of resistant woods contain appreciable amounts of
other treatments, a heavy unbroken coverage of silica. One explanation may be that the high
paint or other similar material will normally pre- silica content wears down or blunts the teeth of
vent the entrance of dry-wood termites. the boring apparatus of the mollusk, thereby pre-
The timbers are rated in table 7 according to venting his penetration into the wood. However,
their resistance to attack by both dry-wood and some nonsilicious woods exhibit considerable re-
subterranean termites. These ratings are based sistance to marine borers, indicating other factors
largely on work by Wolcott in Puerto Rico (262, may also have an effect on a timber’s natural
263) and Brooks, Adamson, Baker, and Crowdy resistance.
in Trinidad (39). Ratings not substantiated b The most practical protection for piling and
research are so indicated. In all woods examined, other timbers used in sea water is heavy treatment
their respective ratings are based on the resistance with coal-tar creosote or creosote-coal-tar solution.
of heartwood to termite attack as the sapwood of Concrete casing or metal armor that prevents the
all species is considerably more susceptible to marine borers from attaching themselves to the
attack than the heartwood. Where the published wood is also used with success.
information indicates a difference in a timber’s Resistance of the different timbers to marine
resistance to dry-wood and subterranean termites,
the lower rating was usually accepted. These dif- borers is covered in the sections on durability and
ferences are generally discussed in the sections is summarized in table 8, in which the timbers are
on insect attack of the respective timbers. rated by classes of resistance-high, moderate, and
Powder-post beetles attack either freshly cut low. This information was principally available
or seasoned wood of both softwoods and hard- from recent tests made in Hawaii, the Canal Zone,
woods, but generally prefer the sapwood of timber and along the Atlantic coast of the United States.
having pores of sufficient size for the female to Also identified in the table are timbers rated by
deposit her eggs. Larvae emerging from these reputation rather than by research, and those that
eggs burrow through the wood, leaving tunnels exhibit considerable variability in resistance to
1
/16 to 1/12 of an inch in diameter, which are packed marine borers. Further research may change
with a fine powder. The packed, fine powder many of these ratings.
TABLE 7.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to termite attack
1 2
Rating based on reputation or resistance of closely Resistance dependent on resin content in wood.
related species.
PERMEABILITY Thus, the resistance of a wood to impregnation

by preservatives is of primary importance. Un-
The preservative treatment of wood, especially fortunately, this property cannot be determined
that, used in the ground or in damp or exposed from the superficial appearance of the timber, but
locations, often lengthens the life of the wood must be gotten by carefully controlled tests in the
as much as five times. However, the treatment laboratory.
value depends primarily on the kind of preserv- Little, is known concerning the resistance of
atives used, the depth to which it penetrates into the different Caribbean timbers to the penetration
the wood, and the amount’of the preservative of preservatives. Available information on this
retained in the wood after treatment. subject is included in the timber descriptions
TABLE 8.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to marine borers
1 2
Rating based on published reputation or rating of Resistance varies according to location. Recent tests
closely related species rather than research results. indicate this timber is not highly resistant in many areas.
under Permeability. Wherever possible, refer- after thorough treatment, even though the heart-
ence is made to the ease with which a timber wood may be only moderately resistant to decay.
absorbs preservatives under both open-tank (non- Preservatives are applied by either pressure
pressure) and pressure treatments. The absence or nonpressure methods. The various nonpres-
of a section on permeability in the timber descrip- sure processes include the following : (1) Super-
tions indicates that reliable information is not ficial application of preservatives to the wood
available. with brushes or a spray nozzle or by a brief dip-
Heartwood ordinarily resists preservative treat- ping; (2) soaking in preservative oils or steeping
ment more than sapwood, although the sapwood in water solutions; (3) diffusion process using
of some timbers is also extremely resistant to pre- waterborne preservatives; (4) various adaptations
servatives. And when a sapwood resists preserv- of the hot-and-cold-bath process; (5) vacuum
atives, the wood is virtually eliminated from treatment; and (6) a number of other miscellane-
use where decay is a problem, for sapwood is ous nonpressure processes. The superficial appli-
always more susceptible to decay than heartwood. cation of preservatives with brushes or by momen-
On the other hand, posts and poles with wide eas- tary dips is used to some extent in the Caribbean
ily impregnated sapwood can give good service area and, with an oilborne preservative, may add
from 1 to 3 years to the life of wood placed acceptable only n-here the wood will not come in
in the ground. However, exposure to the weather contact with the ground or water. Preservatives
or contact with soil or water will quickly leach of this type include zinc chloride, chromated zinc
out a waterborne preservative applied by brush. chloride, Tanalith (Wolman Salts), acid copper
Such superficial treatments are most successful chromate (Celcure), and chromated zinc arsenate
in those timbers that have little resistance to (Greensalt or Erdalith). These preservatives
impregnation. leave the surfaces clean, paintable, and free from
Other nonpressure methods are used with con- any objectionable odor, but, in general, they are
siderable success, depending on the preservative, more subject to leaching when exposed to the ele-
the permeability of the timber, and the use of the ments than the oilborne preservatives. However.
treated material. Wood can be impregnated as they are generally more acceptable for inside use
successfully with the hot-and-cold-bath processes, than creosote and other preservatives in heavy
cold soaking and steeping, or some of the other petroleum oils, and give long service when not
nonpressure methods, as with the pressure pro- exposed to the elements.
cesses, if the wood has a low resistance to treat-
ment. The value of preservative treatment de-
pends on the retention and penetration achieved WOOD USES
and not on the process used. But, if the wood
resists treatment, one of the pressure processes The most common uses for each timber in the
will give better results for they have the advan- countries of origin and in the importing countries
tage of giving more uniform and dependable when applicable are included in the timber de-
treatment. scriptions. The recommended uses for each tim-
Many preservatives are used with good results. ber are also discussed in the descriptions and sum-
Coal-tar creosote, the most important and most marized in table 9. These recommendations are
extensively used, is considered the best preserva- made on the basis of the timber’s combined phys-
tive for general outdoor use in structural timbers ical, mechanical, and machining properties. Only
and for marine use, but it is not adapted for ma- those timbers most suited for each use are cited.
terial that will be painted or where its odor is although other Caribbean species could be utilized
objectionable. Where creosote is unsuitable, for the same purposes with some success.
pentachlorophenol and copper napthenate in The use made of timbers in the countries of their
petroleum oil solutions are substituted extensively. origin is generally a good indication of their use-
Pentachlorophenol in mineral spirits or other fulness and qualities, but often includes uses for
volatile light-colored solvents is gellerally used which they are not suited and may omit others
for window sash, millwork, interior trim, and for which they are most suited. Timbers are often
other material requiring clean, paintable surfaces. utilized for many purposes simply because they
Copper naphenate and pentachlorophenol in are readily available in good quantity at moderate
various grades of petroleum oil are also used ex- prices. Despite the many species growing in most
tensively for the commericial treatment of lumber, areas of the Caribbean, relatively few are produced
posts, and poles. Both preservatives provide a in commercial quantities. As a result, some woods
high degree of protection against decay and ter- are used for certain purposes only, because other
mites, but are less effective than creosote against timbers better qualified for those uses are not
marine borers. readily available. Nevertheless, the local accept-
Paintability of wood is affected by the type of ance of a timber for any specific use over a long
petroleum oil used in the treating solutions;
usually, the heavier oils of low volatility give the period indicates reasonably good service given for
best preservative service but are most likely to that purpose.
interfere with painting. The use of “bloom” pre-
servatives, such as ester gum, is required when SUPPLY
pentachlorophenol solutions are used with volatile
solvents; bloom preservatives prevent the forma- The paragraph on supply in each timber descrip-
tion of crystals on the surface of the wood after tion is based largely on information furnished by
treatment. interested governments in the Caribbean area.
In the United States, several water-repellent This in no way implies that the timbers are not
preservatives are sold under various trade names available from other Central and South American
for the treatment of millwork and other interior countries. Countries or areas having exportable
work. Containing either pentachlorophenol or quantities of the different timbers are listed in
copper napthenate, they are valued for retarding this section. Moderate quantities of some timbers
moisture changes in wood and for protection many become available from certain other Carib-
against decay and insects. bean islands and countries as the export demand
Wood preservatives used in water solution are develops, but these are not listed as exportable at
also effective against insects and decay, but are this time.
T ABLE 9.—Present and potential uses for Caribbean timbers based on their physical and mechanical
properties and accepted uses
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
Angelique Gronfoeloe Purpleheart Tatabu

Balata Kopie Roble Tonka
Bethabara Kurokai Santa-maria Tauroniro
Bullhoof Mora Sara Wamara
Bustic Parakusan Suradan Yokewood
Courbaril Pine, Caribbean Tabebuia, white
BENT PARTS OR ITEMS
Balata Determa Manni Tatabu

Courbaril Kopie Nargusta Tonka
BOAT AND SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Keel and Underwater Structural Parts
1
Angelique Greenheart, Demerara Pine, Caribbean Wacapou
Aromata Kauta Purpleheart Yokewood
Bagasse Kautaballi Santa-maria
Balata Kopie Suradan
Bethabara Lignumvitae Tabebuia, white
Bois gris Manbarklak 1 Tatabu
Courbaril Marish Teak
Determa Mora Tonka
Frames and Timbers
Angelin Determa Pine, Caribbean Tauroniro

Angelique Greenheart, Demerara Purpleheart Teak
Aromata Mahoe Roble Tonka
Bagasse Manni Santa-maria Wamara
Balata Mora Suradan Yokewood
Bethabara Nargusta Tabebuia, white
Courbaril Pakuri Tatabu
Planking
Angelique Courbaril Nargusta Saman

Bagasse Determa Pine, Caribbean Santa-maria
Cedar, Central American Mahogany, Honduras Roble Tabebuia, white
Teak
Decking
Angelique Nargusta Roble Teak

Bagasse Purpleheart Tabebuia, white Wacapou
Courbaril
Finish and Trim
Cedar, Central American Crabwood Mahogany, West Indies Rosewood

Courbaril Mahogany, Honduras Purpleheart Santa-maria
BOXES AND CRATES
Baboen Gommier Kwarie Roble

Banak Gumbo-limbo Manni Simarouba
Baromalli Haiari Manniballi Sterculia
Crabwood Hura Pakuri Yemeri
Dukali Inyak Pine, Caribbean
Encens Kereti silverballi Podocarp
See footnote at end of table.

FRAME CONSTRUCTION
Framing Members for Walls, Floors, Roofs, etc.
Angelin Determa Manniballi Simarouba

Angelique Dukali Marish Sterculia
Aromata Gommier Mora Suradan
Bagasse Gronfoeloe Nargusta Tabebuia, white
Baromalli Gumbo-limbo Pine, Caribbean Tatabu
Bois gris Haiari Podocarp Tauroniro
Broadleaf Kereti silverballi Purpleheart Teak
Bulletwood [Bustic] Kopie Resolu Wacapou
Bullhoof Kurokai Roble Wallaba
Cedar, C. A. Kwarie Saman Wamara
Courbaril Mahoe Santa-maria Yokewood
Crabwood Manni Sara
Exterior Siding, Sheathing, and Other Exposed Uses
Angelique Gumbo-limbo Pine, Caribbean Suradan

Aromata Haiari Podocarp Tabebuia, white
Baromalli Inyak Purpleheart Tatabu
Broadleaf Kereti silverballi Resolu Tauroniro
Cedar, C. A. Kwarie Roble Teak
Crabwood Manni Saman Wallaba
Determa Manniballi Santa-maria Yemeri
Dukali Mora Simarouba Yokewood
Gommier Nargusta Sterculia
Inside Sheathing
Baboen Dukali Kopie Santa-maria

Banak Gommier Kurokai Simarouba
Baromalli Gumbo-limbo Manni Sterculia
Broadleaf Haiari Manniballi Suradan
Cedar, C. A. Hura Nargusta Tabebuia, white
Crabwood Inyak Pine, Caribbean Yemeri
Determa Kereti silverballi Resolu
HEAVY CONSTRUCTION (general)
Angelin Courbaril Manbarklak Tatabu

Angelique Crabwood Manni Tauroniro
Aromata Dakama Marish Teak
Bagasse Determa Mora Tonka
Balata Greenheart, Demerara Pakuri Wacapou
Bethabara Gronfoeloe Pine, Caribbean Wallaba
Bois gris Kauta Roble Wamara
Bullhoof Kautaballi Santa-maria Yokewood
Bustic Kopic Suradan
COOPERAGE, SLACK
Baboen Banak Manni
COOPERAGE, TIGHT
Angelique Broadleaf Manni Tauroniro

Baromalli Determa Pakuri Wallaba
FURNITURE AND CABINETWORK
First Grade
Angelin Crabwood Mahoe Saman

Angelique Determa Mahogany, Honduras Santa-maria
Baboen Encens Mahogany, W. I. Tabebuia, white
Bagasse Gommier Manni Tatabu
Balata Gronfoeloe Marblewood Tauroniro
Banak Hura Nargusta Teak
Bethabara Kopie Purpleheart Wacapou
Cedar, C. A. Kurokai Roble Wamara
Courbaril Magnolia Rosewood, Honduras Yokewood
Utility Grade
Baromalli Kereti silverballi Manniballi Simarouba

Dukali Kwarie Podocarp Yemeri
FLOORING
Angelique Gronfoeloe Mora Tabebuia, white

Aromata Hura Nargusta Tatabu
Balata Kopie Pine, Caribbean Teak
Bethabara Magnolia Purpleheart Tonka
Broadleaf Mahoe Resolu Wacapou
Courbaril Manni Roble Yokewood
Crabwood Manniballi Santa-maria
Greenheart, Demerara Marblewood Sara
INTERIOR TRIM AND FINISH
Angelique Determa Kurokai Purpleheart

Baboen Encens Magnolia Roble
Banak Gommier Mahoe Rosewood, Honduras
Baromalli Gronfoeloe Mahogany, Honduras Saman
Broadleaf Gumbo-limbo Mahogany, W. I. Santa-maria
Cedar, C. A. Haiari Manni Simarouba
Courbaril Hura Manniballi Tabebuia, white
Crabwood Kereti silverballi Marblewood Teak
Yokewood
INSTRUMENTS
Bethabara Podocarp Rosewood, Honduras Wamara

Nargusta Purpleheart Simarouba
MARINE PILING AND CONSTRUCTION (UNDERWATER)

1
Teredo Infested Waters
Angelique Determa Manbarklak Suradan

Bagasse Greenheart, Demerara Marish Wacapou
Bois gris Kauta Pine, Caribbean (with
Bustic Kautaballi treatment)
Nonteredo Waters
Angelin 2
Bustic Manbarklak 2 Tatabu
Angelique Courbaril Manni Tauroniro
Aromata Determa 2 Marish Teak
Bagasse 2 Greenheart, Demerara 2
Mora Tonka
Balata Gronfoeloe Pakuri Wacapou 2
Bethabara Kauta 2 Pine, Caribbean Wallaba
Bois gris 2 Kautaballi 2 Santa-maria Wamara
Bullhoof Kopie Suradan 2 Yokewood
See footnotes at end of table.

MARINE AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION (ABOVE WATER)
Angelique Courbaril Manni Tauroniro

Aromata Crabwood Mora Teak
Bagasse Dakama Nargusta Tonka
Balata Determa Pine, Caribbean Wacapou
Bethabara Greenheart, Demerara Purpleheart Wallaba
Bois gris Gronfoeloe Santa-maria Wamara
Bustic Kopie Suradan Yokewood
Manbarklak Tatabu
MILLWORK
Angelique Dukali Magnolia Roble

Baboen Encens Mahoe Saman
Banak Gommier Mahogany, Honduras Santa-maria
Baromalli Gronfoeloe Mahogany, W.I. Simarouba
Broadleaf Haiari Manni Sterculia
Cedar, C.A. Hura Manniballi Tabebuia, white
Courbaril Inyak Pine, Caribbean Teak
Crabwood Kereti silverballi Podocarp
Determa Kurokai Purpleheart
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Balata Mahogany, Honduras Rosewood, Honduras Wamara

Cedar, C. A. Mahogany, W.I. Simarouba
Courbaril Purpleheart Snakewood
PATTERNMAKING
Cedar, C.A. Mahogany, Honduras Podocarp Simarouba

Gumbo-limbo Mahogany, W.I. Saman
POSTS AND SHORT POLES
Angelin Courbaril Manni Suradan

Angelique Determa Mora Tatabu
Bagasse Greenheart, Demerara Nargusta Teak
Balata Haiari Pine, Caribbean Tonka
Bethabara Kopie Resolu Wacapou
Bois gris Mahoe Roble Wallaba
Bustic Mahogany, Honduras Saman Wamara
Cedar, C.A. Manbarklak Santa-maria
SHINGLES
Broadleaf Gommier Santa-maria Yokewood

Cedar, C.A. Mahoe Simarouba
Crabwood Roble Wallaba
SPORTING AND ATHLETIC ITEMS
Bagasse Bethabara Parakusan Snakewood

Balata Courbaril Purpleheart Tabebuia, white
Balsa Greenheart, Demerara Roble Tonka
Baromalli Lignumvitae Rosewood, Honduras
TOOL HANDLES
Balata Courbaril Roble Tatabu

Baromalli Parakusan Rosewood, Honduras Tonka
Bethabara Purpleheart Tabebuia, white Wamara
TURNING
Angelin Greenheart, Demerara Pakuri Tatabu

Balata Lignumvitae Parakusan Tonka
Bethabara Mahogany, Honduras Purpleheart Wamara
Bullhoof Mahogany, W.I. Roble
Courbaril Marblewood Rosewood, Honduras
Crabwood Nargusta Snakewood
UTILITY POLES
Balata Bulletwood [Bustic] Pine, Caribbean Wallaba

Bethabara Manbarklak Suradan
VENEER AND PLYWOOD

Decorative
Angelin Gommier Nargusta Tabebuia, white

Baboen Gumbo-limbo Purpleheart Tauroniro
Banak Hura Roble Tonka
Cedar, C.A. Kurokai Rosewood, Honduras Wacapou
Courbaril Mahogany, Honduras Saman
Crabwood Mahogany, W.I. Santa-maria
Determa Manni Suradan
Utility Grade
Baromalli Haiari Kwarie Podocarp

Bullhoof Inyak Manniballi Simarouba
Dukali Kereti silverballi Pakuri Yemeri
Gronfoeloe Kopie Pine, Caribbean
Core Stock
Baboen Crabwood Hura Kwarie

Banak Gumbo-limbo Inyak Podocarp
Cedar, C.A. Haiari Kereti silverballi Simarouba
Yemeri
1
Timbers with known resistance to marine borers. Other timbers require preservative treatment for optimum use.
2
Also suitable for use in teredo infested waters because of varying degrees of resistance to marine borers.
TIMBER DESCRIPTIONS
ANGELIN The tree.-The trees are evergreen, unbut-
tressed with flat rounded crowns, and often ad-
Andira inermis, Andira spp. ventitious shoots. The trunk presents a ragged
appearance due to its loose, black-colored, malo-
Nomenclature. –Angelin is the preferred trade dorous bark. In British Guiana under good con-
name for the timber from several species of Andira ditions, Andira surinamensis and A. inermis
growing in the American tropics of which A. iner- frequently attain a diameter of 60 inches. Diam-
mis (W. Wright) H. B. K. (A. jamaicensis (W. eters of 20 to 28 inches, heights of 90 to 120 feet,
Wright) Urban) is the best known and most and clear boles 60 to 70 feet long are not uncom-
widely distributed. Other species sold as angelin mon. However, the trees are usually somewhat
are principally A. coriacea Pulle, A. racemosa shorter and of only moderately good form (82).
Lam., A. surinamensis (Bondt) Splitg. (A. retusa In Trinidad, angelin grows to a diameter of 40
H. B. K.), and A. wachenheimii R. Ben. Angelin inches but seldom has good form (165).
is a close relative of the rosewoods, paduks, and The wood.–Varying somewhat between species
tonka. (Legume family, Leguminosae.) and localities, the wood is generally hard, heavy,
The timber is usually known as angelin in the coarse textured, with straight to slightly irregular
West Indies islands of Guadeloupe, Dominica, grain. The narrow sapwood is pale brown to
Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, grayish yellow and usually clearly demarcated
Trinidad, and other islands in the Lesser Antilles. from the yellowish-brown to dark reddish-brown
It is commonly called koraro or batseed in British heartwood. The heartwood resembles somewhat
Guiana, rode kabbes in Surinam, moca in Puerto the color of the darker type of Honduras ma-
Rico, yaba in Cuba, and St. Martin in French hogany. Dark wavy belts of growth, crossed by
Guiana. This wood has been imported into the very definite, fine, and strong medullary rays are
United States under the trade names of cabbage visible on the cross-sectional surfaces. The pores
angelin, partridge wood, and cabbage bark. In are large and fairly evenly distributed, sometimes
England it is known as angelin and also incor- containing gummy deposits.
rectly as partridgewood, a name used also for A distinct feature of the wood is the soft tissue
Vouacapoua and more correctly applied to species that appears on the end grain as wavy bands
of Caesalpinia. Other common names used in the linking the large pores. On the flat surface of a
Caribbean area include pheasant wood, corn wood, plainsawed board, these lighter wavy bands alter-
almendro, chaperno, cuja, quira, quinillo, macaya, nate between darker fiber bands giving a palmlike
and almendro colorado. appearance similar to partridge wood. This fea-
Distribution and habitat.–Angelin occurs ture gives the wood its high figure and very decora-
throughout the West Indies and on the continent tive appearance. The wood generally has rather
from southern Mexico through Central America low luster due to the abundant parenchyma; it is
to northern South America and Brazil. The genus also somewhat fissile (190, 143, 231). Seasoned
is also represented in West Africa. Andira iner- wood has no noticeable odor or taste.
mis is the principal species in the West Indies, al- Weight. –Air-dry wood is reported to weigh 59
though the closely related A. racemosa grows in pounds per cubic foot in Surinam (231) and 45 to
Martinique and Guadeloupe and possibly other 60 pounds in British Guiana (85). Wood from
areas. In the Guinanas the principal timber species Puerto Rico weighs 47 pounds per cubic foot
are A. corincea, A. inermis, and A. surinamensis when air-dry and 74 pounds when green. Specific
(18, 50, 231). gravity based on green volume and ovendry weight
averages 0.63 in Puerto Rico.
Angelin is not exacting as to rainfall or soil Seasoning.–Angelin air-seasons at a moderate
conditions in most locations. It is a very common rate and under normal care develops only slight
tree on many sites in Cuba, Trinidad, and other degrade during the seasoning period (153, 11) .
West Indies islands, but in the Guianas it, gen- However, during the early stages of drying, the
erally occurs only in swamp and marsh forests. sapwood is very susceptible to discoloration by
In Trindad it is a rare to occasional tree on a sap-stain fungi.
variety of sites from the dry acurel-moussara Shrinkage.–Shrinkage from green to ovendry
forests to the inundated crappo-roseau type (207, is commensurate with the wood’s density, amount-
165, 82, 231) . ing to 3.6 percent, radially, 7.1 percent tangen-
27
tially, and 10.6 percent in volume. Shrinkage The wood has no resonance, making it particularly
from green to air-dry would amount to half these suitable for radio and television cabinets and other
values. In comparison with white mora and similar uses. Small amounts have been imported
dukaliballi, which are similar in weight, angelin into England for many years where it is used for
has roughly twice their radial movement in re- umbrella handles, walking sticks, police trun-
sponse to atmospheric changes, about equal tan- cheons, and other turned products. It is suitable
gential movement, a somewhat lower longitudinal for piling in nonteredo waters and has been recom-
movement, and an overall volumetric change about mended for plywood and veneer because of its
25 percent greater than either species (175, 231). attractive and unusual appearance.
On this basis, angelin is a somewhat unstable wood Supply.–Commercial supplies of this timber
when used where the relative humidity varies are available in the Guianas and Cuba, and pos-
considerably. sibly in limited quantities from other West Indies
Mechanical properties.–Pfeiffer’s calculations islands.
of the allowable stresses for Surinam timbers
(175) shows Andira coriacea comparing very ANGELIQUE
favorably with wallaba, mora, kopie, and other Dicorynia guianensis
woods of similar density. It can be assumed that
the other species of Andira also have good Angelique is not only in plentiful supply, but
strength properties. also possesses more than the usual number of valu-
Working properties.–Angelin saws and works able mechanical properties in addition to its at-
fairly well except that it is difficult to plane to a tractive appearance, good working qualities, and
smooth surface because of the alternating bands resistance to decay, insects, and marine borers.
of hard and soft tissue. Even using sharp cutting Consequently, the timber is suitable for a wide
edges, a fine ridgy appearance commonly results. range of uses; it has been used extensively to re-
This surface, called raised grain, is usually elimi- place greenheart and manbarklak in the under-
nated in the final sanding. The wood works well water parts of the Panama Canal.
in the lathe, takes nails and screws well, and glues Nomenclature. –Dicorynia guianensis Amsh.
satisfactorily. But the surface lacks luster after has also been known as D. paraensis Benth. Two
planing and sanding because of the large amount distinct types of angelique wood are recognized,
of soft tissue. This soft tissue also absorbs polish angelique rouge and angelique gris. Angelique
more readily than the hard fiber tissue and may rouge is darker in color than angelique gris but
cause some difficulty in French polishing. How- has the same physical and mechanical properties.
ever, the wood is generally reported to finish (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
smoothly (135, 231, 153). The wood is commonly known as basralocus or
Durability. –The heartwood of Andira surina- basra locus in Surinam and angelique or ébène
mensis is rated about as resistant to the dry-wood rouge in French Guiana. A frequent, substitute
termite as West Indies mahogany, while A. infor teak, the timber is also called teck de la
ermis rates somewhat below Honduras mahogany Guyane.
in this respect, (263). However, the sapwood is Distribution and habitat.–Angelique is one of
often attacked by pinhole borers and is not re- the most common trees within its range in French
sistant to termites. It is considered highly dur- Guiana and Surinam, but it, does not extend into
able in water and resistant to decay in contact with other parts of the Guianas and lower Amazon
the soil. Field tests in Surinam indicate A. Basin. It is particularly abundant in eastern
coriacea posts will last 15 years in contact with Surinam and western French Guiana, where it
moist soil and exposed to all influences in the tem- comprises up to 10 percent of the forest stands.
perate zone and at least 5 years under unfavorable The tree thrives best in deep, loamy, well-drained
conditions in the low countries of the tropics (175, soils of the lowland plains but is also found in
231). A. inermis, the moca of Puerto Rico, was wetter areas. In Surinam it is most plentiful
found to be moderately resistant to marine borers in the transition zone between the rain and savanna
in Hawaiian waters (76). forests (231). Angelique rouge is more abundant
Data on silica content, which is often closely than angelique gris, which is a comparatively rare
associated with marine borer resistance, are not tree within its range and of minor commercial
available for these species. However, the closely importance.
related species Andira surinamensis from British The tree.–Angelique is a large, well-formed,
heavy buttressed tree, reaching a maximum height
Guiana, which contains only 0.03 percent silica by
of 150 feet and a diameter up to 5 feet on the best
weight, is considered a nonsiliceous timber (14). sites. Piling 40 to 60 feet long and timbers 1 to
Uses.-Angelin is used locally for heavy con- 2 feet square and 30 feet in length are commonly
struction, bridge timbers, house framing, and available (71).
sheathing. Because of its high figure and attrac- The wood.–The sapwood of angelique rouge
tive coloration, it is best suited for turned items, has a reddish cast and is sharply demarcated from
furniture, billiard cue butts, and cabinetwork. the heartwood. The heartwood is a russet color
when first cut, turning on exposure to a lustrous sometimes insignificant differences exist for the
brown, often with a distinct reddish cast (143) . remaining properties. The comparison with teak
A pattern resembling walnut is often visible on is quite consistent throughout, indicative of the
flat-sawed or side-grain surfaces due to the similarity of the two woods from a mechanical
prominence of vessels. Growth layers are in- standpoint.”
distinct,, texture is medium, and the grain usually In the air-dry condition, angelique is superior to
straight. No distinctive odor or taste is present teak in all mechanical properties except tension
in seasoned. wood. The surface luster is very low, perpendicular to the grain. It is superior to white
but an unusual golden subsurface luster is evident oak in static-bending properties, compression
( 190 ) . parallel to the grain, and end hardness; com-
Weight. –Wood from Surinam showed a spe- parable in shock resistance, side hardness, and
cific gravity of 0.60, based on green volume and compression across the grain; and inferior to white
ovendry weight, in tests at Yale University (71). oak in shear, tension across the grain, and cleavage
The specific gravity of air-dry timber averaged resistance.
about 0.72 in the Yale tests. On this basis, air-dry Working properties.–The working qualities
wood averages about 45 pounds per cubic foot and vary according to the density and silica content
67 pounds when green at 79 percent moisture con- but are generally rated as satisfactory. The wood
tent. finishes smoothly, splits easily, glues moderately
Seasoning.–The timber is considered moder- well, and holds its place well under changes in at-
ately difficult to season but seasons rapidly (118). mospheric conditions.
It has some tendency to split, and check and to Durability.–The wood was rated durable to
warp slightly during seasoning. Thick stock very durable in resistance to a white-rot fungus,
develops severe casehardening. Close piling in and durable to a brown-rot fungus in pure culture
air-drying and the use of low temperature kiln tests at Yale University (249). This is in agree-
schedules are recommended as possible means of ment with other reports that the timber is resistant
correcting this difficulty. to very resistant, to decay (231). Generally, it is
Shrinkage.–Angelique undergoes about the considered highly resistant to all insects but not
same shrinkage as red oak and hard maple and as resistant to marine borers as angelique gris.
about twice the rate of teak, which it so closely However, Wolcott (263) rates the wood only mod-
resembles in mechanical properties. It has a volu- erately resistant to the West Indies dry-wood
metric shrinkage of 14.0 percent from green to termite.
ovendry, which is intermediate to that of maple The wood called angelique but probably angel-
and red oak; its radial and tangential shrinkages ique gris has been used extensively to replace De-
of 4.6 percent and 8.2 percent, respectively, are also merara greenheart in the lock gates in the Panama
comparable to those of red oak and hard maple. Canal, where it is reported to be considerably
Shrinkage from green to air-dry amounts to about more resistant to marine borers infesting brackish
half these values. The wood is relatively stable water than Demerara greenheart or teak (188,
when in use, as changes in moisture content are 247), but not as resistant as manbarklak. Tim-
accompanied by moderate rates of swelling or bers exposed for 15 years in the heavily infested
shrinkage. The heartwood is quite resistant to waters at Balboa in the Canal Zone have under-
absorption of moisture and is comparable in this gone only insignificant teredo attack.
respect to white oak. Results of recent published tests at the U.S.
Mechanical properties.–In the green condi- Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wis.,
tion, angelique is similar to teak in most strength showed angelique gris to contain 1.31 percent silica
properties and clearly superior to white oak. It is as compared to 0.61 percent in angelique rouge
about equal to the average for timbers of similar and 0.77 percent in angelique blanc, a form of
density in bending strength, elastic resilience, angelique rouge.
hardness, compression across the grain, shear, and Uses.-High resistance to decay and moderate
toughness. It is above average in stiffness and in resistance to damage by marine borers as well as
work to maximum load, slightly above average in its very good strength properties make angelique
crushing strength, but falls slightly below the highly accentable in marine construction for pil-
average in tension across the grain and cleavage ing, poles, posts, and other similar uses where
resistance. teredo are not a major factor. The wood is com-
Tests at Yale University report the following monly used for construction purposes, bridge floor-
results for green angelique from Surinam (71) : ing, boat framing, carriage work, and crossties.
“Comparison of the data shows a distinct margin To a limited extent, it, is also used for furniture,
of superiority over oak in bending properties ex- barrel staves, and parquet, strips and blocks. Be-
cept for work to maximum load in which the two cause of small radial shrinkage, quartersawed
species are nearly identical. Angelique is almost material is considered suitable for flooring and
50 percent stiffer than oak. Crushing strength is for boat decks, frames, planking and millwork,
also notably higher than for oak, but smaller and general building construction, and agricultural
implements. For many years, small quantities It is hard, heavy, tough, and strong but is not
have been exported to Europe, England, and the very attractive in comparison to many other trop-
United States. ical American woods (142, 179, 190, 82).
Supply.–The timber is in good supply. With Weight. –Aromata from British Guiana weighs
the exception of wallaba, it is the most plentiful from 62 to 75 pounds per cubic foot air-dry
timber in Surinam. In French Guiana, angelique with a specific gravity of 1.00 to 1.20 based on
composes about 10 percent. of the stand in the air-dry volume and weight (50). Clathrotropis
western part of the colony (91). The supply is brachypetala from Trinidad is reported to aver-
sufficient to fill all export requirements of the near age 62 pounds per cubic foot air-dry (165).
future. Seasoning and shrinkage.–Information is
lacking on seasoning and shrinkage of aromata.
AROMATA However, its high density indicates it may be
somewhat difficult to season, although the gene-
Clathrotropis macrocarpa, Clathrotropis brachypetala rally straight grain is a favorable factor.
Nomenclature. –The aromata timber of Brit- Mechanical properties.–Detailed strength
ish Guiana is supplied by two relatively little- tests for aromata are lacking, but it is generally
known species, Clathrotropis macrocarpa Ducke reported to be a very hard, tough strong wood
and C. brachypetala (Tul.) Kleinh. C. brachy- and, according to Marshall, is difficult to split
petala is also known as blackheart or mayaro under vertical compression (190, 82, 165, 179, 142) .
poui in Trinidad and C. macrocarpa as cabary, Working properties.–The wood is considered
cabarí, cabory, timbó pau, and timbó rana in Bra- only moderately difficult to work, finishes
zil. Both species have, at times, been included in smoothly, and takes a high polish.
the genus Diplotropis (190). (Legume family, Durability.–The timber is moderately resistant
Leguminosae.) to decay in contact with the ground and mod-
Distribution and habitat.–Both trees are na- erately resistant to subterranean termites (39) and
tive to British Guiana (8.2) with Clathrotropis probably has moderate to low resistance to marine
brachypetala extending into Trinidad (165), Gre- borers. The silica content, which is often as-
nada (18), Surinam, and Venezuela, and C. macro- sociated with high resistance to attack by marine
carpa having extensive distribution in Brazil and borers (14), is reported at only 0.01 percent.
reaching Colombia. Another species, C. nitida Uses.–In Trinidad the wood is preferred for
(Benth.) Harms, commonly called acapú occurs oil-derrick substructures because of its high den-
in Brazil (190) and Venezuela and might also sity, hardness, and resistance to splitting. It
grow in British Guiana and other areas. should be well suited for heavy construction,
Aromata is generally distributed throughout piling in nonteredo areas, boatbuilding, bridge
British Guiana as an occasional tree in the rain timbers, and other uses requiring a heavy, hard,
and mora forests (82). Glathrotropis brachy- strong wood where high resistance to decay or
petala is an abundant tree in the mora forests of insects is not, important.
Trinidad, often exceeded only by Mora excelsa Supply.–British Guiana and Trinidad can sup-
Benth. in numbers of large trees. The trees ply aromata for export.
stand inundation in swampy areas and thrive on
hillsides having a high rainfall, but do not occur
in dry sites or in areas of low precipitation (165). BABOEN and BANAK
The tree.–The trees are unbuttressed but bas- Virola surinamensis, Virola koschnyi
ally swollen, and usually 16 to 20 inches in dia-
meter and 90 to 100 feet. tall in British Guiana. Nomenclature.–Both banak and baboen lum-
The main stem is usually clear for 40 to 50 feet ber and plywood are the product of two very
and often somewhat flattened (82). Clathro- closely related species of Virola. Banak plywood
tropis brachypetala is a very large tree in Trini- and lumber have been exported from Central
dad, often attaining a diameter of 4 to 5 feet America and the Guianas to the United States for
but generally not, more than 80 to 90 feet in at least 30 years. More recently, a new plywood
height. The grayish-brown bark is not fissured, industry in Surinam has produced the baboen
and is fairly smooth and corky textured, with plywood of widespread use in the Caribbean and
a whitish underbark that rapidly darkens on ex- the United States (50, 226). (Nutmeg family,
posure (165). Myristicaceae.)
The wood–The sapwood is thick, sharply de- The principal difference between the well-known
fined, and yellowish to brownish white. The banak plywood and lumber and the newer baboen
heartwood is pinkish brown to dark brown with plywood appears to be not a matter of quality
lighter streaks due to the prominent vessel lines. but of species. Banak plywood and lumber has
It is straight grained, nonlustrous, and coarse principally been the product of Virola koschnyi
textured with a harsh feel but a waxy appearance. Warb., formerly known as V. merendonis Pittier.
The wood is odorless and tasteless when seasoned. The new baboen plywood industry in Surinam
COMMERCIAL TlMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN 31
uses largely V. surnamensis (Rol.) Warb. com- according to Fanshawe (82), clear of limbs for
bined with small quantities of V. koschnyi and 60 to 80 feet in British Guiana. In British Hon-
bearing the local Surinam name of baboen for duras, banak is reported to have clear cylindrical
the principal species. Banak may often contain boles for more than two-thirds of the total height,
varying amounts of baboen (V. surinamensis). often some 70 feet or more (150).
Small quantities of V. sebifera Aubl. locally The seeds of all species of Virola are rich in an
known in Surinam as Hoogland baboen or oil used for making candles and soap. Large
pientrie and V. melinonii (R. Ben.) A. C. Smith, quantities of the oil are used by industries in the
also known as Hoogland baboen, may also be Para district of Brazil, and considerable amounts
used. Both species are reported to be very closely are exported for similar uses in other countries.
related to baboen but less preferred in the ply- Cut or wounded trees exude a blood-red watery
wood industry (231). latex which is similar to the kino of commerce
Virola surinamensis is known by the following but apparently has not become an export item.
names: dalli in British Guiana; guinguamadou, The wood.—The woods of banak and baboen
yamamadou in French Guiana; baboen, banak, are very similar in appearance and physical
moonba in Surinam; cajuca, wild nutmeg in Trini- properties. Both woods resemble some of the
dad; cuajo, camaticaro in Venezuela; becuiba, light-colored mahoganies for which they are being
ucuúba in Brazil; muscadier à grive and nutlet in substituted in ever-increasing amounts. The
French West Indies. freshly cut heartwood and sapwood are indistin-
Distribution and habitat.–Banak (Virola guishable; both hare the same cream to tan color.
koschnyi) ranges from British Honduras and The heartwood darkens on exposure and drying,
Guatemala to Panama. Baboen (V. surinamen- becoming a pinkish, golden brown, or deep reddish
sis) grows in some of the southern West Indies brown, and can be distinguished from the lighter
from Guadeloupe to Grenada and Trinidad and colored sapwood. The wood has straight grain,
Tobago, and on the continent in the Guianas, Vene- medium to coarse texture, and low luster. Growth
zuela, and the Amazon region of northern Brazil. rings are not distinguishable. Seasoned wood has
Other closely related species of limited commercial no characteristic odor or taste.
value in the Caribbean area include the following : Weight.—The specific gravity based on green
V. guatemalensis (Hemsl.) Warb., growing in volume and ovendry weight is reported by Yale
extreme southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, University (248) to be 0.42 for baboen and 0.44 for
Costa Rica, and Panama; and V. sebifera, which banak. The specific gravity of air-dry wood (12
ranges from Nicaragua through northern South percent moisture content), based on volume and
America as far as Peru, Bolivia, and southern weight in that condition, averages about 0.51 for
Brazil (99,190). baboen and 0.53 for banak. On this basis, baboen
Both baboen and banak are moisture-loving weights about 32 and banak 33 pounds per cubic
trees. Baboen is very common in the swamp and foot when air-dry. The weight of green wood
marsh forests of Surinam, though somewhat less of both species is about 51 pounds per cubic foot
abundant in the latter (231). It is a frequent (15, 265, 241).
to locally common tree throughout British Guiana Seasoning.—Care is required to prevent fungal
in the riparian, mora, and marsh forests (82), growth and severe staining during seasoning,
and is extremely abundant in the low inundable which requires early piling for air-seasoning or
islands of the Amazon estuary of Brazil. where it kiln-drying after conversion. Studies at Yale
represents the majority of the larger trees (248). University (248) found the wood was easy to
Baboen occurs in Trinidad as a rare to occasional season with only slight warping and casehardening
tree in all forest types except the swampy areas, occurring during rapid drying. Other reports
where it sometimes approaches being “locally (150, 265, 222) describe the timber as having a
frequent” (165). strong tendency to cup and for material over 2
Banak is reported to grow on all types of soils inches thick to retain its moisture despite rapid
in Guatemala (191). According to Lamb (150), surface drying. This condition, plus a high
it is a frequent tree on sandy soils in the Karst shrinkage ratio and a strong tendency to split
country and in the eastern valleys of the Central radially, is said to necessitate careful handling
Mountains of British Honduras, and attains a during seasoning to avoid excessive distortion,
concentration of 5 (trees) per acre with 1/3 over deep checking, and splitting. Kiln Schedule 4 of
6 feet in girth in the best cohune forest in the the Forest Products Research Laboratory in
Stann Creek district. England is recommended (222).
The tree.–Baboen and banak are heavily but- Shrinkage. —Both baboen and banak undergo
tressed, flat-crowned trees of the upper canopy. unusually high shrinkage during seasoning-in-
They are medium to large trees, attaining under cluding an exceedingly large tangential shrink-
favorable conditions heights up to 140 feet and age. Baboen shrinkage values from green to oven-
diameters of 5 feet, but usually they are much dry of 5.3 percent radially, 12.4 tangentially, and
shorter and only 2 to 3 feet in diameter (165, 248, 17.6 volumetrically (248) are considerably above
191). The boles are generally cylindrical and, corresponding values of 4.0, 7.1, and 12.3, respec-
tively, for American whitewood and 3.5, 4.8, and exported material is used as plywood, which nearly
7.7 percent, respectively, for Honduras mahogany 200 furniture and millwork plants are using in
(160). Banak has very comparable shrinkage Puerto Rico without any noticeable machining
values of 3.0 percent radially and 9.0 percent difficulties. The wood is reported to give some
tangentially from green to air-dry (12 percent difficulty in veneer and plywood production, but
moisture content) (222), which would amount to this seems to have been overcome, judging from
approximately 4.8 and 13.4 percent, respectively, the quality of plywood received in the export.
when converted to a green to ovendry basis. The markets.
abnormally high ratio of tangential to radial Durability. —Both baboen and banak are not
shrinkage of both woods is a major factor in the resistant to decay, are very susceptible to attack
tendency for distortion during seasoning. by termites and other insects, and have little re-
Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests have sistance to marine borers (82). Wolcott (263)
been conducted on baboen (Virola surinamensis) rates the resistance of baboen to termite attack
from Brazil at Yale University (248) and on at 31, compared to 33 for balsa. Graveyard tests
banak (Virola koscknyi) from Central America in England (206), and durability tests at Yale
by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in University (248) and the Forest Products Lab-
London (15). On the basis of these independent oratory in Madison (199) found the timber to be
tests, banak is slightly stronger than baboen. The nondurable. The tests at Madison were both with
very slight superiority of banak is more or less posts set in soil and with pure laboratory cultures
in proportion to the difference in weight, although of white-rot and brown-rot fungi; those at Yale
baboen is considerably stiffer and slightly superior were of the latter only. These results verify many
to banak in static bending and work to maximum other similar reports based on experience and ob-
load (shock). servation. Graveyard tests in Trinidad showed
In the air-dry condition, both banak and baboen baboen to be very susceptible to both subterranean
are somewhat superior to yellow-poplar or Amer- termites and decay (39).
ican whitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera) in bend- Logs are subject to severe damage by pinhole
ing strength and gradually applied loads but borers (ambrosia), which can be controlled to some
somewhat inferior to that species in shock loads extent by rapid extraction and conversion or by
and crushing strength. Both woods are superior storage of logs under water. Damage by sap-
to Honduras mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) stain and wood-destroying fungi may also be seri-
in stiffness and shock resistance, but except for ous during shipment, of logs. Two insecticides,
banak’s superiorit in shear, they are below ma- Tensol and OBD, have recently given almost com-
hogany in the other strength properties tested. plete protection for 6 weeks when sprayed on logs
However, both woods are strong enough to use as immediately after felling (35). Seasoned lumber
substitutes for mahogany plywood. is reported to be subject to attack by powder-post
Working properties.—Banak and baboen work beetles.
easily and very satisfactorily. The Forest Prod- Preservation. —The timbers are easily impreg-
ucts Research Laboratory in London summarized nated with preservatives by either the open-tank
the working qualities of the lumber as follows: or pressure systems. Most of the insect, decay,
“It cuts easily with hand and power saws and a and sap-stain difficulties are presently being con-
good surface is obtained with jack and smoothing trolled in baboen by the use of chemicals in the
planes, both along and across the grain. Good open-tank method at the time of manufacture.
clear holes are readily obtained with brad, awl, Several waterborne preservatives have been suc-
gimlet, center bit, and twist drill, without tend- cessfully used for this purpose in British Guiana
ency to split. Nails and screws can be driven (50).
into the woods easily without, splitting it and hold Uses.—Baboen and banak are used mostly for
fairly well. It cuts with facility in a mortising plywood, but are suitable in lumber form for many
machine and works easily with gouge and chisel. uses requiring a light, easily worked, nondurable
The wood turns satisfactorily, though the fibers timber. In some areas of the Caribbean, these
tear slightly, and a good finish is obtainable. It woods are rapidly replacing mahogany plywood
absorbs glue well, can be stained without difficulty in the manufacture of furniture, millwork, cabinet
to resemble mahogany fairly well and gives satis- work, and for paneling and other decorative uses.
factory results in polishing and varnishing. It Plywood is exported to the United States, Central
holds its place when manufactured, does not warp America, northern South America, and through-
or check, and is free from many knots and other out the West, Indies.
defects” (111). The timbers are also used in Surinam -for the
Recent tests at the U.S. Forest Products Lab- manufacture of boxes, crates, cigarboxes, coffins,
oratory, using ¾-inch clear lumber of Virola spp., matches, and matchboxes. Baboen is used for
showed the wood to have very good planing and heavy-duty battery separators but is not suitable
sanding properties but generally below the aver- for car batteries because of the mechanical fail-
age of 14 other tropical hardwoods tested in other ure of the thin sheets. The timbers have good
machining properties (68 ). However, most of the lasting qualities below water level and are ac-
cordingly used in Surinam for foundation board- cated from the heartwood, and pale yellow to
ing below water level. In British Guiana, the yellowish white. The grain is medium to
timber is used for matchboxes, coffins, and inside moderately coarse and usually interlocked, pre-
boarding. Other uses for which the timbers are senting a rather broad striped figure on the radial
considered suitable in British Guiana are general surface. Growth layers are indistinct. Odor
carpentry, concrete forms, slack cooperage, and and taste are not evident in seasoned wood (71, 82,
core stock in veneer. 143).
Banak was imported into the United States in Weight. —Bagasse is a hard, heavy wood. The
the early “thirties” under the name of bastard specific gravity of air-dry wood at 12 percent
mahogany as a substitute for cedar in the manu- moisture content generally averages about 0.80.
facture of cigarboxes (226). The same species The specific gravity based on green volume and
was also imported from Guatemala and British ovendry weight averages about 0.68 (0.62 to 0.71).
Honduras for use in veneer as early as 1926, and Weight per cubic foot averages 67 pounds in the
possibly earlier (191). Baboen was found unsuit- green condition and 50 pounds when air-dry (12
able for shingles in Trinidad because of the wooli- percent moisture content) (71, 82).
ness that occurred during cutting (204). Seasoning.—Bagasse seasons at a moderate rata
Supply.—Baboen or banak plywood and lumber with only moderate checking and very little
are available from British Honduras, Surinam, tendency to warp. It is sometimes classed as
British Guiana, and possibly French Guiana. moderately difficult to season because of slowness
in drying. This seems to be an unjust criticism
of a timber which seasons slowly but with very
BAGASSE little degrade.
Shrinkage.—Bagasse undergoes exceptionally
Bagassa guianensis, Bagassa tiliaefolia
low shrinkage for a wood of its density. Its
Nomenclature. —Bagassa guianensis Aubl. and volumetric shrinkage of 10.2 percent from green
B. tiliaefolia (Desv.) R. Ben, are sold under the to ovendry is only two-thirds of the rate for white
trade name bagasse in the Guianas and as tatajuba oak and only slightly more than that for black
in Brazil. B. guianensis appears to be the best locust,, which is noted for its dimensional stability.
known of the two species and provides most of The shrinkage rates of 5.2 percent radially and 6.6
the information presented in this report. (Mul- percent tangentially are usually close, indicating
berry family, Moraceae.) that bagasse should season with a minimum of
The wood is also known locally as cow-wood warping and cupping. A low longitudinal
in British Guiana, bagasse blanc and bagasse shrinkage of 0.09 percent, may also be considered a
jaune in French Guiana, and gele bagasse in desirable factor that often accompanies favorable
Surinam. Other well-known members of the fam- seasoning qualities. Shrinkage from green to air-
ily Moraceae are the iroko of West Africa, the dry would be about half the above values.
fig trees of the tropics, mulberry and Osage- Mechanical properties.—The strength proper-
orange of the United States, and satine fustic, ties of bagasse in the green condition exceed those
and letterwood of Central and South America of any well-known timber in the United States.
(190). Tests of Bagassa guianensis at Yale University
Distribution and habitat.—Bagassa guianensis (71, 249) show that, although only slightly heavier
occurs infrequently in the Guianas and Brazilian than hickory, bagasse exceeds that species in all
Amazon region, while B. tiliaefolia is reported to properties for which comparable data are avail-
occur only in British and French Guiana as scat- able, except work to maximum load in static bend-
tered trees in the low upland forests. In British ing. The margin of difference is particularly
Guiana, B. tiliaefolia is fairly numerous in the prominent in elastic resilience, stiffness, and crush-
near interior and Rupunumi district, but rare in ing strength. Bagasse is superior to white oak in
the rain and seasonal forest (82). the green condition in all strength properties ex-
The tree.—Bagasse is a large, well-formed, un- cept tension across the grain and cleavage; it also
buttressed canopy tree with a flat, unbrella-shaped exceeds teak in most strength properties (160, 105)
crown. The trees are generally 20 to 24 inches in by a considerable margin.
diameter, reaching 36 inches on occasion, and 90 In the air-dry condition, bagasse compares
to 100 feet in height. The bole is cylindrical and favorably with shagbark hickory in all static-
60 to 70 feet high. The bark is fibrous and when bending properties except work to maximum load.
cut yields large quantities of a sweet, sticky latex. In this property, which is a measure of shock
The tree produces edible fruits about the size of an resistance, hickory is nearly twice as strong.
orange, which are astringent but possess a pleasing Bagasse also exceeds oak in the air-dry condition
flavor (82). in all properties except work to maximum load
The wood.—The heartwood is yellow when first (shock resistance), shear tension across the grain,
cut, often with darker streaks, becoming a lustrous and cleavage resistance.
golden brown to russet after seasoning and ex- Working properties.—Bagasse is easy to saw;
posure. The sapwood is narrow, sharply demar- difficult to split radially; it takes a high lustrous
finish and holds its place well after manufacture. durable construction is M. huberi (Ducke)
It lends itself well to natural bends for boat and Standl., one of the species known as cow-tree or
ship members. However, the wood is similar to milk-tree. Another species, M. jaimiqui (C.
hickory in hardness and requires more energy to Wright) Dubard (Mimusops emarginata (L.)
machine than less dense woods (189). Britton, Achras emarginata (L.) Little), called
Durability. —The heartwood is reported to be wild-dilly and wild sapodilla, occurs in Cuba,
very durable in resistance to both white-rot and Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and the
brown-rot fungi and is slightly resistant to damage Florida Keys. The tree is seldom more than 12
by marine borers. Tests with small specimens of inches in diameter and has no commercial im-
bagasse submerged in the ocean at Harbor Island, portance.
N.C., showed no evidence of attack by marine Distribution and habitat.—Balata is native to
borers during the first 10 months, but fairly heavy the West Indies, Central America, and northern
attack after 15 months. All test specimens were South America. It is widely distributed through
riddled at the end of 23 months and removed from the Guianas and the West Indies, Trinidad,
the test (58, 249). Weathering characteristics are Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Vincent, Dominican
considered poor; numerous checks appear when Republic, Puerto Rico, Grenada., St. Lucia, Do-
the wood is exposed without a surface covering minica, and other smaller islands in the Caribbean.
(55). The tree is also common in northern Brazil, Peru,
Uses.—The wood is used locally for general Venezuela, and Panama (18).
building purposes, heavy construction, carpentry, The tree occurs in many forest types but is best
furniture, an marine and boat construction. It is adapted in the rain forests. It is not an exacting
probably suitable for insulator pins, planking, species as to soil or topography, though it is more
decking and framing in boatbuilding, and for common on the hills and seldom plentiful on pure
furniture and cabinetwork. Because of its high sands. It occurs on most geological formations
resilience, it may also be suitable for some types of on soils varying from clays to sands, including
sporting equipment. rocky soils, providing there is sufficient soil mois-
Supply.—The supply of bagasse is not large, ture (231, 165). In Trinidad, it occasionally
but French Guiana and British Guiana should be occurs in pure stands but is more often an occa-
able to fill a reasonably large export demand. sional to locally common tree in the rain, marsh,
and seasonal forests (164).
The tree.—Balata is commonly a large, well-
BALATA formed tree reaching heights of 100 to 150 feet and
diameters of 2 to 4 feet and occasionally up to
Manilkara bidentata 6 feet or more. Buttresses are usually lacking
Nomenclature. —Balata is presently known bo- but the tree is often basally swollen (82).
tanically as Manilkara bidentata (A. DC.) Chev. The wood.—Balata wood is extremely heavy
but has at different times been classified as and hard. The heartwood is light red to rose red
Manilkara balata auth., M. darienensis (Pittier) when freshly cut, becoming light to dark reddish
Standl., and M. nitida (Sessé & Moc.) Dubard, brown upon seasoning. The sapwood is whitish or
and as Mimusops bidentata A. DC., M. balata pale brown; it is distinct but not sharply demar-
auth., M. balata var. cruegeri Pierre, M. globosa cated from the heartwood. The wood has a fine
Gaertn. f., M. riedeleana Pierre, and M. nitida uniform texture without pronounced figure. The
(Sessé & Moc.) Urban. (Sapodilla family, grain is usually straight but sometimes interlocked.
Sapotaceae.) Growth layers (not necessarily annual rings) are
The timber is known by the names of bullet- not distinct. The wood sometimes has a charac-
wood and balata in British Guiana; balata; balata teristic odor when green, but neither odor nor
rouge, and abeille in French Guiana; in Surinam taste after seasoning (71, 82, 231, 143).
as balata, bolletrie, and paardevleeschout; and in Weight.—The specific gravity of balata in the
Brazil as massaranduba and maparajuba. It is air-dry condition averaged 0.89 in unpublished
tests at the Tropical Research Center in Puerto
called purgo in Venezuela, quinilla and pamashto
Rico. According to tests at Yale University
in Peru, níspero in Panama, and ausubo in Puerto (71), the specific gravity based on green volume
Rico. and ovendry weight averages about 0.85 (0.77 to
Several other closely related species of 0.91). Weight per cubic foot averages 76 pounds
Manilkara that occur in Central America and in the green condition and around 64 pounds when
northern South America and in the West Indies air-dry (82, 231, 50, 175).
are often confused with M. bidentata. According Seasoning.-Balata is generally reported to be
to Record and Hess (190), at least five other a difficult wood to season, tending to develop
species grow in the lower Amazon region of severe checking, warp, and casehardening (231,
Brazil, all large or very large trees known as mas- 153). However, when it is piled in a manner to
saranduba or maparajuba. The best of these for assure a slow rate of seasoning, degrade is kept
to a minimum. Still, l-inch lumber air-seasoned in contact with the ground, conducted in Trinidad
to 19 percent moisture content in 4 months under (39), British Guiana (50, 82), St. Lucia (153),
cover in Puerto Rico; a small amount of degrade and Surinam (175), showed the wood to be very
occurred in the form of very slight cup, twist and resistant, to decay. In pure culture tests at Yale
crook, and slight bow, without, apparent surface University, the wood was found to be durable to
checking. very durable in resistance to a white-rot fungus
Shrinkage. —Shrinkage rates for balata from and very durable to a brown-rot fungus. Wolcott
green to ovendry are slightly above the average (263) rates the wood on the basis of tests as only
for other tropical American woods of similar den- moderately resistant to dry-wood termites, com-
sity, but are only slightly greater than those for parable to Honduras mahogany. Other observers
white oak of the United States. Balata under- rate it as highly resistant to subterranean ter-
goes a shrinkage of 16.9 percent in volume, 6.3 mites (39).
percent on the radial plane, and 9.4 percent tan- The timber has very low resistance to attack
gentially, compared to 15.8, 5.3, and 9.0 percent, by marine borers on the basis of tests in the
respectively, for white oak. Longitudinal shrink- United States and Hawaii (76). Specimens of
age of 0.23 percent compares favorable with the Manilkara bidentata from British Guiana. were
rate for other dense woods (71). Shrinkage rates heavily attacked by Bankia within 6 months at
from green to air-dry (15 percent, moisture con- Kure Beach, N.C. (71). The timber weathers
tent) would amount to approximately half these very severely, developing severe surface checking
values. when not protected by paint, (55).
The wood reaches a moisture content of 11.1 Uses.—The many good characteristics of balata
percent, in a relative humidity of 40 percent, 15.1 fit it admirably for a sizeable number of special
percent in a relative humidity of 70 percent, and uses. Its excellent steam-bending properties
27.3 percent, in a relative humidity of 100 percent. make it suitable for boat, frames and other bent
Balata reacts more slowly to atmospheric changes work. Its fine texture, density, and very good
‘than many other timbers of similar and even lower finishing properties suit it for use as shuttles,
density, because it, is extremely impermeable to loom harnesses, and certain other textile items.
moisture. However, as it gains or loses moisture However, practical tests indicate the wood has
it undergoes comparatively large dimensional insufficient resilience to replace sugar maple
changes (50, 198). (Acer saccharum) for drop-forge hammer bars or
Mechanical properties.—Balata is a very hard, as a substitute for hickory (Carya) picker sticks
strong, tough wood. Tests of material from in textile looms.
Puerto Rico, British Honduras, and Surinam at Balata is used extensively for billiard cues,
Yale University showed that, balata is generally violin bows, turnings of all types, and furniture.
comparable to greenheart, in mechanical proper- Its strength, high wear resistance, and excellent
ties in both the green and air-dry condition. It durability adapt the timber for use as sheathing,
is equal or superior to greenheart in bending boat, frames, mill rollers, and keel shoes. The
strength, shock resistance, hardness, shear, and wood has given good service as beaters, agitator
in across-the-grain properties of compression and bars, and jordan and bed plate filling in paper
tension. Balata is slightly weaker than green- mills. In two tests under normal working condi-
heart in compression parallel to the grain (crush- tions, balata showed no appreciable wear as beater
ing strength) and in elastic resilience in bending, filling, where oak (Quercus) had failed com-
and quite inferior in stiffness. The wood is de- pletely.
cidedly superior to white oak in all mechanical The wood is used for many additional purposes
properties tested except cleavage resistance in including utility poles, fence posts, heavy con-
which is it roughly two-thirds as strong as white struction, ax and tool handles, railway ties, heavy
oak (71). beams, marine and bridge construction, flooring,
Working properties.—Balata is a moderately foundations and, to a great extent, for all types
easy wood to work despite its high density. It of carpentry and joinery (50, 71, 154, 51).
machines and finishes to a very smooth surface Manilkara bidentata and other woods of the
and, similar to white oak, it, is rated as excellent genus have been shipped into the United States
in steam bending properties. Gluing balata re- for many years, but were not considered of par-
quires special care to acquire a good bond because ticular interest until 1936 when massaranduba
of its resistance to the absorption of moisture became available as a result, of clearing for the
(240, 57, 71). It. is reported to work more easily Ford Rubber plantations in Brazil. It is reported
when green than when dry (153). The wood takes to give good service as flooring in industrial
a fine polish and has the appearance of walnut plants and machine shops and in bench tops, stair
when finished. treads, and truck bodies.
Durability. —The wood has the reputation of Supply.—The timber is available from British
being very resistant to decay and insects. Inde- Guiana, Surinam, French Guiana, and Trinidad
pendent tests of durability of Manilkera bidentata and possibly other Caribbean islands.
BALSA develop a pink heartwood that is much inferior to

the sapwood. In 12 to 15 years when the trees
Ochroma pyramidale reach maturity, they are 2½ to 4 feet in diameter
and 60 to 90 feet high. After this age they de-
Balsa is the lightest commercial wood in use
teriorate rapidly, growth slows, the heartwood be-
today. In addition to being light and soft, balsa
possesses an unusually high degree of buoyancy comes waterlogged and doty, and the new growth
is hard and heavy.
and is very efficient insulation against heat and
sound; where these properties are essential, the At maturity, on the average tropical American
wood is adaptable to a great number of special site, balsa trees usually measure 40 to 60 feet in
uses. height and from 1 to 3 feet in diameter. The
Nomenclature. —For all practical purposes, largest trees occur in open places within the forests
balsa may be considered as composed of variations after clearings or in abandoned fields along water
or forms of a single species, Ochroma pyramidale courses where the soil, light, and drainage are
(Cav.) Urban. A synonym, O. lagopus SW., is in ideal. Balsa makes its best growth in loamy soils
frequent use. Several specific names have been in perfectly drained areas. The quality-in balsa
applied according to country of origin. The wood the lightness of the wood-is almost entirely de-
is known the world over as balsa, or balsa wood, pendent on the rapidity of growth, which is best
and occasionally as corkwood in the lumber trade. on fertile, well-drained, open sites. Pure stands
The name balsa, meaning “raft” in Spanish, de- often occur on burned-over areas (190, 45, 233,
veloped when the early Spanish colonists first ob- 118). Trees growing on other less favorable sites
served Indians using the wood in the construction produce wood of greater density and of little com-
of rafts. mercial value. Large balsa plantations have been
Balsa is called guano in Puerto Rico and Hon- successfully established in Costa Rica and with
duras, lanero in Cuba: doun-tree and dun in Ja- variable results in other tropical areas; planta-
maica; bois flot in Haiti, Jamaica, St. Vincent, tions in India have not been entirely successful,
and Trinidad; polak in British Honduras and while those in Java have made tremendous growth
Nicaragua; patte de lièvre in Martinique ; balsa, (45, 233, 157).
lano, and palo de lana in Venezuela; enea, piú, and Logging.—Felled trees are cut into 10- to 18-
pung in Costa Rica; lana and puero in Panama; foot lengths with good trees yielding an average of
topa in Peru; tami in Bolivia; and various other two logs after the branchy parts are eliminated.
names through its range. (Bombax family, Bom- The logs are then hauled by oxen to the river and
bacaceae.) submerged to prevent severe stain, decay, and ex-
Distribution and habitat.—The balsa tree is cessive splitting from over-rapid drying. They
widely distributed in tropical America. Its na- are later formed into rafts and floated downriver
tural range extends throughout the West Indies to the sawmill.
from Cuba to Trinidad and on the continent from Weight. —Balsa varies greatly in weight. The
southern Mexico through Central America into specific gravity ma vary from as low as 0.05 to
Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela. In 0.41 based on ovendry weight and air-dry volume.
Central America, the tree grows in British Hon- Second-growth balsa in an air-dry condition (12
duras, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa percent moisture content) has been found to vary
Rica, and Panama. Occasional trees are planted in the same stem from 7½ pounds per cubic foot
as far north as southern Florida. According to at the center of the log to 21½ pounds per cubic
World Timbers (118), “It is, however, estimated foot near the outer edge. However, wood cut by
that 90 percent of the world’s supply of balsa is the mills for export generally ranges from 0.12
grown in Ecuador, where the rich soil and high to 0.20 in specific gravity based on air-dry weight
temperature and rainfall form ideal conditions.” and volume. Weight per cubic foot varies from 8
The tree does not occur uniformly throughout to 14 pounds with an average of 10 pounds in the
its extensive range, particularly in the higher alti- trade. The extremely light weight and buoyancy
tudes or where the soil is excessively wet or dry. of balsa is due to its thin cell walls and relatively
It is usually found at lower elevations from sea large cell cavities, which vary inversely with its
level to 3,200 feet, especially on bottom-land soil weight. Balsa wood of slow growth may weigh
along streams. Although found as scattered trees up to 25 pounds per cubic foot air-dry compared
in the tropical forests, balsa generally occurs as to 15 pounds for cork and 25 pounds for eastern
white pine of the United States (45, 265, 241).
a second-growth tree in natural openings or after
Seasoning.—The wood is reported to be so ex-
the original forest has been removed by fire or
tremely difficult to air-season from the green con-
floods, or in clearings resulting from cultivation. dition that kiln-drying is recommended as the
The tree.-Balsa is a rapid-growing, short-lived best method of seasoning. Even in kiln-drying
tree, often attaining a height of 70 feet and a di- there is danger of splitting, warping, caseharden-
ameter of 1 ½ to 2 feet in 7 years; on the best ing, and a tendency to “toast” the wood (265).
sites, it may reach 80 feet and a diameter of 2½ Balsa is somewhat variable in its seasoning char-
feet in 5 years. After 8 years of life, some trees acteristics, largely because of differences in density
and moisture content. The Forest Products Re- pounds per square inch and a maximum crush-
search Laboratory in England indicates different ing strength of 5,700 pounds per square inch at
schedules might be desirable for timber of differ- 12 percent moisture content.
ent densities but, except for timber of the heavy In comparison with Scotch pine or Baltic
weight class, their Kiln Schedule 7 should prove redwood (Pinus sylvestris), balsa has about half
suitable (222). the strength in bending and stiffness and about
Balsa is often end-racked for air-seasoning. 70 percent the strength in compression parallel
Stock 4½ inches thick has been air-seasoned by this to the grain (265). It is reported to be 40 per-
method in Ecuador to below 20 percent moisture cent weaker in bending and 20 percent less stiff
content in 14 to 21 days (45). According to other than obeche (Triplochiton scleroxcylon) (105).
reports, this rapid seasoning may have been ac- According to the Forest Products Research Lab-
companied by excessive degrade. oratory in London, the heartwood of balsa has
One-inch lumber has been air-seasoned under only half the strength of the sapwood.
cover in Puerto Rico to 17 percent moisture con- Working properties.—Balsa is very easy to
tent in 4½ months drying time in stickered piles. work with sharp, thin-edged power or hand tools
Moderately heavy degrade occurred in the form and has practically no dulling effect on cutting
of slight to moderate cupping, slight bow and edges. Dull or thick-edged tools tend to cause
twist, and very slight surface checking and crook. the wood to crumble and to give a woolly finish
Shrinkage. —The timber is reported by most in planing. It takes nails and screws readily
sources to shrink considerably during seasoning. but is too soft to hold them well. Fortunately,
Average shrinkage values for balsa from Puerto the wood glues satisfactorily; gluing is the most
Rico weighing 17 pounds per cubic foot air-dry efficient method for fastening or holding the wood
amounted to 1.3 percent radially, 4.7 percent tan- in use (265, 105). The timber can be stained and
gentially, and 0.11 percent longitudinally from polished fairly well but absorbs much of the ma-
green to 15 percent moisture content. Volumetric terial used in the processes. Saw type E of thin
shrinkage averaged 6.1 percent. Shrinkage from gage is recommended by the Forest Products
green to ovendry averaged 3.0 percent radially, Research Laboratory in London (105, 237).
7.6 percent tangentially, 0.47 percent longitudi- Durability. —Balsa has very little resistance to
nally, and 10.8 percent in volume. decay; 2- by 2-inch timbers decayed in 2½ years
Balsa is a stable wood in use; changes in atmos- in the ground at Princes Risborough, England
pheric conditions cause only minor shrinkage or (206). The wood is very susceptible to termite
swelling. Wood in equilibrium with a 60-percent attack according to tests by Wolcott in Puerto
relative humidity will increase 1.7 percent tangen- Rico (263), and obviously is susceptible to severe
tially and 0.5 percent radially when brought into marine borer attack. Logs and green lumber are
equilibrium with a relative humidity of 90 per- readily attacked by pinhole borers, and if con-
cent. This amounts to a movement (swelling) version is delayed the logs may become very
of 13/64 and 1/16 inch per foot, respectively. The heavily damaged.
wood comes to an equilibrium moisture content Preservation. —The heartwood is resistant to
of 20 percent in a 90-percent relative humidity preservative treatment, but a limited amount of
and 11.5 percent in a 60-percent relative humidity preservative can be injected into the vessels quite
(108). easily by either pressure or nonpressure methods.
Green, freshly cut balsa generally contains from However, the cell walls are difficult to impregnate
200 to 400 percent moisture. Soaked specimens and pressure treatment often causes them to col-
have been recorded at 792 percent moisture (156). lapse. Treatment of sapwood is reported to be
To overcome this tendency to soak up water, balsa feasible with either pressure or nonpressure
is often given water proofing treatments with methods (105).
paraffin, commercial water repellents, water-repel- Uses.—Balsa is used for many specific purposes
lent preservatives, varnish, or glossy paint. related to its weight, resilience, buoyancy, and
Mechanical properties.—The strength of balsa high insulating properties against heat and sound.
varies directly with its density or dry weight. Some of the more important are listed below (118,
Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory (251) 4 5):
show that the modulus of rupture (maximum Heat insulation—Packing cases for perishable
bending strength) at 12 percent moisture con- foods, cold storage rooms, aircraft cabins, roof
tent varies from 1,100 pounds per square inch for insulation, railway storage cars, refrigerators,
wood weighing about 5½ pounds per cubic foot water coolers, lining of pith helments, packing
to 4,300 pounds per square inch for wood weigh- for armor plate in battleships.
ing 17 pounds per cubic foot. The maximum Buoyancy—Rafts, lifebelts, floats for fishing
crushing strength parallel to the grain varies nets and mines, water sports equipment, bouys,
from 500 to 2,800 pounds per square inch for the hydroplane floats.
same range in moisture content and weight. In Sound and vibration insulation-Lining for
comparison, spruce weighing 25 pounds per cubic telephone booths, broadcast studios, aircraft,
foot has a modulus of rupture in bending of 10,000 phonograph booths, subflooring; pads for heavy
machinery and other equipment with moving The wood.—Baromalli is a soft, light to me-
parts. dium-weight wood of plain appearance. The
Lightness—Aircraft, streamlining, model air- heartwood, a dull yellowish-brown to pinkish-
planes and other toys, display models, surgical brown color, is distinct but not sharply demarcated
splints, theatrical and film sets and accessories. from the lighter yellowish-brown sapwood, which
Resilience—Protective packing for glass, is often discolored by sap-stain fungi. The heart-
ceramics, delicate instruments, furniture. wood is sometimes described as having an oatmeal
The sulky floss or doun brone with the seeds color. The grain is straight and the texture
is used for the same purposes as kapok from the coarse. Growth rings are not distinct. Rays are
related ceiba tree (Ceiba pentandra (L.) visible as heavy white lines on the cross section,
Gaertn.) and is preferred to kapok in some as diamond-shaped spots on tangential surfaces,
areas (150). and conspicuous and large on the radial surface,
Supply.—British Honduras, Trinidad, and pos- being darker than the background.
sibly some of the West Indies islands are in a An unusual feature of this wood is the presence
position to supply balsa to the trade in the Carib- of “galls” of included bast appearing as resin
bean area. The Ecuadorian supply has dimin- streaks of varying lengths on the longitudinal sur-
ished but still provides the bulk of the commer- faces and as concentric arcs on the end-grain.
cial-grade balsa in international trade. Quartersawed surfaces generally show a distinc-
tive “silver-grain” figure suggesting silky oak but
lacking the luster of that timber. The wood has
BAROMALLI no distinctive odor or taste (183, 142).
Catostemma commune, Catostemma fragrans Weight.-Baromalli weighs about 70 pounds
per cubic foot in the green condition and ranges
Baromalli is the preferred trade name of the from 35 to 40 pounds per cubic foot (averaging
wood from two and possibly other species of about 37) when air-dry (12 percent moisture con-
Catostemma. The wood, although similar to oak tent,) (15). Specific gravity based on air-dry
(Quercus ) and of good quality, is seldom sawed weight and volume averages about 0.60. Specific
locally and is virtually unknown to the export gravity based on green volume and ovendry
market. weight is reported at 0.45 by Kynoch and Norton
Nomenclature. —The principal species mar- for Catostemma fragrans and at 0.60 by Yale
keted as baromalli are Catostemma commune University, based on tests on one log of Catostem-
Sandw. and C. fragrans Benth., formerly identi- ma sp. from British Guiana (250).
fied as Guenetia macrosperma Sagot. Two other Seasoning.-Baromalli seasons rather slowly,
species, C. alstonii Sandw. from British Guiana without excessive degrade. Some end splitting,
and C. sclerophyllum Ducke of Brazil, appear to surface checking, and opening up of previous de-
be less common but may occasionally be marketed fects may occur during seasoning, but degrade
under the trade name of baromalli. This report from these causes or by distortion is not serious.
is restricted to the first, two species but, may apply Although the timber has a rather high shrinkage
to other members of the small genus. (Bombax rate, the proportion of tangential to radial shrink-
family, Bombacaceae.) age is within allowable limits and should not
The wood is locally known as baromalli, cause excessive warping or cupping. Kiln
baramanni, or baramalli in British Guiana and as Schedule 4, developed by the Forest Products Re-
flambeau rouge in French Guiana. search Laboratory, is recommended (222).
Distribution and habitat.—In British Guiana Shrinkage. —Baromalli undergoes relatively
both Catostemma fragrans and C. commune are heavy shrinkage during seasoning compared to
of frequent to common occurrence in the rain other timbers of similar density. The values re-
seasonal, and wallaba forests, with C. commune be- ported in two independent tests give comparable
coming common to locally abundant in the heavy shrinkage values for the timbers. Kynoch and
forests. C. fragrans is found in both British and Norton (149) report shrinkage values of 5.4 per-
French Guiana, while C. commune apparently is cent radially, 11.7 percent tangentially, and 17.1
confined to British Guiana (82). percent volumetrically from green to ovendry for
The tree.—The trees are commonly unbut- Catostemma fragrans. Wangaard, (250) report-
tressed with a long, slender cylindrical trunk of ing on similar tests of wood from one log of
very low taper and excellent form. Catostemma Catostemma sp. from British Guiana, lists shrink-
fragrans grows to 48 inches in diameter and 150 age values of 5.2 percent radially, 11.1 percent
feet in height on the best sites, but is generally tangentially, and 17.5 percent volumetrically from
24 to 36 inches in diameter with clear boles 70 to green to ovendry. The corresponding movement
90 feet long. C. commune is the smaller of the of the wood from atmospheric changes is also
two trees, reaching a maximum of 40 inches in excessive.
diameter and 100 feet in height on the best sites The wood reaches an equilibrium moisture con-
However, the usual merchantable tree is about 24 tent of 23.5 percent in 90-percent humidity and 13
inches in diameter and 60 to 70 feet in height (82). percent moisture content in 60-percent humidity.
A tangential movement (swelling or shrinking) Preservation.-Baromalli is reported as easily

of 4.0 percent or ½ inch per foot and a radial impregnated with preservatives by either pressure
change of 2.5 percent or 5/16 inch per foot take or open-tank processes.
place between these equilibrium moisture con- Uses.-Baromalli is reported suitable for both
tents, based on the dimensions at 60-percent hu- dry and wet cooperage, interior work, box shock,
midity (108). This places baromalli among the paper pulp, utility plywood, and light construc-
timbers with large movement values, and elimi- tion. Good quality molasses barrels were made
nates its use where good stability is required. of baromalli at Barbados for a short period when
Mechanical properties.—Tests of Catostemma imported barrels were not available. The results
fragrans in the green condition by Kynoch and of mechanical tests indicate this wood may be
Norton (149) showed that the wood compares suitable for tool handles and certain sports equip-
favorably with black ash (Fraxinus nigra) of ment. It is also considered a prospective timber
similar density from the United States. Baro- for inexpensive furniture.
malli exceeded the latter species in all properties Supply.—Baromalli is one of the most plentiful
tested except compression perpendicular to the trees in British Guiana, occurring at the rate of
grain (crushing strength) and work to maximum from 186 to a maximum of 722 trees, 16 inches
load (shock bending), and fell only slightly be- and over, per 1,000 acres in the seven districts
low black ash in end hardness, shear, and surveyed in that country. It is available in suf-
cleavage. The high moisture content of the green ficient supply to merit large scale exploitation for
baromalli when tested (154.5 percent) may be domestic and export markets. Its volume and
a factor in these deficiencies. Black ash is not one availability in French Guiana are not known.
of the strongest woods of the United States but is
above average strength for its weight. On the
basis of this comparison, baromalli can be con- BETHABARA
sidered to have average strength characteristics Tabebuia serratifolia
in the green condition.
Results of tests b the Forest Products Research Bethabara is a member of the lapacho group
Laboratory in London (15), using air-dry wood of of the genus Tabebuia. The timbers in this group
Catostemma commune from British Guiana, are noted for their great strength and durability
showed it to be inferior to black ash in shear, and are characterized by the presence of an abun-
cleavage, hardness, and nodules of elasticity (stiff- dance of a yellowish powder (lapachol compound)
ness). It was somewhat superior to black ash in in the vessels. This powder has the appearance
modulus of rupture (bending strength) and work of sulfur but turns deep red in alkaline solutions
to maximum load (shock bending). The ashes (190).
are noted for their ability to withstand suddenly Nomenclature. —Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl)
applied loads as in the handles of striking tools. Nicholson (Tecoma serratifolia G. Don) is also
From this comparison, baromalli should be con- known in the export trade as tabebuia, arcwood,
sidered a rather good wood for similar use. noibwood, and sometimes erroneously as Surinam
Working properties.—Baromalli works easily greenheart and bastard lignumvitae, names com-
with machine or hand tools. The timber has only monly and more properly used for other woods.
a moderate blunting effect, although the numerous It is called yellow poui in Trinidad and St. Vin-
bands of resin in the wood ducts may cause chip- cent; hakia and ironwood in British Guiana;
ping of the planing and moulding knives. Com- groenhart and wassiba in Surinam; ébène verte in
pared to maho (Sterculia pruriens), baromalli French Guiana; pau d’arco, ipê, and ipê tabaco in
cuts somewhat less easily and gives a more fibrous Brazil. The name ipê tabaco originates from the
finish. This tendency for the finish to be fibrous peculiar irritating effects of the dust when inhaled
or fuzzy can usually be overcome with sharp cut- during sawing or planing operations (132).
ting edges. Machine-finished surfaces lack luster (Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)
and are harsh to the touch. The wood requires a Distribution and habitat.—Bethabara grows in
considerable amount of filler but can be stained Trinidad, Grenada, and St. Vincent of the Lesser
and polished satisfactorily, although not to a high Antilles (50), and on the continent from Mexico
luster. It takes glue well and can be nailed with- through Central America and into South America
out splitting (118). to southern Brazil, including Colombia, Bolivia,
Peru, Paraguay, Venezuela, and the Gulanas.
Durability. —The heartwood is not durable in The tree occurs on a variety of sites from the
contact with the ground, according to service tests tops and sides of ridges to river banks and low
in British Guiana (32) and laboratory tests in ridges in the rain forests but avoids low inundated
England (107). Wolcott (263) rates the heart- areas. It occurs as an occasional tree in the rain
wood as very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood and marsh forests of Surinam and as a rare to
termite of the West Indies. Other sources list occasional tree in the rain, wallaba, and seasonal
dry sapwood as susceptible to attack by Lyctus forests of British Guiana (231, 82). In Trinidad
(powder-post) beetles. the tree is found on several sites but seldom occurs
on flats or in valleys (165). On some areas, it is ping, twisting, end checking, and surface checking
reported to grow in pure stands. occuring, as well as some casehardening (248) .
The tree.—Bethabara is a canopy tree, either Some surface checking and extension of original
unbuttressed or with low buttresses, frequently shakes, as well as slight cupping, may occur during
attaining a height of 100 to 125 feet and a diame- normal kiln-drying operations, but very little de-
ter of 2 to 3 feet. In some parts of its range, trees grade will occur if the wood is kiln-dried slowly
may grow to 6 feet in diameter and 140 to 150 feet from the green state. Horn (132) also reports
tall. Clear cylindrical boles 50 to 60 feet long are the ipê tabaco of Brazil is apt to check and split
common (82). The tree is of medium height in badly in the form of large timbers, while boards
many areas, but becomes one of the tallest trees warp considerably unless dried very slowly. Kiln
in the upland forests of the Amazon. According Schedule 5 of the Forest Products Research Lab-
to one report (248), trees with trunks that will oratory, Princes Risborough, is recommended
square 30 inches of heartwood are available. Beth- (222).
abara is deciduous during the dry season at which Shrinkage.—Bethabara undergoes moderately
time it is covered with masses of bright yellow low shrinkage in relation to its high density, being
flowers, making it a magnificent sight. The bark better than white oak and Demerara greenheart
is thin and smooth on young trees, becoming fis- in this characteristic. Shrinkage from green to
sured on very large trees (165). ovendry amounts to 6.6 percent radially, 8.0 per-
The wood.—The heartwood is yellowish green cent tangentially, and 13.2 percent volumetrically
when first cut, but upon drying turns to a light (248). Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 per-
to dark olive brown with lighter or darker streaks. cent moisture content) would be approximately
The olive-brown color is apparently the result of half these values. The very low ratio of tangen-
the presence of the yellow powder in the pores. tial to radial shrinkage indicates this wood should
The sapwood is distinct, 1½ to 3½ inches wide, normally dry with only minor distortion.
and cream colored when fresh but becoming white The wood is very stable in response to atmos-
or grayish white when dry (248). The texture pheric changes for a wood of its hi h density.
is fine; the grain is straight to occasionally irregu- The change or movement from equilibrium in a
lar; and the luster is low to medium (143) . The 90-percent relative humidity to equilibrium in a
wood is cold to the touch and often appears oily ; 60-percent relative humidity amounts to 3/16 inch
very fine ripple marks show on the tangential sur- per foot tangentially and 1/8 inch per foot radially,
face of the wood. Pores in the heartwood, which or about 1.5 and 1.0 percent, respectively (108) .
appear as fine yellow dots, are filled with a yellow- Mechanical properties.—This wood is excep-
ish powder (lanachol). On longitudinal surfaces, tionally tough, strong, and hard. When green,
these pores appear as yellow lines. The fibers it is considerably stronger than Demerara green-
are interlaced and in tiers much like those in per- heart in static bending, elastic resistance, hardness,
simmon and true mahogany. Narrow darker bearing strength, and shear, and at least com-
zones of fibers where the pores are less numerous parable to greenheart in all other respects except
designate distinct but not sharply defined growth stiffness (248). The wood also compares very
layers. favorably with the American hickories because of
Weight.-Bethabara is classed as an extremely its unusual properties of high strength, stiffness,
heavy wood. In tests at Yale University, it had hardness, and shock resistance. Upon air-drying,
a specific gravity of 0.92 (0.86-0.96) based on the wood increases slightly in most strength prop-
green volume and ovendry weight and 1.10 based erties but not comparable to that commonly found
on air-dry weight and volume. The weight per in hardwoods of the temperate zone; yet it still
cubic foot averaged 75 pounds when green and 69 compares most favorably in this state with green-
pounds when air-dry at 12 percent moisture con- heart and hickory.
tent (248). Tests of Tabebuia sp. (lapacho) at Working properties.—Bethabara is moderately
the Forest Products Research Laboratory in difficult to work, especially with handtools, and
England showed an average air-dry weight of has a blunting effect on cutting edges. Ripsaws
58 pounds per cubic foot at 12 percent moisture are subject to some heating when cutting thick
content and 67 pounds per cubic foot when green material; fine dust escaping from the gullets packs
at 32 percent moisture content. However, the between the saw blade and cut surfaces. This
material tested may have included the closely difficulty is partially overcome by using a fairly
associated Tabebuia ipe (Mart.) Standl. of Brazil wide tooth-pitch and increased rate of feed if
and Argentina, along with the T. serratifolia. practicable, or as an alternative a reduced spindle
The specific gravity of air-dry wood averaged speed. Using swage-set saws somewhat thicker
0.93, based on air-dry weight and volume, in the than the standard gage is also advisable. The
English tests. Other sources report weights of teeth of crosscut saws tend to vibrate or chatter,
60 to 80 pounds per cubic foot air-dry. and charring may occur during boring.
Seasoning.-Bethabara is considered an easy Flat-sawed material planes to a good finish but
timber to season. Despite its relatively high reduction of the cutting angle to at least 15 degrees
density, it dries rapidly with slight warping, cup- is recommended to eliminate chipping of quarter-
sawed stock. The wood finishes satisfactorily in Supply.-The timber is present in exportable
other operations except for some difficulty en- quantities in the three Guianas, Trinidad, St, Vin-
countered when interlocked grain is present. The cent, and possibly other Caribbean areas.
fine yellow dust rising during most operations is
a nuisance and at times is reported to cause mild
dermatitis. The timber stains and polishes well BOIS GRIS
and requires little grain-filler. Preboring is re- Licania ternatensis
quired before nailing to prevent splitting and the
bending of nails. Nomenclature. —Many species of Licania
Durability. —The timber is very resistant to de- grow in the American tropics but only Licania
cay in contact with the ground (175, 218, 82) and ternatensis Hook. f. is of commercial importance
is considered one of the two most durable woods in the West Indies. Both the tree and timber are
in Trinidad (39). Pure culture tests at Yale known as bois de masse in St. Lucia, bois gris in
University (248) showed Bethabara as very re- Grenada,, Martinique, and Guadeloupe, and bois
sistant to both a brown-rot and white-rot fungus. gris casse or casse in Trinidad. Other local
Similar tests at the U.S. Forest Products Labo- names for the wood in the Caribbean area include
ratory (199), using “Guayacan” (Tabebuia sp.) bois diable, bois de fer, resolu, and breaknail.
also indicated the wood was very resistant to both Several additional species are discussed under
a white-rot and brown-rot fungus. However, soil kauta. (Rose family, Rosaceae.)
tests of “Guayacan” in the northern (Madison, Distribution and habitat.—Bois gris is rather
Wis.) and southern (Saucier, Miss.) sections of widely distributed in the southern West Indies.
the United States indicated the wood‘s resistance It, is recorded from Guadeloupe, Dominica, Mar-
to decay varies from resistant to very resistant. tinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, and
Tabebuia woods are reported by Horn (133) to Trinidad. The tree is very common in the rain
last 10 to 12 years in poorly drained soil in Brazil, forests of St. Lucia but of limited distribution
while those placed in well-drained soil lasted 18 in Trinidad (18, 165, 50).
to 20 years. The tree.—Bois gris is a fairly large evergreen
The timber is rated very resistant to subter- tree reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter
ranean termites by Brooks (39) and as resistant of 2 to 3 feet. It has a characteristic long, clean
to the dry-wood termite of the West Indies by straight stem, free of buttresses but sometimes
Wolcott (263), who rates bethabara at 72 in re- fluted. The thin bark is light colored, smooth,
sistance as compared to 59 for Honduras mahog- and has numerous grayish-white lenticular warts
any. According to Edmondson, bethabara was (154).
found to have low resistance to marine borers in The wood.—The heartwood of bois gris is dark
Hawaiian waters, despite its hardness and density reddish brown, fairly close grained, and extreme-
(76). In similar tests at Wrightsville, N.C. (5 8) , ly hard and tough. The sapwood is white and
this species was heavily attacked by marine borers equally hard and tough. All species of Licanin
in a 12-month period. The results in this test tested have been found to hare a high silica con-
agree with those by Edmondson in Hawaii. The tent (14) and presumably bois gris is no excep-
silica content has been reported at 0.01 percent by tion, although no specific information is available
Amos (14). for this species.
Preservation.—The good is extremely resistant. Weight.—The timber is reported to weigh from
to impregnation with preservatives by either pres- 65 to 75 pounds per cubic foot with a specific
sure or nonpressure methods. gravity of 1.04 to 1.20, based on air-dry volume
Uses.—Bethabara is particularly well adapted and weight, (165, 218, 50). This weight. range is
for uses which take advantage of its strength, comparable to other species of Licania, all re-
toughness, resilience, and very high resistance to ported to be hard, heavy woods.
insects and decay. It is suitable for use as rail- Seasoning. —Specific information concerning
way sleepers, bridge construction, turnery, vehi- the seasoning characteristic of bois gris is lack-
cles, cabinetwork, and carpentry, while some of ing, but other species of Licania tested at Yale
its highest specially uses are for tool handles, varied from easy to moderately difficult to air-
walking sticks, fishing rods, and archery bows. season. In these tests, seasoning took place at a
Figured logs have been cut into veneer in both fast. to moderate rate according to species, with
some warping, checking, and casehardening.
England and the United States (135). (See section on Marish, Kauta, and Kautaballi.)
Locally, the wood is also used extensively for On the basis of this information for other closely
fence posts, house poles, and building framing. related species of Licania, bois gris is probably
It is also a good timber for naval construction moderately difficult to air-season.
and dock work above water and for general sport- Shrinkage.—Shrinkage values for other species
ing goods items. In Brazil it finds wide use as of Licania are relatively high, approximating
factory flooring, machinery parts, mill rollers in greenheart in this characteristic but falling below
sugar mills, and parts for vehicles and carts. some Hardwoods of much lower density from the
United States. In general, the species tested at blocks (82, 227). It is used in St. Lucia for in-
Yale University (248) were comparable to white terior posts and beams and. as a charcoal wood
oak in tangential and volumetric shrinkage but (154); in Martinique and Guadeloupe for marine
somewhat lower in radial shrinkage. Bois gris and river work (218, 50).
may have similar shrinkage values. Supply.—Bois gris is reported as very plentiful
Mechanical properties.—There are no pub- in the forests of St. Lucia (153, 154) and may
lished results of strength tests on bois gris, but occur in sizable volumes on other West Indies is-
information is available from the tests at Yale lands. St. Lucia could probably supply the tim-
University (248) on three closely related species: ber in piling sizes.
Licania buxifolia Sandw. of British Guiana, L.
macrophylla Benth. of Brazil and Surinam, and
Licania sp. of Surinam. These species were, in BROADLEAF
general, all very comparable to greenheart in Terminalia latifolia
most strength properties. They were found to be
decidedly superior to shagbark hickory (Carya Nomenclature. —Broadleaf, Terminalia lati-
ovata) and white oak (Quercus alba) of the folia Sw., is second to Central American cedar,
United States in all strength properties except Cedrela odorata, the most important timber species
shock resistance, compression parallel to the of Jamaica. In addition to broadleaf, the timber
grain, and shear in comparison with hickory; and is widely known as amandier and amandier bois.
shock resistance, shear, and cleavage in compari- Several other species of Terminalia grow in the
son with oak. Species of Licania, like many very Caribbean region, of which T. amazonia (J. F.
hard, heavy, close-grained woods, are notably de- Gmel.) Exell is the most widely distributed and
ficient in shear, tension across the grain, and cleav- of greatest commercial importance. This timber,
age resistance, but in all other respects they are commonly called nargusta, is described later un-
very strong woods. der that name. (Combretum family, Com-
Working properties.—Machining characteris- bretaceae.)
tics of bois gris are poor because of the wood’s Distribution and habitat.—Broadleaf is a very
great density and high silica content. Bois gris common tree on the damp glade sites of the lime-
IS extremely difficult to saw and quickly dulls cut- stone districts in Jamaica. It is most frequent
ting edges. The government of St.. Lucia reports at elevations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet where rainfall
on its use as follows: “Given a trial on the ma- is 60 inches or more; it is seldom found at lower
chines a few times after which it was decided not elevations (229, 230). The tree is also reported
to use this wood as it was too hard for economical from Guadeloupe (50).
handling on the saws. Probably a good wood for The tree.—A tall tree, broadleaf grows up to
turnery” (153). 100 feet in height and 3 feet or more in diameter.
Durability. —The woods of this genus are said The trunk is straight, well formed, and usually
to be low in resistance to decay (190, 134, 175). clear of branches for about, 50 feet (190).
However, the three species tested at Yale Univers- The wood.—The wood is light buff to gray, soft,
ity ranged from very resistant to moderately re- straight grained, medium hard, and splits rather
sistant to both a white-rot and brown-rot fungus easily.
(248). Members of the genus Licania are noted Weight. —Stehlé (218) gives the specific grav-
for their high silica content and resistance to ity of air-dry. wood at 0.6.5. On this basis, air-
marine borers (14). A closely related species, dry wood weighs 41 pounds per cubic foot as
Licania densiflora, the marishballi of British compared to 44 pounds for red oak of the United
Guiana, showed considerable resistance to marine States.
borer attack in Hawaiian waters (76). L. buxi- Seasoning.—No data available. See section on
folia, another closely related species, also showed nargusta, Terminalia amazonia.
extremely high resistance to teredo attack in tests Shrinkage. —No data available. See section on
at Wrightsvllle, N.C. (58). On the basis of these nargusta, Terminalia amazonia.
tests and other similar reports (134), bois gris Mechanical properties.—No information is
should be rated as having considerable resistance available on the general strength properties of
to marine borer attack. Wolcott (263) rates the broadleaf except that the wood is moderately
wood of marishballi, L. densiflora, as resistant to heavy, stringy, rather hard, and splits easily
the dry-wood termite of the West Indies. Bois (218, 229).
gris may be comparable to that wood in this Working properties.—The wood is reported to
resistance. work easily and as a result is in great demand
Uses.—The probable but unproved high marine in Jamaica.
borer resistance of untreated bois gris timbers Durability. —Broadleaf is not very durable in
suggests it should serve its highest use for piling contact with the ground but is durable when used
and other marine construction. Other species of above the ground or in interior work (50, 229,
the genus are used for house framing and paving 230). No specific information is available regard-
ing the timber’s resistance to termites and marine Growth rings are marked by darker colored tissue,
borers. However, other species of Terminalia which show as brown streaks on the longitudinal
vary from resistant to very susceptible to attack surfaces. The grain is usually straight, and the
by dry-wood termites, and are generally not con- texture is fine and uniform. Pores are barely visi-
sidered resistant to marine borers (263). ble to the naked eye. The rays are fine and barely
Uses.—The most important uses for broadleaf visible on the cross section, inconspicuous on the
in Jamaica are in building boards, shingles, and radial plane, and invisible on the tangential sur-
barrel staves. It, is also used for flooring, rafters, f aces. Parenchyma is abundant, forming a fine,
lath, window frames, and doors. The bark is close reticulation with the rays; but they are vis-
used in Jamaican tanneries but has a relatively ible only under magnification.
low tannin content (230, 48, 50). Weight.—Air-dry wood has an average specific
Supply.—Broadleaf is one of the most plentiful gravity of about 0.74 and weighs in the neighbor-
timbers in Jamaica but is not available for export, hood of 46 pounds per cubic foot.
for present supplies hardly equal the local Seasoning. —The wood seasons without exces-
demand. sive splitting, checking, or distortion. It is classed
as only moderately difficult to season.
BULLHOOF Shrinkage. —Shrinkage values for bullhoof are
not recorded, but the wood is reported to have a
Drypetes brownii
moderate rate of shrinkage.
Nomenclature. —Bullhoof and male bullhoof or Mechanical properties.—Detailed strength
bullhoof macho are the most common names for tests have not been conducted on bullhoof. Lamb
the wood of Drypetes brownii Standl., of the (150) reports the timber is strong and tough and
spurge family (Euphorbiaceae.) Two other has strength properties in keeping with its weight,
species, Celtis schippii Standl. and Ampelocera which are probably about the same as those of
hottlei Standl., known as female bullhoof and be- English oak. It is considered to be a moderately
longing to the elm family (Ulmaceae), are at hard wood, perhaps 10 percent harder than Eng-
times sold in mixture with bullhoof. The justifi- lish oak, and to have a moderately high resistance
cation for the combination is not clear since A. to splitting. Record and Hess (190) describe the
hottlei is reported to contain an abundance of cal- timbers of the genus Drypetes as hard, heavy,
cium carbonate and, consequently, is valued prin- tough, and strong.
cipally for round or axed beams, while C. schippii Working properties.—Bullhoof is only moder-
is a moderately soft, light, nonsiliceous or slightly ately difficult to work with hand and machine
siliceous wood recommended for boxmaking, util- tools, resembling English oak. Bullhoof saws
ity plywood, and tool handles (150). cleanly but with some difficulty because of its
The genus Drypetes contains more than ten hardness. A smooth finish is obtained in planing
species in the American tropics and numerous without, any tendency to roughened grain. It can
others in the Old World. D. glauca Vahl is called be drilled and recessed easily with clean un-
bois café in French West Indies and varital in chipped holes and turns readily to a smooth finish
Puerto Rico (218). D. variabilis Uitt. in British with about the same resistance to working as Eng-
Guiana is known as shibadan (82). The following lish oak. Nailing necessitates preboring nail holes
discussion is restricted to bullhoof or male bullhoof to prevent splitting and bending of the nails.
(D. brownii) unless otherwise indicated. Durability. —The timber is considered moder-
Distribution and habitat.—Drypetes brownii ately resistant to decay in contact with the ground
is recorded from the Yucatan area of southern and moderately resistant, to insect attack. No
Mexico to southern British Honduras and Guate- information is available on its resistance to marine
mala. In British Honduras, bullhoof trees borers.
(Drypetes, Celtis, and Ampelocera) are reported Uses.—In British Honduras, bullhoof is widely
as rather frequent and widespread, with up to used in the round form for rafters, as axed squares
30 trees per acre on limestone soil in the rolling for beams and sills in the construction of native
country of the northwest district (150). houses, and for shafts in agricultural instruments.
The tree.—Bullhoof is a medium-sized canopy Except for some splitting and checking, bullhoof
tree of the high forest, attaining a height of 120 has given good service as railway ties in the gov-
feet and a diameter of 30 inches. The boles are ernment railway in the Stann Creek area of that
straight, cylindrical, and generally clear of country (86). The wood seems suitable for many
branches for 50 to 60 feet above the low buttres- uses where a strong, tough, heavy wood is re-
ses. The bark is thin, smooth to finely fissured, quired as in both light and heavy construction.
and greenish gray in color. Because of its light color, close texture, and good
The wood.—Freshly cut heartwood is a pale turning qualities, the wood may be suitable for
yellowish brown, turning a light reddish brown on utility grade plywood (190,150).
exposure. A dark brown core up to 10 inches in Supply. —British Honduras can supply bull-
diameter is often present in the heart of old trees. hoof for the export market.
BUSTIC taste. The texture is medium fine and the grain

fairly straight. It is a very hard and heavy
Dipholis salicifolia, Dipholis spp. wood (190, 184).
Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry timber
Nomenclature. —Several species of Dipholis ranges from 0.90 to 1.00, based on air-dry volume
provide the bustic or bulletwoods of general use and weight. The specific gravity based on green
in Jamaica and other areas in the Caribbean. I n volume and ovendry weight averages about 0.86.
Jamaica the following species are recognized : Air-dry wood weighs from 56 to 62 pounds per
mountain bully, Dipholis montana (Sw.) Griseb.; cubic foot (184, 218) and green wood about 77
red or cherry bullet, D. nigra (Sw.) Griseb.; pounds per cubic foot (160).
white bully or black bullet, D. salicifolia (L.) A. Seasoning.—No information available.
DC.; and D. pallens Pierre & Urban and D. octo- Shrinkage.—Detailed information concerning
sepala U r b a n (229). The first two species are shrinkage is lacking. However, the timber is not
apparently the most common in Jamaica (230) , recommended for cabinetwork in the Dominican
while D. salicifolia is the best known species Republic as it “cracks badly.” This may be an
throughout the range of the genus (190). (Sapo- indication that the wood undergoes high or un-
dilla family, Sapotaceae.) even shrinkage, and is somewhat unstable in re-
The timber is commonly known as bustic, wil- s p o n s e t o c h a n g e s i n atmospheric conditions
low bustic, or cassada in Florida and the British (200).
West Indies, and as almendro, Carolina, cuya, ju- Mechanical properties.—Bustic is considered a
billa, jubilla colorada, and sangre de doncella in hard, strong, tough wood in Jamaica, where it
Cuba. In British Honduras and Mexico, it is is the standard heavy construction timber. Me-
called cháchiga, mijico, txitxya, or sac-chum chanical tests made on Dipholis salicifolia, the
(217). Wood of Dipholis spp. is known as caya bustic of southern Florida, verify these obser-
colorada, caya rubia, and caya de loma in Domini- vations. The Florida timber was found to be
can Republic; acomât rouge, bois d’Inde, sapotil- s u p e r i o r t o w h i t e o a k (Quercua alba) in all
ler marron in Haiti; sanguinaria, almendrón, tab- strength properties tested except work to pro-
loncillo, and varital in Puerto Rico; and as níspero portional limit and shock in impact bending. It
amarillo and tempisque in Costa Rica. Another was clearly superior to white oak in static bend-
Cuban species, D. jubilla Ekman, is known locally ing, compression parallel to the grain, and com-
as cuaba, jucuma colorada, juba, and jubilla (207) . pression perpendicular to the gram. Shear and
D. stevensonii Standl. is a large tree of the Mopan cleavage were not tested.
region of British Honduras, where it is called Working properties.—Bustic is not, difficult to
faisán or zapote faisán. Another British Hon- work and finishes smoothly (190, 184).
duran species, D. durifolia Standl., is a small tree Durability. —The timber is generally considered
of the higher elevations. fair to good in durability when in contact with
Distribution and habitat.—The several species the ground (184, 229, 50). Dipholis salicifolia
of Dipholis have a combined range including is reported to be unsurpassed in the Dominican
southern Florida, West Indies, southern Mexico, Republic for shore work, where it resists inclem-
and Central America. The best known species, ency of salt water very well (200). This would
D. salicifolia, is native nearly throughout this indicate the timber may have considerable resist-
range. The trees occur on a variety of sites from ance to attack by marine borers, although the
sea level to the higher elevations. The five spe- wood does not contain silica. On the basis of
cies growing in Jamaica are reported to be distri- long-term observations, the Government of Ja-
buted throughout the country in areas of moderate maica reports red and white bulletwood are dur-
to heavy rainfall below 3,500 feet elevation (229). able in contact with the ground (229).
However, D. salicifolia is found in dry locations Uses.—Bulletwood or bustic is used extensively
on the southern coast of Puerto Rico and on the in Jamaica and elsewhere in the Caribbean for
nearby arid islands of Mona and Guanica. heavy construction and other jobs including house
The tree.—The trees vary in size according to framing, bridge runners, telephone poles, floor-
geographic location, site, and species. Dipholis ing, railway ties, and similar uses. It is also
salicifolia is a slender tree usually less than 50 used in Jamaica for fence posts and for carts and
feet tall and about 20 inches in diameter, while wagon parts. Under some conditions, the timber
D. stevensonii is reported to reach large dimen- may be suitable for cabinet or furniture work,
sions in British Honduras (190). One of the particularly where a heavy, hard, strong, durable
characteristics of the genus is the presence in the wood is required. However, the user should con-
bark of a latex, called chicle faisan. It is used sider the report from the Dominican Republic
in some countries as chicle in chewing gum. concerning its tendency to develop cracks after
The wood.—The heartwood of Dipholis spp. is seasoning.
brownish to reddish brown, with gradual transi- Supply. —Limited supplies may become avail-
tion to the sapwood. It is of medium luster and able in Jamaica and other islands of the West
has no distinctive odor but a somewhat bitter Indies and possibly in Central America.
CENTRAL AMERICAN CEDAR many other local names throughout its extensive
range.
Cedrela mexicana, Cedrela odorata, Cedrela guianensis Distribution and habitat.—Central American
cedar grows throughout the West Indies and on
Central American cedar is one of the most the continent from Mexico through Central
important, timbers for domestic use in tropical America and into northern South America, in-
America. At one time it, was an important ex- cluding Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela. This tim-
port timber to the United States and Europe. ber, or one of several other cedars growing
The wood is suitable for almost every purpose in South America, occurs in every country south
where lumber is needed in the tropics. But it of the United States except, Chile. Cedrela
has been utilized principally in the United States mexicana, native from Mexico to Brazil, does not
for cigarboxes, a use which has now declined to occur naturally in the West Indies except in Trini-
a fraction of the former volume. Cedar has al- dad, but has been widely planted and naturalized,
most all the desirable properties required of a especially in Cuba and Puerto Rico. C. guianensis
first-class wood and virtually none of the trouble- is presumably confined to the Guianas, while C.
some or detracting characteristics plaguing many odorata is native apparently through the West
other woods; the one exception is the tendency Indies and has been planted widely in tropical
for some material to exude a gum that discolors America.
the wood surface. In some areas there may be two forms of
Nomenclature. —Three species of Cedrela 2 are a single species; one form is located along
of primary commercial importance in the Carib- streams or on sheltered moist sites and provides
bean: Cedrela mexicana M. J. Roem., C. odorata light-colored wood of relatively low density; the
L., and C. guianensis A. Juss. The species are other form occurs on well-drained hillside forests
not easily distinguished; there is no fundamental or on drier sites and produces denser, more deeply
difference in the woods of the three species. Var- colored wood (145, 127, 2).
ious other species occur in tropical America.
The trees generally make their best growth on
Record and Hess (190) offer the following: “So rich, well-drained humid sites, but under certain
far as the woods of Cedrela are concerned, they
circumstances compete favorably on drier hillside
might well be of a single species, for although they
sites. However, the trees are ordinarily some-
exhibit, considerable range in their properties, the
differences observed could all be attributed to the what exacting as to site requirements and are espe-
cially intolerant of water-logged locations (54).
age and condition of growth of individual trees.”
(Mahogany family, Meliaceae). Cedar is often planted as an ornamental and shade
tree throughout the American tropics (230).
Because of their fragrance, Cedrela trees are
The tree.—Under favorable conditions, Central
generally known as cedar or Spanish cedar in the
American cedar grows to a height of 90 to 130
English speaking countries, and as cedro to most
feet and a diameter of 2 to 4 feet. Trees commonly
Latin Americans. In some Caribbean countries,
the name of Central American cedar is preferred have clear boles 50 to 80 feet above the buttresses,
which often extend 4 to 12 feet up the tree.
to separate these three species from others grow-
Larger trees are often found, ranging up to 6 or
ing in South America and also from the species
even 10 feet or more in diameter. The bark is
of the genus Toona of Asia and Australia, which
thin, smooth and grayish in color on young trees
are so similar that some botanists merge them
with Cedrela. The timber is also known as cigar- and often fairly thick and unevenly fissured on
box cedar, Honduras cedar, or Mexican cedar in older trees. This bark has a characteristic aroma
the trade (1 9 5) . In South America, it is also and astringent taste on trees of all sizes (82, 145,
commonly known as South American cedar. 54, 71, 30).
West Indian cedar is another trade name. The wood.—The wood of young trees, especially
The timber is commonly called cedar in British those of very rapid growth in the open, is less
Honduras and Jamnica; cedro hembra and cedro fragrant, lighter in color, softer, but somewhat
español in Puerto Rico; acajou rouge in Guade- tougher than that of older trees or more slowly
loupe and Martinique; acajou in Dominica and grown forest trees. The more slowly grown,
Trinidad; red cedar in St. Lucia, St. Vincent, dense, pungent-odored timber is preferred and
Grenada, and British Guiana; cedar in Surinam; commands a greater price in the local market.
acajou cèdre in French Guiana; cedro amarillo The heartwood is pinkish to reddish brown when
and cedro amargo in Venezuela; cedro amargo, freshly cut, becoming red or dark reddish brown,
cedra dulce, and cedro Colorado in Costa Rica and occasionally with a purplish tinge, after exposure.
Panama; cedro hembra and cedro macho in Cuba; The darker wood, as mentioned above, comes from
and cèdre or cèdre espagnol in Haiti. It has the drier exposures. The sapwood is whitish grey
or pinkish in color. In general, Central Ameri-
2
can cedar resembles the lighter grades of Hon-
C. Earle Smith, Jr. (A Revision of Cedrela duras mahogany (195).
(Meliaceae). Fieldiana: Botany 29 : 295-341, illus. 1960)
has combined Cedrela mexicana and C. guianensis as The texture is generally medium but the darker
synonyms of C. odorata. colored woods may have a coarser texture than
the lighter woods. The grain is usually straight spectively, for Cedrela sp. from Nicaragua (125).
but on occasions is interlocked and sometimes Slightly higher values have been obtained for C.
highly figured in buttresses and butts. The wood, odorata from Puerto Rico.
which may be slightly to decidedly ring porous, These values are for shrinkage from green to
has a characteristic growth-ring pattern visible on ovendry, expressed as a percent of the original
the tangential surface (24). Some wood shows green volume. Shrinkage from green to air-dry
gum streaks. The luster is medium to high but would be approximately half these values.
generally least apparent in the lighter colored Studies of Cedrela spp. by the Forest Product’s
timbers. Most wood has an odor similar to that of Research Laboratory in England gave shrinkage
several species of coniferous “cedar” growing in values of 3.0 percent radially and 4.0 percent tan-
the United States. Some specimens also have a gentially from green to air-dry. The tests in
distinctive bitter taste. England and the United States are quite com-
These two distinct, types of wood are recognized parable when the latter are converted to a green
in some areas of British Guiana as: (1) The darker to air-dry basis (50). The very low ratio of radial
variety, more straight-grained, with a coarser tex- to tangential shrinkage and the normal rate of
ture and more volatile oil; and (2) the lighter longitudinal shrinkage are indicative of the good
variety, not so straight-grained as the darker, seasoning characteristics of the wood and largely
with a finer texture and less volatile oil (127, 141, explain why the timber seasons without appreci-
30, 143, 265). able warping, checking, or other defect.
Weight. —Timber weight varies considerably, The timber is relatively stable to changes in
depending on the location, site, age of tree, and relative humidity, placing it in the class of timbers
rapidity of growth. Specific gravity, based on having small movement values. It reaches a
ovendry weight, and green volume, is reported moisture content of 14.5 percent in equilibrium
from 0.34 to 0.45, averaging about, 0.40. Specific with a relative humidity of 60 percent and a mois-
gravity, based on air-dry volume and weight, ture content of 21.5 percent in a relative humidity
ranges from a low of 0.42 to a high of 0.64, aver- of 90 percent. It moves (swells or shrinks) 1.0
aging about 0.48 at 12 percent moisture content. percent, in the radial plane, and 1.5 percent in the
Green wood weighs about 44 pounds per cubic tangential plane from the lower to higher mois-
foot and air-dry wood about 30 pounds per cubic ture content, or vice versa (108).
foot. at 12 to 15 percent moisture content (231, Mechanical properties.—Mechanical proper-
82, 145, 135, 30). ties are available from several sources for either
Seasoning.—Central American cedar is gener- Cedrela sp. (species unknown) or for other species
ally an easy wood to season, either by air-drying than those discussed in this report. However,
or in the kiln. The timber seasons at a rapid rate because of similarity of the wood of all species of
with only very minor warping and only slight Cedrela, the data can be safely applied to the
surface checking and end splitting, but it has a species covered here.
tendency under some conditions for knots to split Central American cedar is comparable, or only
rather badly (30, 145, 241). The wood is some- slightly below, Honduras mahogany in all strength
times compared to white pine (Pinus strobus) in properties in both the green and the air-dry condi-
seasoning behavior (71). One-inch boards are re- tion except hardness, resistance to shear, and com-
ported to air-dry in 3 to 6 months in Trinidad pression and tension across the grain (102, 249,
(165), 3 to 4 months in Dominica (50), and 4 127). Some difference is noted in strength prop-
months in Puerto Rico. erties between species and different tests; this can
In kiln-drying, some individual pieces may at be attributed to the density and other properties
times distort or collapse quite appreciably but may of the test specimens that very according to site,
be controlled by lower kiln temperatures (222) . location, age, and growth rate as described in the
Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest Products Research section on the wood and its properties.
Laboratory in England is recommended (222) . Working characteristics.—The wood is easy to
The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory schedule work, both with hand and machine tools, and
that appears most, appropriate for 4/4 cedar stock dulls cutting edges very little. It planes to a
is numbered T8-C3 (238, 145). The Indonesian smooth surface and normally finishes cleanly in
Forest Research Institute has also developed a all other operations. There is a slight tendency
satisfactory kiln schedule for Cedrela mexicana for “woolliness” to develop during machining, but
grown in Indonesia (172). this can be overcome by keeping all knives and
Shrinkage.-During seasoning, the wood un- saws sharp. The darker wood is said to work
dergoes relatively low and remarkably uniform more easily than the lighter. Saw type D is
shrinkage. Tests made at Yale University with recommended by the Forest Products Research
Cedrela huberi Ducke from Brazil showed average Laboratory in England (105).
shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 3.9 The presence of gum in some logs gives a little
percent radially, 5.9 percent tangentially, 0.16 per- trouble in planing and polishing but, in general,
cent longitudinally, and 8.9 percent volumetrically the wood stains and polishes beautifully after
(71), as compared to 4.1, 4.9, and 8.9 percent, re- suitable filling. It has good nail-holding and
screw-holding properties. Tests at Yale Univer- building material for house construction. The
sity showed one species, Cedrela tonduzii C. DC., heavier grades are suitable for the same uses as
to have fair bending qualities (57). Cedar is Honduras mahogany.
very popular in the veneer and plywood industry, Supply. —Logs and sawed lumber are available
for it peels cold, dries exceptionally well, and has in export quantities from the Guianas, British
good gluing properties (197, 195, 2.29, 30, 10.2, Honduras, and possibly from a number of the
240). islands in the West Indies. Present quantities are
Durability. —Central American cedar logs are not large but should meet a limited demand. The
liable to become stained if conversion does not timber is normally exported to England in the
take place soon after felling or if a protective end: form of both square and round logs up to 40 feet
coating is not applied. The wood of Cedrela long and 40 inches in diameter. Some sawed
odorata is rated moderately durable to durable to lumber is also exported.
decay in “grave yard” tests in British Guiana (5 0)
and Surinam (175). Other species of Cedrela
showed a considerable variability in durability in COURBARIL
pure culture tests at Yale University but, in gen- Hymenaea courbaril, Hymenaea davisii
eral, were moderately durable to durable to both a
white-rot and brown-rot fungi (249). Nomenclature. —The timbers of Hymenaea
The timber is resistant to both subterranean and courbaril L. and H. davisii Sandw. are most com-
dry-wood termites but has little resistance to ma- monly known in the Caribbean trade as Courbaril,
rine borers (76) and is occasionally subject to locust, locus, locuat, or West Indian locust. The
infestation by pinhole borers. Wolcott ( 263) British know the timber as West Indian or South
rates this cedar slightly better than Honduras American locust and Courbaril, while the Span-
mahogany in resistance to dry-wood termites in ish-speaking countries often use the names algar-
Puerto Rico. The timber has excellent weather- robo or guapinol. Brazilian names are princi-
ing properties without the protection of paint pally jutaby and jatoba. It is called locust in
(55). British Guiana, Trinidad, and St. Vincent; locus
Uses.—The wood is eminently suited for uses or rode locus in Surinam; Courbaril in French
requiring a soft, lightweight, but strong, straight- Guiana, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, and
grained, easily worked, relatively durable wood St. Lucia; and algarrobo in Puerto Rico. In Ja-
of above average beauty. Because of its many maica it is called stinking toe or West Indies
good qualities, as well as its beauty, cedar is partic- locust, caguairan, Courbaril, and algarroba de las
ularly suitable for such items as patterns, drawing Antilles. The usual Mexican names are cuapinol,
boards, Venetian blinds, decking and planking for coapinol, and guapinol. Other names include ja-
small boats, musical instruments, wooden novel- tay, jetay, jataiba, Brazilian gum-copal tree, and
ties, cigarboxes, and doors. It IS also preferred Courbaril plum. (Legume family, Legminosae.)
for both sliced and rotary-cut veneer, being used Distribution and habitat.—The best known
both as a face and core veneer for decorative and species, Hymenaea courbaril, is found from south-
utility grades of plywood (197, 145). ern Mexico, throughout, Central America and the
World Timbers, v. 1 (118), describes the use of West Indies, and into northern South America to
wood in England as follows: “The main uses in northern Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru.
this country are for furniture, interior fittings Hyminaea davisii grows only in British Gui-
and boat building. In the latter case it is used ana, where it is confined to the country’s north-
both for planking of high-class pleasure boats central and northeast districts. It occurs as an
and also for interior cabin work both in the solid occasional tree on sandy or loamy soils within the
and as a core for veneering. It is also used for rain or seasonal forests (33, 82).
panels in railway coaches, especially such as are Hymenaea courbaril is a tree that prefers open
grooved, as the wood will bend easily without sites, not too humid. It is best adapted on sandy,
breaking. It still remains the best timber for well-drained soils, making its best development’
cigarboxes as it harmonizes with the scent of the on ridges or slopes and high river banks and gen-
tobacco and prevents the working of an insect erally not present on flat wet areas. In Surinam
which attacks tobacco. It is also stated that, the tree is rare in the rain forest, but locally fre-
Cedar keeps the tobacco in the best condition as quent on high ridges and river banks in the coastal
it permits excess moisture from tobacco to be region. In British Guiana, Courbaril is an occa-
evaporated and also admits moisture from with- sional to locally frequent tree on clay loams or
out when the cigars become too dry. When used silty clays in the mora and marsh forests; on
as an interior for wardrobes it is an excellent sandy soils near rivers or streams in the seasonal
precaution against clothes moth.” forests; and on lateritic soils in the rain forests
The timber is also commonly used in the tropics in hilly country. In Jamaica the tree is common
for furniture, interior construction, panelling, on the Liguanea and St. Elizabeth plains (229).
cabinetwork, millwork, light boat parts, canoes, It does best on ridges in Trinidad and also grows
shingles, clothing chests, flooring, and general on slopes, but rarely on flats or in the mora forest.
The tree.—Courbaril is a large, nearly ever- in seasoning characteristics, and H. davisii to

green tree growing to 130 feet high and 5 feet in white oak (Quercus alba L.), which is a difficult
diameter; but normally it is less than 100 feet high timber to season. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest
and 2 to 4 feet in diameter. The trunk is usually Products Research Laboratory in England is rec-
free of branches for 40 to 80 feet, well formed and ommended for kiln-drying and Schedule T3-D1
basally swollen or buttressed in large trees. Hy- of the Forest Products Laboratory in the United
menaea davisii is the taller of the two trees; both States also appears suitable for 4/4 stock- (222,
have massive spreading branches and heavy um- 144, 238, 33).
brella-shaped crowns and are usually dominant or Shrinkage.—Hymenaea courbaril undergoes
codominant in the stand. moderate shrinkage for a wood of its density,
The bark contains an abundance of a pale yel- comparing favorably with black locust of the
low or reddish translucent gum, known in the United States, which is noted for its low shrink-
trade as South American copal. This gum often age in relation to its density. Courbaril shrinks
accumulates in the ground at the base of the tree 4.5 percent radially, 8.5 percent tangentially, and
and may be found in the soil (fossil gum) in 12.7 percent volumetrically from green to oven-
large quantities long after the tree has disap- dry, compared to 4.4, 6.9, and 9.8 percent, re-
peared. The resin is used for certain cements and spectively, for black locust. It is also consider-
varnishes, and is also wrapped in corn husks and ably better in this respect than either white oak
sold in cake form as incense for burning in or shagbark hickory (Carya ovata (Mill.) K.
churches. At one time, the bark was stripped Koch.), although hickory is not highly regarded
from large trees and used for native canoes, ca- for its drying characteristics. Courbaril’s longi-
pable of holding 25 to 30 men (71, 33, 118) . tudinal shrinkage rate of 0.27 percent is normal
The wood.—Green Courbaril heartwood is for timbers with interlocked grain.
salmon red to orange brown, becoming russet to Hymenaea davisii undergoes shrinkage rates of
reddish brown when seasoned. The sapwood is 4.1 percent radially, 7.6 percent tangentially, 0.51
usually wide, sharply demarcated from the heart- percent longitudinally, and 14.8 percent volu-
wood, and white, gray, or pinkish. The heart- metrically from green to ovendry. The relation-
wood frequently is marked with dark streaks and ship between radial and tangential shrinkage of
may at times show a golden luster. both species is fairly high, indicating that con-
Grain is usually interlocked, but is occasionally siderable warp and twist could occur as a result
straight; the texture is medium to coarse. Sea- of stresses that occur during seasoning. The 0.51
soned wood has no distinctive odor or taste. The percent longitudinal shrinkage of H. davisii is
wood is particularly attractive, resembling sugar also relatively high for wood with interlocked
maple on the radial surface and having a high grain. Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 per-
lustrous sheen marked with scattered lines of ves- cent moisture content) would amount to about
sels on the tangential surface. Quartersawed half the above values (71, 144, 238).
wood is particularly attractive due to the expo- The wood of both species is relatively perme-
sure of the radial surface on the top surface of the able and absorbs and loses moisture readily. Ac-
boards. cording to Pfeiffer (175), Hymenaea courbaril
Weight.—The specific gravity based on ovendry does not swell or shrink excessively in response
weight and green volume averages 0.70 (0.62 to to changes in relative humidity. He found that
0.80) for Hymenaea courbaril from Puerto Rico, ovendry wood of this species reached a moisture
Honduras, and Surinam, and 0.67 (0.60 to 0.75) content of 10.4 percent when placed in heated
for H. davisii. The specific gravity, based on air- rooms having a 40-percent relative humidity, 14.0
dry volume and weight for both species, is re- percent at 70-percent relative humidity (air-dry),
ported by different sources from 0.75 to 1.05, and 23.0 percent at loo-percent (maximum) rela-
averaging about 0.84. Weight of green wood of tive humidity. Swelling from ovendry to equi-
both species averages about 70 pounds per cubic librium in the 40-, 70-, and loo-percent relative
foot when green and about 52 pounds air-dry, humidity conditions amounted to 6.73, 8.82, and
which is comparable to black locust (Robinia 11.3 percent respectively. These rates are accept-
pseudoacacia L.) in the seasoned condition (71, able for wood of Courbaril’s density.
33, 144). Mechanical properties.—Courbaril is a very
Seasoning.—Hymenaea courbaril is considered strong, hard, tough wood. In the green condition
slightly difficult to air-dry. It seasons at a fast to it is about equal or somewhat below black locust
moderate rate with slight checking, warp, and case- in most properties, but is slightly to considerably
hardening. H. davisii is somewhat more difficult superior to that timber in hardness and perpen-
to season, drying at a moderate rate with moderate dicular-to-the-grain properties. In comparison
surface checking and slight checking and warp with woods of similar density, Hymenae courbaril
(249); but seasoning must be slow if checking is is below average in bending and crushing strength
to be kept to a minimum. Some sources compare and stiffness, and above average in shock resist-
H. courbaril to black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) ance, hardness, compression, cleavage, and tension.
Hymenaea davisii in the green condition is gen- rims, general building construction, looms, naves
erally higher in strength properties than teak, and felloes of wheels, and as wooden parts in
but falls slightly below teak in elastic resilience, sugar mills and other mill machinery. It is also
shock resistance, and maximum crushing strength. used to some extent for lock gates in areas free
It is also a somewhat heavier wood than teak. from marine borers.
Both species are generally superior to white Supply.—Courbaril should be available in quan-
oak in the green condition, and retain their supe- tity from the Guianas and possibly British Hon-
riority in the air-dry condition in all properties duras and in limited amounts from Trinidad and
except compression perpendicular to the grain in other West Indies islands.
which Hymenaea davisii is slightly inferior to
white oak (249, 71).
Working properties.—Courbaril is moderately CRABWOOD
difficult to work, due largely to its high density. Carapa guianensis
It nails badly but has good screw-holding power,
takes glue well and turns satisfactorily. The wood Crabwood is a member of the mahogany family
finishes smoothly but does not take a high polish. (Meliaceae) and resembles the true mahoganies,
It is comparable to white oak in steam-bending sometimes being substituted for them. Crabwood
properties and splits rather easily (57, 240, 123, has been sold locally and overseas for many years,
66). often with unfavorable results due to poor con-
Durability.—Courbaril is generally not consid- version and drying practices. However, during
ered durable in contact with the ground. How- the last few years, with better milling and season-
ever, the high proportion of sapwood in second- ing practices and an increased knowledge of its
growth trees may account for the timber’s poor properties, the timber has gained an international
reputation for durability, as sapwood of all spe- reputation as a wood of high quality and many
cies is always lower in decay resistance than heart- uses (126).
wood. Recent laboratory tests indicated that the Nomenclature. —Crabwood is the preferred
heartwood of Hymenaea courbaril was very re- trade name for the timber of Carapa guianensis
sistant to a white-rot fungus and very resistant to Aubl. It is also known as cedro macho in some
resistant to a brown-rot fungus, although some- parts of the West Indies and in the United States,
what variable. Graveyard tests by Pfeiffer indi- and principally as andiroba in Brazil (186). A
cated that the wood is durable in the ground few other species of Carapa growing in Central
(175). and South America are frequently mistaken for
The wood has little resistance to marine borers C. guianensis but lack some of the good qualities
as evidenced by tests in Hawaiian and Atlantic of crabwood. Among these are C. surinamensis
waters (76, 249). The silica content of the wood, Miq. of Surinam, C. nicaraguensis C. DC. (C.
often associated with high resistance to marine slateri Standl.) from Costa Rica to western Ecua-
borers, amounts to only 0.02 percent (14). Hy- dor. Several other species of this genus are found
menaea courbaril is very resistant to termites, rat- in tropical Africa, the principal one being C. pro-
ing considerably above both West Indies mahog- cera DC.
any and Honduras mahogany in this respect Other common names of this timber are bastard
(263). The wood checks badly upon exposure to mahogany in British Honduras, krappa in Dutch
the weather without the protection of paint (55) Guiana, carapa rouge in French Guiana, em ire
and, consequently, rates relatively low in weather- andiroba in British Guiana, crappo in Trinidad,
ing properties. nazasi in Cuba, and varape or carapote in Guade-
Uses.-Courbaril’s high shock resistance fits it loupe. The timber also has been called British
admirably for use in sporting goods and for tool Guiana mahogany, karaba, karaba-yek, karapa,
handles in place of ash. It is also suitable for caraba, para mahogany, Demerara mahogany,
steam-bent boat parts for which oak is generally robe mahogany, and Brazilian mahogany. Names
used. As flooring and stair treads, it provides a referring to mahogany are misleading and should
very wear-resistant surface, which takes a fairly not be used.
good polish. The timber has been recommended Distribution and habitat.-Crabmood occurs in
for veneer, because the characteristic wide sap- the West Indies from Cuba to Trinidad and on the
continent from Honduras south through Central
wood layer in second-growth timber works well
America, the Guianas and into Brazil, Colombia,
into natural and blond-finish furniture. Peru and the overflow delta lands of the Orinoco
Both the sapwood and heartwood are suitable in Venezuela (195). The tree is very abundant
for furniture, cabinetwork, interior trim, and in the Amazon flood plains in the States of Para
turnery. European manufacturers have recently and Amazonas, and in the Guianas (73). It oc-
shown interest in the timber as a piano wood. casionally grows in nearly pure stands, often as
Other purposes for which Courbaril is used in- reefs of 100 or more trees or occasionally up to
clude ship planking, tree-nails, gear cogs, wheel 200 trees.
Crabwood is a tree of the lowlands, preferring tannin, which is used occasionally in tanning. A
marshy land or land that is periodically inundated, creamcolored, intensely bitter oil of high acidity
although it tolerates a rather wide range of grow and very unpleasant smell, called carapa oil, is
ing conditions over its extensive range. The tree also derived from the seeds and used by the Indi-
occurs as a dominant climax species on old sand ans for many uses. Foremost is its use as an
reefs and sandbanks in marsh and riparian forests anointment for the skin and hair as a repellent,
of British Guiana. It is a frequent tree through- for ticks, sandflies, eyeflies, and other insects. It
out British Guiana, but is most abundant in the is also used as an illuminant by the Indians. The
mora forest on alluvial flats which are periodically oil is used industrially in the manufacture of
inundated. It is also scattered along watercourses soap, candles, insecticidal washes, and medicinally
on sandy or alluvial soils and occasionally in the for skin diseases, and as a wound dressing for
climax rain or seasonal forest on well-drained livestock.
steep hillsides (82). The wood.—Crabwood resembles a plain ma-
Trees growing in the mangrove swamps along hogally (Swietenia ) and some grades of cedar
the coast of British Guiana and on frequently (Cedrela) in color, general appearance, and tech-
inundated river or creek flats are comparatively nical properties, but it lacks the high luster and
small and of low quality; likewise, trees growing attractive figure present in the better grades of
along steep hillsides are also of inferior quality mahogany (265). The heartwood is a light sal-
to those growing on streambanks of sufficient mon or pale pink to reddish brown when freshly
height that they are only occasionally inundated. cut, becoming reddish brown to brown when dry.
It is the trees growing on these slightly higher The general color is somewhat darker than maho-
areas that provide the best timber. These con- gany because of the accumulated dark-colored
ditions are likely effective in other areas, particu- gum in the vessels. Wood, above average in den-
larly in the Guianas and Amazon regions. sity, is notably darker, while coarse-textured wood
Crabwood is also abundant in the marsh appears lighter and somewhat mealy on the radial
forests in the western half of Surinam but occurs surface. The sapwood is pinkish when freshly
in small numbers in the. swamp forests and rain cut, turning a pale brown or grayish color, often
forests of that country (231). with brown or black flecks, when dry. It is gen-
In Trindad, where crabwood is considered one erally 1 to 2 inches thick and not sharply demar-
of the best native species, the tree is generally cated from the heartwood.
not exacting as to soil and site as long as condi- The wood varies from coarse to fine but is most-
tions are not too dry (164, 161). The tree is ly medium in texture. The luster is generally
fairly common at high altitudes in Guadeloupe, medium but often low on the tangential surface,
where it prefers valley beds along rivers. It is although luster may be high in the more dense
confined to the southern part of British Hon- material and often very low in coarse-textured
duras in the Temash-Moho region, where trees wood. The grain is usually straight, but inter-
in the cohune forest, are small, and those growing locked grain and occasional fiddleback mottle oc-
on the broken ridges or swamps are somewhat curs in larger logs. Ripple marks occur sporad-
larger (150). ically in the denser tissue. The wood is generally
The tree.—The trees are evergreen, straight, of appreciably denser and harder than mahogany,
good form, and commonly 2 to 3 feet, in diameter comparing quite favorably with black walnut
and 80 to 100 feet in height. Under good grow- (Juglans nigra). Harrar (123) rates crabwood
ing conditions, they sometimes attain diameters 102 in hardness as compared to 100 for black wal-
up to 6 feet and heights of 170 feet (118). The nut at 6.4 percent moisture content. Odor and
trunks are usually buttressed or basally swollen taste are absent, in seasoned wood (143, 149) .
for 2 to 3 feet above the ground. Boles are clear Irregular growth rings due to bands of mar-
of branches for 30 to 90 feet, depending on the ginal parenchyma are visible on the cross section.
site, with the shortest trees occurring in the marsh The pores are open and visible to the naked eye.
and hillside forests. Trees are smallest in the Rays occasionally are faintly visible on the tan-
marshes, somewhat taller on the hillsides, and gential surface and distinct on the radial surface.
tallest on the alluvial flats and along water- In British Guiana some of the wood from hill-
courses where the species reaches its best develop- sides is darker, heavier, denser, and has inter-
ment and is most abundant. Nearly pure stands locked grain, similar to brown silverballi or bull-
of crabwood occur on these better sites. The forehead greenheart. Wood from swamplands is
trees grow rapidly, and reach felling size in 20 softer, lighter in color, more coarse, often woolly,
to 25 years in the marsh forests of British Guiana, and floats high out of the water (lighter in
around 30 to 35 years in the mora forests, and weight). Wood from the same site and even the
perhaps 40 to 60 years in the hill forests. same tree may vary in color.
The bark has a bitter taste due to an alkaloid Weight.—The specific gravity, based on oven-
called carapina, which is used medicinally far dry weight and green volume, averages about 0.56.
dysentery, diarrhea, rheumatism, eczema, and ul- Air-dry wood has a specific gravity of about 0.64.
cers. The bark also contains from 1 to 10 percent Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds per cubic
foot and green wood about 56 pounds per cubic rating crabwood as relatively stable in response to
foot. atmospheric changes.
Seasoning.—The Forest Products Research Mechanical properties.—The mechanical prop-
Laboratory in England reports that the timber erties of crabwood vary according to the density
air-seasons and kiln-dries rather slowly with a of the wood and to some extent with the source
tendency to split, check, and collapse during the of material because timber from different sources
early stages of drying, but without serious bowing often varies in density. Tests at the Forest Prod-
or cupping (222). They recommend cleating the ucts Research Laboratory in England (105)
end of boards after sawing and the use of thin showed air-dry wood to be about 30 percent
stickers. However, recent tests at Yale Univer- stronger in bending and in resistance to suddenly
sity (249) indicated that crabwood is only mod- applied loads, about 40 percent more resistant to
erately difficult to air-season with only moderate splitting, 50 percent stiffer, and about, 60 percent
checking and slight warping. In (Georgetown, harder on the side grain than Honduras mahog-
British Guiana, 1-inch lumber dries from 48 to any. It was considered equal in strength to black
19 percent moisture content in 25 days and to 14 walnut and black cherry.
percent in 62 days under open-sided sheds (25). Tests at Yale University (127, 249) showed
At the Forest Station, Mazaruni, British Guiana, considerable variability in strength according to
1-inch lumber dried from 60 to 15 percent mois- sources. Their results were summarized as fol-
ture content in 6 months. lows : “Compared with wood of similar density,
A low temperature and high humidity during andiroba is average in stiffness as measured in
the early stages of kiln-drying is essential to re- compression parallel to the grain, hardness, shear,
duce degrade. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest and cleavage; slightly above average in resistance
Products Research Laboratory in England is rec- to crushing, tougliness, and tension across the
ommended (222). Fanshawe (80) reports that grain; and definitely superior in compression
the timber is liable to reabsorb moisture rapidly across the grain, stress at proportional limit in
during rainy weather accompanied by a retarded compression along the grain, and all static-bend-
rate of seasoning. This moisture is lost again ing properties.” The Yale tests rated crabwood
more slowly. superior to mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)
Logs check badly in the woods and during ship- in all properties other than work to maximum
ment abroad and should be converted into lum- load and shear, and superior to yellow birch
ber as soon as possible after felling. Green lumber (Betula alleghaniensis) in all properties except
is reported to degrade up to 40 percent or more work to maximum load.
during overseas shipment, hut this may be pre- Working properties.—Cabwood is more diffi-
vented by seasoning before shipment. cult to machine than mahogany but can be worked
Shrinkage. —Crabwood varies considerably in quite easily with machines and hand tools and is
its rate of shrinkage, but compares very well with superior to Honduras mahogany in some respects.
other species of comparable density. Its shrink- Machining tests at the U.S. Forest Products Lab-
age rates of 3.1 percent radially, 7.6 percent tan- oratory (68) with Carapa nicaraguensis show that
gentially, and 10.4 percent volumetrically from the wood has good machining properties in plan-
green to ovendry are comparable to that of other ing, molding, shaping, turning, mortising, sanding,
woods of like density. The wood’s ratio of tan- and boring. Straight-grained material machines
gential to radial shrinkage is relatively high, indi- smoothly but quartersawed material is apt to pluck
cating nonuniform shrinkage in these two direc- when wavy grain is present. When this occurs,
tions. However, its longitudinal shrinkage of considerable sanding is required to obtain a smooth
0.10 percent is somewhat. below the average for finish.
other similar woods (127). The Forest Products Research Laboratory in
The stability of crabwood in response to changes England (105) rates crabwood as 25 percent
in atmospheric conditions is very good in com- harder to cut than Honduras mahogany and
parison to most other tropical species of similar equally more wearing on cutting edges. They
density. recommend a 15-degree knife angle for planing.
The Forest Products Research Laboratory in The wood holds nails well but has a slight tend-
England (108), studying the movement of wood ency to split when nailed. It rates above Hon-
(dimensional changes), found that this species duras mahogany in screw holding, Harrar (123)
reached an equilibrium moisture content of 20 rating it about equal with black cherry and white
percent in 90-percent relative humidity and 14 oak in this respect. It also glues well and takes
percent in 60-percent relative humidity. The cor- all finishing treatments very well but requires the
responding movement, between these two moisture use of a filler on the softer variety. The wood
contents was 1.5 percent tangentially and 1.3 per- assumes a walnut rather than mahogany appear-
cent radially compared to 1.3 and 1.0 percent, ance when treated with oil. Crabwood is not
respectively, for Honduras mahogany. This suitable for steam bending but peels well for
amounts to 3/16 inch per foot in the tangential veneer, although end splitting of the logs causes
plane and 5/32 inch per foot in the radial plane, a certain amount of loss.
Durability.—Crabwood logs are susceptible to plane plywood. The volume of logs and the pe-
pinhole borer damage, and the green lumber is riod of time indicates that the material was ac-
attacked by powder-post (Lyctus ) beetles (168, ceptable for whatever use it was employed (96).
134, 132). Wolcott, (263) found the wood very Crabwood is also a preferred wood in the manu-
susceptible to damage by dry-wood termites, facture of shoe heels (74). For pulping, in com-
rating 39 as compared to 59 for Honduras ma- bination with 14 other species from Surinam, it
hogany. The timber is variously reported to be makes a fairly good quality wrapping paper.
resistant or poorly resistant to decay in the ground. Species were used in the proportion of their oc-
Tests in different locations show varying results, currence in the forest, (137).
indicating density may be a factor in the dura- Supply.—British Honduras., Trinidad, and the
bility of this wood. three Guianas have crabwood in exportable quan-
Soil tests in England (206) rated the wood tities (50). Considerable quantities of logs are
durable in contact with the ground where it lasted rafted from British Guiana to Surinam for con-
10 to 15 years. Scheffer and Duncan (199) report version.
that Carapa nicaraguensis from Panama and Cen- The timber is plentiful in the Guianas and
tral America was moderately resistant in both soil British Honduras. In British Guiana, crabwood
and pure culture tests. Wangaard and Muschler occurs at a density of from 5 trees 16 inches and
(249) found C. guianensis very durable to both a over per 1,000 acres in the Demerara-Mahaicony
white-rot and brown-rot fungus, while soil tests area to 543 trees per 1,000 acres in the Cuyuni-
in British Guiana (50) showed the timber only Mazaruni area. These averages are based on a ½
slightly resistant. Because of these conflicting to 2 percent sampling of a 3,000 square mile area
reports, crabwood should not normally be used in the near interior. This timber is also available
in contact with the ground or where decay is a from Costa Rica where large supplies of lumber
problem. The wood is comparable to teak in fire and logs are available for export.
resistance and comparable to mahogany in
weathering properties; it rates very good in both
respects. DAKAMA
Uses.—Crabwood is used in Central and Dimorphandra conjugata
South America for furniture, turnery, shingles,
millwork, interior trim, boxes, crates, flooring, Nomenclature. —Dakama, Dimorphandra con-
masts, and as studding, rafters, sheathing, and jugata (Splitg.) Sandw:, is one of about 25 species
other items in house construction (51). It is one of Dimorphandra growing in Brazil, the Guianas
of the most preferred substitutes for mahogany in and Amazonian Venezuela. Mora, the similar
furniture and other uses in the areas where it genus, which is sometimes merged with Dimor-
grows. Crabwood has been recommended as a phandra, is described separately in this reference.
substitute for black walnut and black cherry in The tree and timber of D. conjugata are com-
the manufacture of furniture, interior finish, and monly called dakama by the Arawak Indians and
other similar uses. The Forest Products Research anjama by the Bush Negroes of Surinam. The
Laboratory recommends the timber for furniture, general trade name is dakama. (Legume family,
carcassing, chair and table legs, instrument cases, Leguminosae.)
drawer linings, and for general joinery such as Distribution and habitat.—Dakama is found in
shop fittings, display cabinets, cupboards, and the northeast and north-central districts of Brit-
moldings. it is generally considered very suit- ish Guiana, in Surinam, and possibly in French
able for interior work in boatbuilding, veneer, and Guiana. In British Guiana and Surinam the tree
plywood. is locally abundant and dominant on white sandy
Crabwood has been used successfully in Hol- soils on or near watersheds (89).
land as a substitute for oak in veneer manufacture. The tree.—Dakama occurs most often as a small
If prices are held down, this wood is considered coppice tree or scrub in the open, but in some loca-
an eventual competitor of yellow birch and sugar tions it develops into a large well-formed tree.
maple in the United States market. According These trees are commonly 16 to 24 inches in di-
to M. N. Gallant, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
ameter, 90 to 120 feet high, and clear of branches
tion forestry expert, crabwood is the principal
species used in British Guiana for siding in the for 60 to 80 feet. Trees up to 40 inches in di-
better class of wooden housing. It has also been ameter are found. The tree is unbuttressed and
designated as one of the eight local woods ac- coppices freely (231, 82).
ceptable for louvres, weather strips, sash frames, The wood.—The heartwood is dark reddish’
and Demerara shutters in the British Guiana brown, sometimes with paler streaks showing, and
Government’s housing program. has an oily feel and appearance. The texture is
Crabwood logs 24 to 50 inches in diameter were coarse and the grain varies from straight to irreg-
purchased in large quantities over a considerable ular, but is generally very irregular. Wood par-
period of time by German airplane manufactur- enchyma is abundant and distinct, appearing as
ers, and were presumably cut into veneer for air- diagonal bands on the transverse surface.
Weight.—The specific gravity of air-dry wood diameter and 90 to 100 feet high. Their cylindri-
(12.0 percent, moisture content,) averages about cal boles are clear of branches for 40 to 80 feet.
1.06, based on air-dry volume and weight. Air- Taper is often heavy, especially in trees under 2
dry wood weighs about, 66 pounds per cubic foot. feet in diameter (82). Timbers are available 40
Shrinkage and seasoning.—No information is feet long and squaring 30 inches of heartwood,
available on shrinkage or seasoning. and spars up to 70 to 80 feet long and 14 inches
Mechanical properties.—There are no avail- in diameter at the small end (190).
able data on the strength properties of dakama. The wood.—The wood does not resemble any of
It is generally known as a very hard, heavy, tough the other Lauraceae. The well-defined sapwood
wood. is creamy, gray, or creamy brown and about 1 to
Working properties.—Dakama is reported to 2 inches thick. The heartwood is a deep salmon
be rather difficult to work as could be expected of red when freshly cut, becoming a light reddish
a wood of its high density, irregular grain, coarse brown with a golden sheen resembling Honduras
texture, and oily nature, but is reported to finish mahogany when seasoned. The color is rather
smoothly. uniform with pink or yellow streaks occurring
Durability. —The timber is considered moder- occasionally (136, 71).
ately resistant to decay. The texture is coarse, uniform, and with numer-
Uses.—It is presently recommended as a gen- ous tyloses showing as shiny deposits in the
eral construction timber. Many other uses may vessels. The grain is either straight or roey,
be developed when more is known about the me- which occasionally shows as ribbonlike bands on
chanical and physical properties. the quartersawed surfare. Consequently, quar-
Supplies.—The total supplies of dakama are tersawed lumber is sometimes attractively figured
not large, but the timber is available in relatively because of the roey grain and the fine but distinct
large quantities in the districts where it occurs. rays. Straight-grained material is characterized
In British Guiana it is concentrated largely in the by the closely spaced, coarse vessel lines. Green
Essequibo-Demerara and Demerara-Makaicony wood has a pungent odor, but dry wood is without
areas. distinctive odor or taste. The wood is unusually
free of knots and other defects (213).
DETERMA Weight.—Determa is a moderately hard and
Ocotea rubra
heavy wood, similar in weight to yellow birch of
the United States. The specific gravity of wood
Nomenclature. —Ocotea rubra Mez botanically from Surinam and British Guiana averaged 0.52
is related to Demerara greenheart, Ocotea rodiaei in tests at. Yale University (249), based on green
(R. Schomb.) Mez, although the woods are quite volume and ovendry weight. The specific gravity
different. The laurel family, Lauraceae, contains of air-dry wood averages about 0.62, based on
also many other related species in tropical weight and volume in that condition. Green
America. wood weighs about 59 pounds and air-dry wood
The timber is commonly marketed as determa, about 39 pounds per cubic foot.
wana, or teteruma in British Guiana; wana, baa- Seasoning. —The wood is moderately difficult.
ka, bewana, wane, and teteroma in Surinam; grig- to air-season and kiln-dry, largely due to the slow
non franc, grignon rouge, and grignon in French diffusion rate of free moisture through the wood
Guiana; louro vermelho in Brazil; and laurier or and the development of collapse, if the drying
laurier canelle in Trinidad. Red louro is the rate is greatly accelerated. Thick stock tends to
standard timber name recommended by British remain moist in the center for a considerable time,
Standards Institution (36). thereby causing slight casehardening. In gen-
Distribution and habitat.—Determa grows in eral, the wood air-dries at a moderate rate with
the Guianas, Trinidad, and the lower Amazon re- slight checking and casehardening and moderate
gion of Brazil. In British Guiana, the tree is of warping. In Georgetown, British Guiana, green
occasional to frequent occurrence on sandy or 1-inch lumber can be air-seasoned to 21 percent.
loamy soils within the rain and seasonal forest moisture content in 4½ months. Yale University
(82). In Surinam it occurs as an occasional tree (70) reports a 6-month drying period at New
in the rain and marsh forest, becoming more plen- Haven, Conn., for 1-inch stock piled during the
tiful on the Saramacca District on brown sandy early part of the year.
soils, and disappearing west of the Wayombo The wood kiln-dries at a moderate rate but with
River (231). It is apparently found principally a definite tendency to check and develop
on the lowlands within the lower Amazon region end splits, although it is successfully kiln-
in Brazil (71). seasoned if a mild kiln schedule, is used during the
The tree.—The trees are evergreen, unbut- first part of the run (222). Stock above 90 per-
tressed but generally basally swollen. They have cent moisture content requires about 6 to 7 weeks
erect-spreading, heavy-branched and rounded, to kiln-dry under a mild schedule. Kiln Sched-
compact crowns. Trees grow to 5 feet in diameter ule 5 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory
and 130 feet high, but are usually 2 to 3 feet in is recommended (222). A successful kiln sched-
ule was also developed at Yale University and attack after 10 months’ exposure and moderate
is presented in their Technical Report 5 (70). attack by teredo and pholads after 15 months’
Shrinkage. —Wood from Surinam and British exposure (58, 249). However, after 28 months
Guiana undergoes an average shrinkage from the test, panels were riddled and removed from
green to ovendry of 3.7 percent radially, 7.6 per- the tests (58). A similar test, in Hawaiian waters
cent tangentially, and 10.4 percent volumetrically showed either no infestation or only light attack
(249). The overall shrinkage is moderate, but the by teredo over a 13-month period (76).
ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is indica- On the basis of these tests, determa is similar
tive of a tendency for moderate warp to occur dur- to teak but below Demerara greenheart in resist-
ing seasoning. However, the timber has lower ance to marine borers in salt, water. The ash
shrinkage values than most of the better quality of this timber was determined at only 0.19 per-
hardwoods of the United States, including sugar cent in tests at the Institute of Paper Chemistry
maple, shagbark hickory, white ash, white oak, (261). No silica is detectable microscopically., in-
and yellow birch. The longitudinal shrinkage dicating that the resistance to marine organisms
value of 0.26 percent in determa is not out of was not associated with a high silica content.
proportion for woods with interlocked grain. Uses.—Determa is recognized as a wood of good
Shrinkage from green to air-dry would amount quality in British Guiana and accordingly com-
to approximately half the above values. mands relatively high prices. It is used within
Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests at its range for furniture of all types: greenhouse
Yale University (249) indicated that the wood is sash framing, sugar boxes, interior and exterior
somewhat below average in strength properties construction, boat planking, punt masts, packing
for tropical woods of similar density. It about boxes, cart and truck bodies, turned articles, cabi-
equals white oak in resistance to bending and com- network, drawing boards, dowel rods, and other
pression parallel to the grain, but is inferior to uses. Dugout canoes are also made from it be-
oak in other mechanical properties. It compares cause of its large size and resistance to splitting.
well with oak under gradually applied loads but The government of British Guiana selected de-
fails earlier under suddenly applied bending loads. terma as one of 18 local timbers acceptable for
In comparison to black walnut, it is stronger, interior partitions and battens in the housing
stiffer, not as tough, and weaker in cleavage re- program.
sistance. The timber is softer on the end grain The wood’s natural resistance to moisture ab-
than on the side and has greater tangential than sorption should promote its use for boat parts,
radial resistance to splitting. tanks, vats, tight, cooperage, and other similar
Working properties.—Determa works easily items. Its resistance to teredo, termites, and de-
and well with both hand and machine tools, being cay should also fit the timber for use in heavy
similar to a dense grade of Honduras mahogany durable construction, piling and marine construc-
in this respect. Saw type D is recommended by tion, and for uses in contact, with the ground
the Forest Products Research Laboratory (124). where durability is essential. The timber has
However, the use of dull cutting edges should be also been recommended for plywood and veneer.
avoided as they tend to raise the gram. This wood Having good bending qualities, the wood is rec-
glues easily (240) and polishes fairly well, al- ommended for bent parts in furniture, boats, and
though its coarse texture requires the use of fillers other items (136).
(136). Weathering characteristics of the wood Supply. —The supply of determa is not large,
are very good; unpainted wood can be exposed but sizable quantities are available for export in
to the elements with virtually no checking or warp the three Guianas.
and only a moderate loss of surface smoothness
(55). The heartwood is unusually resistant to the DUKALI
absorption of moisture, surpassing teak in this re-
spect (198). Parahancornia amapa
Durability. —The heartwood is rated durable to
very durable to a white-rot, fungus, and though Dukali is one of the few tropical American
variable it averages durable to a brown-rot fun- hardwoods suitable to some extent as a substitute
gus (249). In graveyard tests in British Guiana, for the white pine imported from the United
the wood was highly resistant to decay in contact States. The tree also furnishes a bitter latex
with the ground; 2- by 2-inch square test pieces used in medicines and is a limited source of a
lasted 8 to 9 years in the ground (50). gutta percha. It also provides an edible fruit.
The timber is rated about as resistant to dry- Nomenclature. —The wood of Parahancornia
wood termites as Honduras mahogany (Swietenia amapa (Huber) Duke is called dukali in British
macrophylla ) but is considerably less so than Guiana; amaapa, mampa, and mappa in Surinam;
teak (263). It also has some resistance to marine- amapa in Brazil; and naranja podrida in Peru.
borer attack as evidenced by tests at Harbor Is- This genus has about six species, mostly in Bra-
land, N.C., where heartwood showed only slight zil. (Dogbane family, Apocynaceae.)
Distribution and habitat.—Dukali occurs in- The tree.—Encens is a straight, nearly unbut-
frequently throughout most of the Amazon Basin, tressed evergreen tree generally distributed
including the Guianas. In British Guiana it throughout the rain forests on many different
occurs in small reefs on light soils in seasonal soils and sites. It reaches a maximum height of
forests, and as a rare tree in the rain forest 80 to 90 feet and a diameter of about 2 feet or
throughout the near interior. more on favorable sites in St. Lucia (154).
The wood.—The heartwood is dull white to pale The wood.—The timber resembles mahogany in
cream or pinkish. It has a moderatly fine texture, superficial appearance due to the relatively soft,
straight grain, and is fairly lustrous. The timber fine-textured, pink-colored heartwood. The sap-
is moderately hard and firm and without dis- wood is white; the grain is uniform and fine.
tinctive odor or taste (190, 82). Weight. —Air-dry wood is reported to have a
Weight. —Air-dry wood is reported to have a specific gravity of 0.52 and to weigh 32 pounds
specific gravity of 0.60 and to weigh 37 pounds per cubic foot.
per cubic foot (82). The timber is somewhat Seasoning.—The wood air-seasons to between
heavier than white pine (27 pounds) and lighter 17 and 18 percent moisture content in 5 months on
than pitch pine (44 pounds) (160, 50). St. Lucia without any apparent degrade, and is
Shrinkage and seasoning.—No information is stable after manufacture (50).
available on shrinkage and seasoning. Shrinkage.--No information available.
Mechanical properties.—Information on Mechanical properties.—Detailed strength
strength properties of dukali is not available, but tests are lacking for encens, but limited tests indi-
its uses would suggest that the timber possesses cate that the wood is fairly elastic though quite
strength properties commensurate with its den- fissile (218).
sity, which is between those of white pine and Working properties.—Encens works easily and
yellow pine of the United States. well with all power and hand tools. It planes to a
Working properties.—The wood is easy to smooth lustrous surface, saws easily across the
work and finishes smoothly. grain but leaves a rough edge, drills easily, and
Durability. —It. is not resistant to decay and is takes nails without splitting. The wood polishes
also very susceptible to blue stain and pocket rot. well and is very attractive when finished, resem-
The timber is not likely to have any appreciable bling mahogany when well finished (154, 153).
resistance to termites or marine borers. Durability. —Encens succumbs very quickly to
Uses.—In British Guiana, the Forest Depart- insects or decay and is generally rated low in re-
ment recommends dukali as a substitute for white sistance to both (218, 154, 50, 153).
pine. In that country it is used for general car- Uses.—Because of its easy working properties,
pentry, interior work, furniture, door and win- light weight, and attractive appearance., encens is
dow stock, concrete forms, and matchboxes. It is used in St. Lucia and other West Indies islands
also recommended for box manufacture and ply- for furniture, cabinetmaking, interior paneling
wood (82). Directors of the official housing pro- and trim, and other uses where a durable timber is
gram in British Guiana have selected dukali as not required. It is also used for boxes and crates.
one of eight local timbers acceptable for louvers, Gum derived from the bark is sometimes used for
weatherstrips, sash frames, and Demerara shut- incense.
ters; and as one of 18 species acceptable for in- Supply.—Encens is available on St. Lucia and
terior partitions and battens. possibly other nearby islands in the Lesser An-
Supply.—British Guiana is the principal tilles (154).
source of the timber, although it may be available
in Surinam and French Guiana when an export GOMMIER
market develops.
Dacryodes excelsa
Nomenclature. —Dacryodes excelsa Vahl (D.
ENCENS hexandra (Hamilt.) Griseb.) is one of the best
Protium attenuatum formed and most, extensively used timbers of
Puerto Rico, Dominica, St. Lucia, and other West
Nomenclature.— Protium attenuatum (Rose) Indies islands. It is best known as gommier
Urban is known as encens, gommier, and bois en-
throughout its range except in Puerto Rico, where
cens, with encens the preferred trade name.
the name is tabonuco. Names in Guadeloupe and
(Bursera family, Burseraceae.) Martinique are gommier blanc and gommier mon-
Distribution and habitat.—The tree is appar-
ently restricted to the southern part of the Lesser tagne. The tree and wood are also known as
Antilles in Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, gommier blanc in Dominica and mountain gom-
St. Lucia, and St. Vincent (18). It is common in mier in Grenada. (Bursera, family, Bursera-
St. Lucia, less frequent in Dominica, and uncom- ceae.)
mon in St. Vincent. The tree is not reported from Distribution and habitat.-Gommier is con-
Grenada. fined to Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles, gen-
erally occurring in small groups along ridgetops within the tropics, this shrinkage is not a limiting
and upper slopes in the rain forests. It is re- factor (252, 149, 160).
corded from Puerto Rico, St. Kitts, Montserrat, The ratio of ‘radial to tangential shrinkage is
Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. relatively low, indicating the wood should season
Vincent, and Grenada (18, 37). with a minimum of checking and distortion. In
The tree.—Gommier is a large to very large this respect, gommier is superior to African ma-
evergreen tree, reaching its best development in hogany (Khaya ivorensis) and Honduras mahog-
Puerto Rico, where it grows to 120 feet high and any (Swietenia macrophylla) and about equal to
a diameter of 3 to 5 feet,. Mature trees are more yellow birch and West Indies mahogany.
commonly 60 to 80 feet tall and 20 to 30 inches Mechanical properties.—Mechanical tests of
in diameter. The trees are deep rooted, unbut- tabonuco from Puerto Rico (252) rate the wood
tressed, and able to withstand the numerous hur- as moderately hard, tough, and strong. In gen-
ricanes of the Caribbean area. The bark is eral, its strength properties are the same as those
smooth, light gray to nearly white, and often of Honduras mahogany, and equal or superior to
scarred at the base of the tree from gashes made those of yellow birch except in stiffness and resili-
to secure a fragrant resin used for candles and ence. It also compares very favorably with Afri-
torches, and for incense and medicinal purposes. can mahogany and West Indies mahogany in all
Because of its abundance, size, and straight, well- strength properties.
formed clear bole, gommier was one of the most Working properties.-The timber is easy to
valuable lumber trees of the original mountain work with some tendency to dull saws and other
forests in Puerto Rico (170). cutting edges, because of the accumulated silica
The wood.—Gommier is variously reported to in the wood. When sharp cutting edges are main-
resemble birch (Bet&a), mahogany, and some- tained, the wood finishes smoothly and takes glue
times yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) and all finishes effectively. It is a good wood for
in superficial appearance. The heartwood is a turning and holding nails (153, 50).
uniform pale brown with a purplish cast when Durability. —Gommier is generally considered
first cut; it turns to a pinkish brown when sea- in Puerto Rico and elsewhere as only slightly re-
soned and a lustrous brown on exposure. The sistant to decay (190, 170). This is substantiated
narrow sapwood, an unattractive grayish color, is by graveyard tests in St. Lucia (50), where the
not clearly demarcated from the heartwood. The wood was destroyed after 3 years in both wet and
texture is fine to medium and uniform. The wood dry locations. Wolcott (263) rates the timber as
is generally somewhat finer textured than mahog- very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite
any, which it resembles superficially. Silica is of the West Indies. Gommier has failed quickly
abundant in the wood, particularly in the ray in Puerto Rico when used in waters infested with
cells (190, 252, 50). The grain is more or less marine borers.
roey and sometimes interlocked, creating an at- Preservation. —The timber is reported as diffi-
tractive ribbon stripe. The luster is high and cult to impregnate with preservatives under both
sometimes satiny in appearance. Growth rings pressure and nonpressure methods (194, 252).
are not distinct, and seasoned wood lacks any dis- Uses.—Gommier is used in Puerto Rico prin-
tinctive odor or taste. cipally for furniture and cabinetmaking in the
Weight.—The wood is moderately heavy. The urban areas and for general construction and car-
specific gravity of air-dry wood, based on weight pentry in the rural areas (252). In St. Lucia and
and volume in the air-dry condition, averages 0.64. Dominica it is used for crates, shingles, small boat
Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds per cubic building and furniture (154). The wood has suf-
foot and green wood, 52 pounds. It is similar to ficient strength and attractiveness to merit its
sugar maple and yellow birch in this respect. use in place of yellow birch, mahogany, and other
Seasoning. —Gommier seasons easily with no cabinet woods. In Puerto Rico it is often stained
appreciable distortion or other defects. It is re- a dark mahogany color and sold as “mahogany.”
ported to air-season in the island of Dominica as Rails and posts of “mahogany” beds are frequently
well as the average softwood (conifer) in 3 to 4 made of gommier, stained dark to hide its identity.
months and in St. Lucia in 5 months with very This is the result of gommier’s reputation of being
little degrade (50). Experience in Puerto Rico very susceptible to termite attack in comparison
agrees with the report from Dominica. to mahogany’s known resistance to termites (231,
Shrinkage. —Gommier undergoes a volumetric 263). The wood is considered by Wellwood (252)
shrinkage of 10.5 percent, radial shrinkage of 4.1 and others as suitable for veneer.
percent, and tangential shrinkage of 6.4 percent Supply.—The timber is only of local impor-
from green to ovendry. It exceeds both West tance; no exportable volumes are available at pres-
Indies and Honduras mahogany in volumetric ent. St. Lucia and other. islands may have sur-
shrinkage, which is a disadvantage if the wood pluses at some future date for the tree reproduces
is used where wide variations in atmospheric hu- well and is fairly immune to disease, insect attack,
midity are likely to occur. However, when used and hurricane damage.
DEMERARA GREENHEART best development on light, sandy soils in a meso-
phytic habitat, but seldom occurs at elevations
Ocotea rodiaei
greater than 500 feet above sea level. It grows
Demerara greenheart is an excellent timber for mostly on slopes leading clown to streams and in
many uses, but, is most highly regarded for marine damp sites near streams. It also grows in true
construction because of its high resistance to ma- swamps between streams, where the tree size,
rine borers and very high resistance to fungi and quality, and volume per acre are not quite as good
termites. The timber’s resistance to destructive as on the slopes (26, 44, 190).
agencies is further supported by exceptionally The tree.—The tree is evergreen, usually dom-
high strength properties, qualifying it for numer- inant or co-dominant.; it grows to a maximum of
ous uses where durability, strength, and good 40 inches in diameter and 130 feet in height, but
wearing qualities are essential. Other woods are normally only 16 to 24 inches in diameter and
occasionally called greenheart and used as sub- about 100 feet in height. Boles are generally
stitutes, but none have proved as satisfactory as cylindrical, straight, and 50 to 75 feet long.
true Demerara greenheart. Nearly all the com- Taper is moderate, amounting to about 1 inch in
mercial supply comes from British Guiana, where 16 feet. Crowns are conical or oval or sometimes
it is one of the most plentiful timbers (241). irregularly open, small, heavy, and a dark glossy
Nomenclature.—The timber of Ocotea rodiaei green in color. The bark is flaky and cream
( R . S c h o m b . ) M e z (Nectandra rodiaei R. colored. Trees are generally basally swollen or
Schomb.) is generally known throughout the have low buttresses.
American tropics, Europe, and the United States Many of the standing mature trees are defec-
as Demerara greenheart, or more often as just tive. There is more defectiveness on rocky sites
greenheart. The name Demerara greenheart is where the tree is not as well adapted as on the
preferred to distinguish it from other woods sold moist sites. On the average, 80 to 85 percent of
on the market as greenheart. all trees have some defect, particularly in the butt
The principal vernacular names used in British portion (26).
Guiana are bibiru and sipiri, rora, kwatuk sipu, The wood.—The pale yellow or greenish sap-
and bibiju. In Surinam and the Netherlands, wood of Demerara greenheart is 1 to 2 inches
it is called beeberoe, sipiroe, and groenhartbloom; thick in small trees and about 3 inches thick in
and in Germany, gruenholz, gruenherzbaum, and mature trees. The sapwood is not easily defined
bibirubaum. In the trade, the wood is often sepa- from the heartwood, which varies in color from
rated into black, brown, yellow, and white green- yellowish green, greenish yellow, or light olive
heart, although wood of different colors is reported through golden yellow, dark olive, or yellowish
to have the same physical and mechanical proper- brown to very dark brown, blackish, or black.
ties. (Laurel family, Lauraceae.) Figured (bull-forehead) wood has a curly
Distribution and habitat.—Demerara green- gram and golden or black bands running across
heart occurs principally in British Guiana and the width of the boards. The wood of logs with
in lesser amounts in Surinam on the upper Mara- rotten or defective hearts has a distinctive yellow
takka River and in Venezuela on the upper color. The wood is straight grained to roey, fine
Cuyuni River. It has also been reported from in texture, uniform, lustrous, and cold to the
the Maroni Region of western French Guiana and touch. Freshly cut wood is strongly aromatic
from northern Brazil (44, 26). but becomes odorless and tasteless when dry.
The distribution of the tree is very limited in The wood is usually free of knots and other de-
Surinam and Venezuela. In British Guiana it fects (190, 143, 135, 105).
ranges widely over 20,000 square miles of the near Weight.—The timber is exceedingly heavy,
interior from the Corentyne River to the Waini weighing about 75 to 80 pounds per cubic foot
River, with isolated patches farther west. Com- in the green condition (50 percent moisture con-
mercial distribution in northern British Guiana tent) and about 65 pounds when air-dry (12 per-
is within the area drained by the Pomeroom, cent moisture content). The specific gravity of
Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Essequibo, Demerara, and Ber- air-dry wood averages about 1.04, based on air-
bice Rivers, exclusive of the coastlands (4 4) . dry volume and weight, and about 0.88, based on
The best remaining stands are in the Bartica Tri- green volume and ovendry weight (26, 190, 105,
angle’ the Kartabo Triangle, the Cuyuni-Su- 149).
penaam-Pomeroon area, and the Upper Demerara Seasoning.—The timber is moderately difficult
River (26). This area of 2,360 square miles is to air-season and somewhat more difficult to kiln-
estimated to contain more than 300,000,000 cubic dry in comparison to other timbers. With mild
feet of sound, merchantable timber. drying conditions under cover in England, the
Greenheart avoids the drier sites, but will grow timber air-dries very slowly with a marked tend-
under conditions of physiological drought as in ency to check and with some end splitting. How-
the mora and wallaba forests. The tree is found ever, warping is not serious, and the total amount
frequently on all types of soil and reaches its of degrade is not excessive.
One-inch boards are reported to air-season to but 100 percent harder, 140 percent stronger in
18 percent moisture content, in 1 year in England, bending and compression along the grain, and
with 2-inch boards requiring 2 years to reach the 120 percent stiffer in bending under gradually
same moisture content. According to the British applied loads. Greenheart is 25 percent stiffer
Guiana Forest Department, 1-inch boards season than black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), the
to 17 percent, moisture content in 3 months and to strongest and stiffest commercial hardwood of
15 percent moisture content in 5 months at the North America. Demerara greenheart is twice as
Mazaruni Station in that country. One-inch strong in resistance to shock as oak, but somewhat
boards are reported to season to 15 percent mois- inferior to hickory in this respect. Its cleavage
ture content, at Georgetown, British Guiana, in strength is about the same as that of oak radially
3 months. and 70 percent better tangentially than that of oak,
Kiln-seasoning is extremely slow with consider- which is not particularly outstanding because of its
able degrade, particularly in the thicker sizes. cleavable character. Greenheart is one of the best
Distortion is not excessive, but checking and split- timbers for resisting tensile and compressive
ting tend to be severe during kiln-seasoning. In strains. The wood is flexible in narrow strips and
general, timber over l-inch thickness should be has a high coefficient of friction that gives it a
air-seasoned prior to kiln-drying. Kiln Schedule nonslip tractive property when wet or even when
2 of Forest Products Research Laboratory is coated with a film of oil or grease (16, 149, 24,
recommended (105, 222, 26, 118, 237). 26, 105, 265, 135) .
Shrinkage.—Shrinkage rates for Demerara Working properties.—The wood is moderately
greenheart are relatively low for a wood of its difficult to work with either hand or machine tools
great density. The Forest Products Research because of its exceedingly high density and hard-
Laboratory reports (222, 105) shrinkage values ness. It resists cutting about like a tough grade
from green to air-dry (12 percent moisture con- of English oak. The timber dulls cutting edges
tent) of 3.0 percent in the radial plane and 4.5 rather quickly but finishes to a fine smooth lustrous
percent in the tangential plane, or 3/8 and 9/16 surface. If cutting edges become dull, there is a
inch per foot, respectively. This compares tendency for surfaces to become slightly
favorably with results at Duke University (123) roughened. Because of the low cleavage resis-
showing 3.4 percent radial and 4.2 percent tangen- tance of the wood, cross-grained or end-grain
tial shrinkage from green to the air-dry condition. material must be machined carefully to avoid the
Shrinkage from green to ovendry, which gener- breaking-off of chips and splinters at the exit of
ally averages about twice that from green to air- the tool. The timber turns easily and takes a high
dry, was reported by Kynoch and Norton (149) finish with wax, oil, or French polish without the
at 8.2 percent radially, 9.6 percent tangentially, need of a filler. Gluing gives fairly good results.
and 16.8 percent volumetrically. This compares It is a moderately good bending wood but does
favorably with shrinkage rates for yellow birch not take nails well, requiring prebored holes to
of 7.2, 9.2, and 16.7 percent, respectively. Volu- avoid splitting and nail bending.
metric shrinkage is equal to that of yellow birch, Tests at Duke University (123) on the screw-
which is of much lower density. The low and holding capacity of greenheart show that it is
very favorable ratio of tangential to radial intermediate to Courbaril (Hymenaea courbaril)
shrinkage may account for the absence during and purpleheart (Peltogyne pubescens) in the
seasoning of any appreciable amount of cup, bow, force required to extract No. 6 and No. 10 screws,
or twist. giving the wood a rating of “good” in screw-
The timber does not react readily to changes in holding capacity.
atmospheric conditions but in time undergoes a Bandsaws with four teeth per inch and circular
moderate rate of movement when subjected to saws with the following specifications are recom-
changed atmospheric conditions. It will reach an mended for ripping Demerara greenheart: Di-
equilibrium moisture content of 11 percent in a ameter, 26 inches with rim speed of 10,000 feet
relative humidity of 60 percent, and a moisture per minute; pitch 0.048 × diameter; hook of 15°
content of 16 percent in a 90-percent relative for green wood and 10° for seasoned material;
humidity. This change is accompanied by a move- depth of gullet 0.4 × pitch; width of tooth 0.3 ×
ment, (swelling or shrinkage) of 2.0 percent tan- pitch. A pig-type tooth is recommended for
gentially and 1.6 percent radially, or ¼ and 3/16 crosscutting (26). The timber is reported to be
inch per foot., respectively (108).
somewhat troublesome when sawed on band mills
Mechanical properties.-The strength prop-
erties of Demerara greenheart are exceptionally in the Guianas, as it dulls saws rapidly and logs
high, even for a wood of its great density; it is tend to spring during sawing. These difficulties
considered one of the strongest‘ woods in the are not as prevalent in circular mills or frame
American tropics. In general, the timber is ex- saws, and are largely overcome in an efficient
ceptionally hard, heavy, tough, strong, and elastic bandsaw operation.
but inclined to splinter when fractured. It is The acid content of the wood is very low, cal-
only 40 to 50 percent heavier than English oak culated at 0.48 percent of acetic acid in air-dry
wood, which represents a very low corrosive effect cellent wearability under heavy use. And because
on nails, spikes, and metal fastenings. of its high fire resistance (very slow burning),
Durability. —The sapwood of greenheart, as in Lloyds rate the wood A-1 for ship construction,
all other timbers, is not, durable to insects, fungi, second only to teak. The American Bureau of
or marine borers. The heartwood is very resistant Shipping has also approved greenheart for use in
to all types of wood-destroying fungi. The tim- shipbuilding because of its tire resistance.
ber was given a rating of “very highly resistant” Preservation. —This wood is nearly imperme-
in graveyard tests in British Guiana (50, 206) . able to preservatives by either open-tank or pres-
Similar tests in England gave comparable results. sure methods, but fortunately has enough natural
The heartwood of Demerara greenheart has been durability to nearly eliminate the need for pre-
subjected to the action of 24 different wood-de- servative treatment. Only slight end penetration
stroying fungi at the Forest Products Research and virtually no lateral penetration is achieved
Laboratory, and was found to be highly resistant with either open-tank or pressure treatment (265,
to all of them and, in most tests, practically im- 105).
mune to damage. The high resistance was attrib- Uses.—Demerara greenheart is obtainable in
uted to the presence of tyloses in the pores and square, hewn logs or timbers from 70 to 85 feet
certain alkaloids in the wood (51). long and 24 to 30 inches square, even though spec-
The timber is reported by many sources as ifications normally call for a minimum square of
highly resistant to marine organisms in temperate from 11 to 18 inches and lengths of 30 to 50 feet,.
salt or brackish waters and in tropical salt waters, These sizes represent timber free from sapwood.
but not in tropical fresh or brackish waters (76 Round piling is also available in lengths up to 80
26 ). The high resistance to marine organisms is feet, although the average is 40 to 60 feet with a
not in this timber the result of a high silica con- 12- to 18-inch butt diameter and 6- to 12-inch top
tent (considered by some as the principal com- diameter.
ponent present in woods resistant to teredine bor- Taper in hewn logs does not normally exceed 1
ers), for the wood has only 0.01 percent or less inch in a 40-foot log or 2 inches in 60 feet. Logs
silica as compared to as much as 2.43 in some squared to maximum dimensions seldom vary
samples of manbarklak. more than 1 to 1½ inches on adjacent faces. Fig-
Demerara greenheart’s resistance to marine ured logs, those with a crenated form called “bull-
borer attack is generally attributed to the pres- forehead” greenheart, are fairly common but are
ence of toxic alkaloid, biberine, or nectandrine generally not logged because they are difficult to
(14). Recent tests of greenheart, and 36 other square. Then too, even though the figure usually
timbers at Wrightville, N.C. (58), indicate 11 of occurs only in the outer part of the log, it may at
the 37 timbers tested were superior to greenheart times be continuous throughout (26).
in resistance to marine borers under the condi- The most important, use for Demerara green-
tions prevailing at this location. These timbers heart is in marine and ship construction. In ma-
listed in their order of resistance are as follows: rine construction, it is used for revetments, docks,
locks, fenders, braces, decking, groins, gates, piers,
Rating in
order of piling, jetties, and wharves; and in ship construc-
resistance Species Name tion, for keelsons, beams, engine bearers, planking,
1----------- Licania macrophylla marish gangways, fenders, stern posts, and sheathing for
2----------- Parinari rodolphii parinary whaling ships.
3----------- Parinari campestris burada The timber has been used in the Panama Canal
4----------- Eschweilera subglandulosa manbarklak
5----------- Vouacapoua americana wacapou since its initial construction for gates, dredges, and
6--------- Licania buxifolia marish dry docks. It has long been a favorite material
7---------- Eschweilera odora manbarklak for lock gates, piling, and other marine construc-
8----------- Lecythis paraensis sapucaia tion in Europe, particularly in England and Hol-
9----------- Hymenolobium excelsum angelim
10---------- Lecythis usitata land. It has also been used for these purposes
11---------- Eschweilera blanchetiana ---- for many years in Mexico, India, South America,
12---------- Ocotea rodiaei greenheart and the United States. Greenheart enjoys an al-
most exclusive position for round or hewn piling
Greenheart and other timbers vary in their re- owing to the long lengths that can be supplied.
sistance to marine borers from one locality to an-
The only serious Caribbean competitor is ange-
other, largely because of the presence of different lique. Hewn angelique piling is considered by
wood-destroying organisms and other local con- some people to be superior to greenheart piling.
ditions (14).
Greenheart is particularly well fitted for use
The wood is almost immune to attacks by dry- where a heavy, hard, straight-grained, very
wood termites, pinhole borers, and other wood-
destroying insects. Wolcott (263) rates the wood strong, and durable wood is required, as in heavy
very resistant to dry-wood termites—91 in termite construction, bridges, trestles, flooring, shipping
resistance in comparison to 80 for West Indies platforms, and other uses where resistance to
mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany. It wear is required. Because of its great strength
has very good weathering characteristics and ex- and stiffness, the wood has been in demand for
many years in the manufacture of fishing rods in hao, and Amazonas in Brazil, where they are of
the United States. It is also used for walking rather common occurrence in the primeval forests
sticks, billiard cue butts, belaying pins, mortars, on the higher, noninundated sites. Qualea coerula
and in textile mills for picker sticks. is a frequent tree in the marsh forests of Surinam,
In British Guiana the timber is employed in especially in the eastern part of the country,
many more uses where a strong durable wood is while Q. rosea and Q. albiflora are rare to locally
required, including crossarms, paving blocks, frequent, in the rain forests. Q. rosea is a common
boardwalks, axles, wheel spokes, mining timbers, tree in French Guiana constituting one-eighth of
box culverts, fence posts, and for many uses in the trees in some parts of the country (231, 118,
general building construction. The Forest Prod- 190). Q. albiflora is found also in British Guiana.
ucts Research Laboratory in England recom- The tree.—The trees are generally tall, some-
mends the timber as excellent for all heavy types times attaining a height of 200 feet, with long
of factory and warehouse flooring because of its clear boles and often of very large diameter. In
smooth, long-wearing qualities (109). French Guiana, Qualea rosea is a well-formed
Supply.—Most of the commercial supply is ob- tree up to 150 feet tall, averaging 2 feet in diam-
tained from British Guiana, where the Govern- eter, and free of branches for 60 to 70 feet
ment control of cutting and the extent of the for- (23). There is a lack of information in the litera-
ests will assure a steady supply of the timber for ture concerning the dimensions and growth habits
many years ahead. The current government pol- in the rest, of the tree’s range.
icy of managing stands of this species on a sus- The wood.—The cream-colored sapwood of
tained yield basis will permit recutting every 80 gronfoeloe is 1¼ to 2¼ inches thick, and except
to 100 years. for Qualea rosea is rather clearly separated from
The volume of commercial timber in the acces- the heartwood. Freshly cut heartwood is a pink-
sible forest area in British Guiana is estimated at ish brown; upon drying it, turns a light reddish
1,600,000,000 cubic feet-about 12 billion board brown with a definite coppery or golden look.
feet or more of sawed lumber (109). (See section Superficially, the wood resembles Spanish cedar
on Distribution and Habitat.) In 1954 about (Cedrela) and quaruba or yemeri (Vochysia ),
1,427,000 cubic feet of the round, hewn, and sawed Growth rings are not distinct, but show as con-
timber of all dimensions was shipped from that centric bands made visible by differences in color
country, principally to the United Kingdom, Brit- density of the groundmass that show up on the
ish West Indies, Europe, and the United States. tangential surface as conspicuous parabolic fig-
ures. The luster is high but without the charac-
teristic subluster so well developed in many high-
GRONFOELOE grade cabinet woods. The texture is medium to
Qualea rosea, Qualea coerula, Qualea albiflora
coarse and the grain straight to sometimes inter-
locked. When interlocked grain is present, a
Nomenclature. —Three species of the genus mild wavy figure is apparent on the tangential
Qualea, namely Q. rosea Aubl., Q. coerula Aubl., surface. No distinctive odor or taste is evident
and Q. albiflora Warm. (Q. glaberrima Ducke), in seasoned wood (127,231).
are often marketed individually or in mixture in Weight. —Gronfoeloe is a moderately heavy
Surinam and French Guiana under the trade name wood, with little difference in the density of the
of gronfoeloe. In Surinam the timber is also three species covered in this report. The specific
called meniridan, menirislin, woto-kwarie, berg gravity, based on ovendry weight and green vol-
gronfoeloe, and jakopi. Other names in French ume, is reported at 0.49 for Qualea albiflora and
Guiana are cèdre gris, grignon fou, and grignon 0.53 for Q. rosea. Specific gravity, based on the
indien (50, 231, 175). In Brazil the timber of weight and volume of air-dry wood at 12 percent
Qualea is known as mandioquiera and at times moisture content, is reported at. 0.59 for Q. albi-
as quaruba, although the latter name is usually ap- flora, 0.58 for Q. cocrula, and 0.62 for Q. rosea.
plied to species of the genus Vochysia. The name Air-dry wood weighs 37, 36, and 39 pounds re-
manio was derived from mandioquiera and ac- spectively for the species in the order listed.
cepted in 1946 as the standard name on the Brit- Green wood averages from 60 to 79 pounds per
ish market (36). The German trade know the cubic foot (231, 249, 127, 250).
timber as Brazilian okume or aburaq. The prin- On the basis of these various gravity deter-
cipal Venezuelan name for Qualea timber is minations, gronfoeloe averages about 0.50 in spe-
florecillo. Other common trade names used in cific gravity based on green volume and ovendry
the Guianas are wiswishvalie and wassie-wassie weight, and 0.60 based on air-dry volume and
kwarie (190). Q. rosea is commonly known as weight (with wood averaging about 37 pounds
berg kwarie or mountain gronfoeloe in Surinam per cubic foot when air-dry and 70 pounds when
and laba-laba in Brazil. (Vochysia family, green).
Vochysiaceae). Seasoning.—The wood is moderately difficult to
The three species providing gronfoeloe occur air-season and kiln-dry. It seasons rapidly but
in the Guianas and in the states of Para, Maran- with some warping in the form of crook and twist
and slight end and surface checking. Qualea rosea Gronfoeloe increases in most strength proper-
is somewhat more difficult to season than the other ties upon air-drying, but decreases in cleavage re-
species while Qualea albiflora dries without any sistance and tensile strength across the grain.
appreciable degrade. Slight stain may develop After seasoning, gronfoeloe loses most of its su-
during the early stages of airs-drying, but is easily periority over yellow birch, in which condition
controlled if the green lumber is submerged or it has half the shock resistance of yellow birch
sprayed with a fungicide prior to piling. Kiln and is generally somewhat inferior to that species
Schedule 4 has been suggested by the Forest, in most other strength properties. It is superior
Products Research Laboratory in England for to white ash in static-bending properties and in
kiln-drying gronfoeloe (104, 127, 118, 231) . compression parallel to the grain, but inferior to
Shrinkage. — Gronfoeloe undergoes moderate that wood in hardness, compression, and tension
shrinkage during seasoning with a somewhat perpendicular to the grain, shear, and cleavage.
high ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage and a These strength determinations of gronfoeloe at
volumetric shrinkage that is moderate for a wood Yale University are substantiated in tests by
of its density. The timber is similar to yellow Pfeiffer (175). the Agricultural University of
birch in tangential shrinkage and much lower in Wageningen in Holland (231), and the Forest
both radial and volumetric shrinkage, but lacks Products Research Laboratory in England (15).
the favorable ratio of tangential to radial shrink- Working properties.— Gronfoeloe has moder-
age shown by yellow birch. Summarized below is ately good working properties, saws and planes
the shrinkage from green to ovendry, expressed well, glues satisfactorily, but requires care in pol-
as a percent of the green volume, of gronfoeloe ishing. However, it dulls saws and cutting edges
and yellow birch. Normal shrinkage from green rather quickly because of the accumulation of
to air-dry would be approximately half these silica in the parenchyma and ray cells. Chipped
values. or torn grain is likely to occur when roey grain is
Green to ovendry present, and fuzzy surfaces and tearing are apt to
occur in boring.
Radial Tangen- Longi- Volu- Durability. — The wood is somewhat variable in
Gronfoeloe: tial tudinal metric
Qualea albiflora percent (percent) (percent) (percent)
decay resistance but, in general is moderately dur-
(127) - - - - - - - - - 4.0 7.7 0.14 12.7
able. Qualea albiflora was rated durable in its
Qualea coerula resistance to a white-rot fungus but only moder-
(231) - - - - - - - - - 3.7 7.9 ------ ------ ately durable to nondurable to a brown-rot
Qualea rosea fungus in pure culture tests at Yale University
(250) - - - - - - - - - 4.4 8.4 .08 11.4
Yellow birch: (127). Q. rosea was found very durable to a
Betula white-rot organism and durable to moderately
alleghaniensis--- 7.2 9.2 ------ 16.7 durable to a brown-rot fungus. It is reported as
Movement, swelling or shrinkage, of gronfoeloe moderately resistant to resistant to decay in Sur-
in response to changes in atmospheric conditions inam (175). Observations in England at the
is moderate for a wood of its density. Qualea albi- Forest Products Research Laboratory indicated
flora, most representative of the timber, swells that the timber is not suited for general use in
6.12 percent from ovendry to equilibrium in a 40- continuously damp conditions.
percent relative humidity. 9.25 percent in a 70- Qualea albiflora is moderately resistant to dam-
percent relative humidity, and 15.15 percent in a age by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies
100-percent relative humidity (based on the orig- (218), rating 42 as compared to 80 for West In-
inal ovendry volume). It reaches a moisture dies mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany.
content of 10.5, 15.6, and 28.7 percent, respective- The resistance of the timber to damage by marine
ly, at these three humidity conditions, which is borers is not clear. However, its extensive use in
considered normal for a wood of gronfoeloe’s den- Holland for piling, specifically in nonteredo
sity (175, 50). areas, would indicate that the timber has little re-
sistance to marine borers despite the considerable
Mechanical properties.— Tests at Yale Univer-
accumulation of silica in the parenchyma and ray
sity (249, 250) of Qualea albiflora and Qualea cells. However, specific tests of this timber may
rosea in the green condition showed that gronfoe- shop it as considerably resistant to damage by
loe is similar to or exceeds yellow birch (Betula marine organisms.
alleghaniensis) in all mechanical properties except The weathering characteristics are rated as only
work to maximum load, although yellow birch fair; severe surface checking develops when un-
is an appreciably heavier wood. In the green painted wood is exposed to the weather.
condition gronfoeloe is noticeably above average Uses. — Gronfoeloe is used locally for such pur-
for wood of similar density in stiffness, elastic poses as joinery, flooring, interior trim, furniture,
resilience, crushing strength, and tension and and millwork. In Holland it is used as a substi-
compression across the grain. It is average for tute for oak in marine piling and sheeting in ter-
a wood of its weight in static bending, strength, edo-free areas. If it can be successfully peeled or
shock resistance, hardness, shear, and cleavage. sliced, it should be very suitable for veneer and
plywood for use in furniture, paneling, or gen- are found along broken ridges on the northern
eral utility. It has been used in Germany for plain.
veneer, indicating that the wood can be veneered. The tree.— Size varies according to site and geo-
Logs of either gronfoeloe or related species from graphic location. In general, it is slender un-
Brazil have been used in superstructures of buttressed tree of short to medium height. It can
bridges. The wood has also been found suitable be readilly recognized by its characteristic smooth,
for packing cases, outside and inside sheathing, shiny, copper-colored bark, which peels off in thin
rafters, and implements. Generally, it is found shreds like some of the birches (Betula ) t h o u g h
suitable for outside construction. the trees are not related. The smooth, green inner
Supply.— Surinam and French Guiana can sup- bark exudes a reddish aromatic resin that hardens
ply gronfoeloe in export volumes. upon exposure. Forest, grown trees are usually
tall and slender with a fairly straight bole; in the
open the trees are generally short and often
GUMBO-LIMBO crooked.
Bursera simaruba In British Honduras, trees attain heights of
80 to 90 feet and diameters of 30 inches; but they
Gumbo-limbo is the most widespread and com- are more commonly 60 feet in height and 14 to 15
mercially important of the several species of Bur- inches in diameter (82). In Jamaica, trees are
sera growing in the Caribbean area. Many others commonly 50 feet in height and up to 3 feet in
are distributed in tropical America. Several are diameter (229). On some of the drier sites, par-
prized principally for the high percentage of fra- ticularly on the dry slopes in the West Indies,
grant oil in the wood and fruit and to some extent short. crooked trees are most common (165, 162)
for their resins. Record and Hess (190 ) indicate The wood.— Heartwood is white, yellowish, or
that the following species are of commercial im- light brown, soft and light in weight, but firm
portance in Mexico in addition to Bursera sima- and tough. Sapwood is not differentiated from
ruba (L.) Sarg., which is discussed here: B. teco- the heartwood. The texture is fine to medium
maca (DC.) Standl., B. glabrifolia (H. B. K.) and the grain fairly straight. The wood, without
Engl., B. penicillata (Sessé & Moc.) Engl., B. distinctive taste or odor, is of moderate luster.
copallifera (Sessé & Moc.) Bullock, and B. jorul- Both the heartwood and sapwood are often dis-
lensis (H. B. K.) Engl. (Bursera family, Burse- colored to a gray by sap-stain fungi. The inner
raceae.) parts of the growth rings are whitish and the
Nomenclature.— The timber of Bursera si- other parts are pale brown, giving a ribbon stripe
maruba is commonly marketed under the trade figure on longitudinal surfaces similar to that on
name of West Indian birch. Other local names white pine or spruce (82, 143).
used in the Caribbean area for the tree or timber Weight.— Tests of gumbo-limbo wood from
are as follows: Red gombo, red gombolimbo, lim- Florida at the Forest Products Laboratory in
bo, and chaca in British Honduras; mastic, in- Madison (160) showed a specific gravity of 0.34,
cense tree, turpentine tree, red birch in Jamiaica; based on air-dry weight and volume (12 percent
naked Indian, peeling bark, gommier in Trinidad; moisture content), and a weight of 21 pounds per
almácigo in Puerto Rico: gumbo-limbo in Florida; cubic foot air-dry and 38 pounds per cubic foot
almácigo, aceitero in Cuba; gommier in Haiti; al- when green. The specific gravity based on green
mácigo, almácigo blanco in Dominican Republic; volume and ovendry weight averaged 0.30. Tim-
archipén, gommier, chibou in French West Indies; ber from British Honduras is reported to range
chaca in Mexico. from 0.30 to 0.40 in specific gravity, based on air-
Distribution and habitat.— The tree occurs dry weight and volume, and to weight from 19 to
commonly in southern Florida. throughout the 30 pounds per cubic foot when air-dry (231 ) .
West Indies, and on the continent from southern Seasoning. — The timber seasons very well with
Mexico, Central America, and into northern South only slight checking or warping, but will become
America. It is reported from all the larger is- discolored from sap-stain fungi and sometimes
lands in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and it decay unless the wet, green boards are allowed
probably occurs on most of the smaller islands to dry immediately after conversion. This can
(18). be most economically and effectively controlled by
The tree is not exacting as to site and moisture dipping or spraying with a fungicide or by kiln-
conditions, growing on a variety of sites from drying imediately after sawing. Also, logs are
xerophytic to mesophytic forests but reaching its very susceptible to sap-stain fungi, which may
best development in lowland forests. It occurs in penetrate as far as a foot from both ends of the
some sites as pure or nearly pure forests, and in log in a one-week period; when it does, a heavy
others as an occasional to very frequent tree. It hyphal growth shows on both exposed surfaces.
grows well in the dry coastal plains and foothills The high moisture content is principally respon-
in Jamaica and in rocky, barren limestone soils in sible for this condition. However, it can also be
other parts of the island. In British Honduras, controlled by spraying the logs with a fungicide
where it is rather common, up to 23 trees per acre immediately after felling (82, 197, 65) .
Shrinkage.— Shrinkage of Bursera simaruba fully for white plywood under the trade name
from green to ovendry is very moderate, amount- “Mexican white birch” and is well regarded there
ing to 2.3 percent radially, 3.6 percent tangen- for plywood core material as a substitute for
tially, and 8.6 percent, volumetrically. The low cedar, Parts of small trees and limbs of large
ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage indicates trees are used extensively for live posts, and
the inherent capacity of this timber to dry without when set in the soil take root, and eventually de-
appreciable checking or warping. Shrinkage velop a green crown (192).
from green to air-dry is roughly half the above The aromatic red resin is used to mend crock-
figures. Compared to the heavier yellow birch ery, as a crude varnish, and as an insect repellent.
and paper birch of the United States, gumbo- A decoction of the bark and leaves is used at
limbo has one-third as much radial shrinkage, two- times as a tonic.
fifths the tangential shrinkage, and about one-half Supply.— The timber is presently available in
the volumetric shrinkage of these species (160). quantities far export in British Honduras and
Mechanical properties.— The tests at the For- possibly Trinidad, Jamaica, Haiti, and Cuba.
est Products Laboratory (160) showed gumbo-
limbo rated considerably below the pines, spruces,
and firs in all mechanical properties tested except HAIARI
in resistance to splitting (cleavage), in which
Alexa imperatricis, Alexa leiopetala
gumbo-limbo compared favorably to the others.
However, the tests were conducted on fire logs Two species of Alexa are marketed in British
from southern Florida, and these may not be Guiana as haiari or haiariballi. The wood is used
representative of timber from other sources. locally and, although the Forest Department of
Working properties.— The timber works easily British Guiana considers haiari available in
with all types of tools and machines. It saws sufficient volume and of suitable quality for ex-
cleanly, planes to a smooth finish, drills cleanly port, it is nearly unknown in the export trade.
with some tearing at the exit side, and turns Nomenclature.— Species marketed in British
readily on the lathe. The wood takes all stains Guiana under the trade name haiari and haiari-
and polishes well and holds nails firmly without balli are Alexa imperatricis (Schomb.) Baill. and
splitting (191, 82). A. lelopetala Sandw. The former occurs also in
Gumbo-limbo logs peel well on the rotary lathe Venezuela and Surinam. Another species, A.
without preliminary heating or bark removal, al- wachenheimii R. Ben., is found from British to
though some logs produce wooly-surfaced veneers. French Guiana but is not utilized at present. A.
The yield of acceptable face veneers is estimated bauhiniaeflora Ducke, a small tree or shrub
at 30 to 40 percent by a large producer in Mexico. growing in Brazil, is also of no commercial
The veneer usually has numerous pin knots and importance. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
some mineral streaks, although veneer cut from Distribution and habitat.— According to D. B.
some logs has a bird’s-eye figure similar to that Fanshawe (82), Alexa leiopetala is frequent in
of sugar maple. The veneer resembles Canadian the wallaba and heavy forest on white or light
paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) in color sands in the north-central and northeast districts
and design; when made into plywood it, has the of British Guiana, while A. imperatricis is often
same appearance as yellow birch (B. alleghaniensis dominant in the heavy forests on light-colored
Britton). One difficulty in using B. simaruba is sands of the northwest and upper Mozaruni
the frequent crookedness of the logs and their district and the Pakaraima Mountains. A.
susceptibility to sap-stain discoloration (197). wachenheimii, which may be marketed with the
Durability.— The wood is not durable in con- above species at some future date, is found in the
tact with the ground, and when green, is suscep- upper Essequibo district of British Guiana and
tible to pinhole borer attack. Seasoned lumber in parts of French Guiana.
is attacked by Lyctus beetles and is very suscep- The tree.— The trees are unbuttressed, cylin-
tible to termite damage (263.) Generally, with- drical, well formed with small oval crowns. They
out preservative treatment, gumbo-limbo is not a grow to 36 inches in diameter and 100 feet high in
suitable wood for outside or exposed use in the favorable sites, but are normally 20 to 24 inches
tropics. in diameter and less than 100 feet high. The
Uses.— Gumbo-limbo is suitable., in general, for main stem or bole is often 70 to 80 feet long, al-
the same uses as pine or other light-weight con- lowing the extraction of logs of almost any desired
fers; but it lacks the strength of these woods and, length.
consequently, should not be used where strength The wood.— The heartwood of haiari is nearly
is needed. The timber is used for matchsticks, colorless to brownish yellow but occasionally
boxes, crates, flooring, house construction, and somewhat darker. The thick sapwood of dingy
general carpentry. The wood appears to have white color is not readily separated from the
suitable characteristics for use as a pattern wood, heartwood. The luster is medium to low. The
although it seems rather soft for its present uses wood is generally straight grained, rather coarse
as flooring. In Mexico, it has been used success- textured and odorless and tasteless when dry.
Weight. — Haiari is intermediate in density to wood or rakudar in the United States. The tim-
western white pine and Douglas-fir of the United ber is known as bois du diable in Martinique;
States. Air-dry lumber cut in British Guiana sandbox or sandbox tree in Trinidad Montserrat,
averages 0.48 in specific gravity and weighs 30 and British Guiana.; possentrie in Surinam; sa-
pounds per cubic foot. blier in French Guiana; and very commonly as
Seasoning. — The logs are reported to split jabillo or javillo in the Spanish-speaking islands
easily after felling, and the lumber is said to have of the Caribbean. Another name in Puerto Rico
a marked tendency to collapse during seasoning. is molinillo. The timber is usualy known as as-
Close piling for air-seasoning and the use of high sacú in Brazil. British importers generally refer
humidities and low temperatures during the early to the wood as hura, hura wood, or possumtree,
stages of kiln-drying are recommended as a means (Spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.)
of overcoming the seasoning problems. The wood of a second species, Hura polyandro
Shrinkage.— Information is lacking on shrink- Baill., may be included in commercial lots. The
age during seasoning. But studies of the shrink- latter extends from southern Mexico southward
age and swelling of haiari in response to at- through Central America to Costa Rica, where
mospheric changes show the wood to have large its range overlaps that of the more important
movement values. This wood reaches a moisture species. It is very similar in every way to II.
content of 20.5 percent in a 90-percent relative crepitans, the two woods being indistinguishable
humidity, and 12.5 percent in a 60-percent relative on the basis of superficial characteristics (118,
humidity, undergoing a movement of 1.8 percent, 190).
radially and 3.0 percent tangentially, or and Distribution and habitat.— Hura occurs natu-
inch per foot, respectively, between equilib- rally in moist to wet sites through the West Indies
rium in the two conditions. These high move- and from Central America to northern Brazil and
ment values are about double those of Honduras Bolivia (182, 65). The tree reaches its best. de-
mahogany of and inch per foot, respec- velopment along the low narrow reefs of the
tively. coastal plain near Paramaribo, Surinam, where
Mechanical properties.— Tests have not been nearly pure stands average more than 25,000
made to determine the mechanical properties of board feet per acre over an area of 20,000 acres.
haiari, but its medium density would almost cer- The tree is also very common in Trinidad, where
tainly exclude it from the group of tropical woods it tends to form pure stands in moist. sandy loam
having superior strength properties. soil with upward of 50 trees or more per acre
Working properties.— Detailed information (165). It is also present in commercial quantities
concerning the workability of this wood is not in British Guiana and French Guiana (235), and
available except that it is considered to work easily is frequently cultivated for shade and decorative
and finish satisfactorily. purposes throughout the tropics of both hemis-
Durability.— According to the British Guiana pheres.
Forest, Department report, haiari timber is highly The tree.— Hura is commonly a large, straight,
resistant to decay, but the freshly cut logs are well-formed tree. In favorable locations it com-
very susceptible to damage by pinhole borers (82) . monly attains diameters of 3 to 5 feet and at times
Uses.— Haiari is suitable for interior construc- even 6 to 9 feet. Trees in the closed forests com-
tion, boxes, crating, general construction, ply- monly reach heights of 90 to 130 feet with clear
wood, and other uses requiring a light, easily boles from 40 to 75 feet long. Trees up to 200 feet
worked wood of moderate strength. In a region with 100-foot clear boles are reported along the
where heavy, hard, strong woods predominate, a Surinam coast. In open forests the tree may be
wood such as haiari should be readily accepted relatively short with a thick trunk.
for many uses to which these other woods are not The trees are often basally swollen or have
suited. In many places, it could replace the im- small buttresses. The smoothish bark is usually
ported pines and Douglas-fir. covered with many conical spines. Contained in
Supplies. — British Guiana is the only country the bark is a thin, milky latex that is exception-
now prepared to export haiari. The timber there ally irritating to the eyes; it is used by the natives
is found over rather extensive areas and, although to stupefy fish and as a remedy for elephantiasis
not available in such abundance as greenheart, and leprosy. The fruits resemble little pumpkins
wallaba, and some other woods, it is in sufficient and explode on drying, expelling small waferlike
supply to fill a relatively large export market. seeds containing an oil used at times to poison
animals (193, 211).
The wood.— Hura superficially resembles si-
HURA marouba but lacks the bitter taste. The wood is
Hura crepitans
light, has a warm soft feel, but is sometimes
woolly on the surface (142, 92). Freshly sawed
Nomenclature. — Hura is the preferred trade heartwood is cream to light buff, turning pale yel-
name for the wood of Hura crepitans L. It is lowish brown, pale olive gray, or dark brown
also widely known as possumwood and as hura- upon drying, or sometimes remaining its original
cream color. The innermost heartwood of large wood is similar in density to yellow-poplar
logs is often darker than the exterior portions; (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) of the United
sapwood is yellowish white, often indistinct from States but slightly superior in all mechanical
the heartwood but at times sharply demarcated. properties, except stiffness as determined by
The grain is straight to interlocked but more often bending.
interlocked. The luster is high, the texture fine, Working properties.— Green wood is somewhat
and odor and taste are lacking. Indistinct pur- difficult to work because of extreme fuzziness of
plish or greenish streaks and a slight ribbon stripe the cut surface, but it can be readily machined
on the radial surface often give the wood an when air-dry. Chipped and torn grain are fre-
attractive figure. qeuntly encountered with wood that has extreme
Weight.— Moderately light in weight, hura has interlocked grain. The wood takes stain well,
an average specific gravity of 0.38 (0.31 to 0.51), nails satisfactorily, and glues easily (231, 240,
based on ovendry weight, and green volume. The 127).
specific gravity based on air-dry volume and Durability.— In pure culture tests at Yale Uni-
weight averages about 0.46 (127). Air-dry wood versity (249), durability was extremely variable
weighs about 28 pounds per cubic foot and green but the wood averaged moderately durable to
wood about 40 pounds per cubic foot. both brown-rot and white-rot fungi. Graveyard
Seasoning. — The wood is considered moderately tests in Trinidad (39) also showed this species
difficult to air-season. It will air-dry rather rap- to be fairly resistant to decay. But it is very
idly, which tends to prevent the development of susceptible to damage by the dry-wood termite
mold and sap-stain fungi but results in variable (263) and probably readily damaged by marine
degrees of warping. sometimes severe. Slight borers. Its excellent weathering characteristics
checking also occurs. If the sawed boards were are comparable to those of Honduras mahogany.
dipped in a fungicide solution and air-dried at The wood stays free of surface checks and warp
a moderate rate, much of this difficulty could be and undergoes only slight loss of surface smooth-
eliminated. Kiln Schedule 5, a low temperature- ness when exposed unpainted to the weather (55).
high humidity schedule used for slow, careful It is reported inferior to Honduras mahogany
seasoning, is recommended by the Forest Products in resistance to water absorption (17).
Research Laboratory in England (222). Preservation. — The wood has a low resistance
Shrinkage.— Volumetric shrinkage of hura or to impregnation with preservatives, absorbing up
possumwood is low, amounting to 7.3 percent to 20 pounds per cubic foot in a hot and cold
from green to ovendry, which is similar to ma- bath treatment (204).
hogany’s 7.7 percent. The ratio of radial shrink- Uses. — Hura or possumwood is used locally for
age (2.7 percent) to tangential shrinkage (4.5 general carpentry, interior construction, boxes
percent) is moderate, indicating rather uniform crates, veneers and plywood, and furniture and
movement in these directions. Longitudinal joinery. In Mexico it is sometimes used as tele-
shrinkage of 0.48 percent does not exceed the graph poles. The wood is recommended for use
limit of variation expected of wood with inter- as core stock, both utility and face veneer, mill-
locked grain (127). The wood is relatively stable, work, and for general use in furniture and join-
undergoing only moderate dimensional movement ery where a lightweight, easily worked wood is
in response to atmospheric changes (175). required (258). The wood does not wear well
Mechanical properties.— Tests at Yale Univer- and should be avoided where continuous wear will
sity (127, 249) showed hura to be above average be a problem. The oil from the seed pods is con-
in all static-bending properties except stiffness, sidered suitable for linoleum manufacture and
when compared with species of like density in in soapmaking when mixed with other oils (265) .
the green condition. It is average in resistance Supply.— The Guianas, Trinidad, and possibly
to crushing and stiffness as determined by com- Honduras have sufficient volumes for export.
pression along the grain, and in hardness and
toughness: above average in compression and ten-
sion across the grain, and in shear and cleavage; INYAK
and below average in stress at proportional limit
Antonia ovata
in compression long the grain.
Upon air-drying, hura increases moderately in Nomenclature. — Antonia ovata Pohl is the only
all properties except cleavage and tension across known species of its genus. The timber is com-
the grain, but improvement is generally below monly known as inyak or inacú in British Guiana
that normally found for hardwoods in the United and as hariroroe, thoeraroe, licahout, and other
States. The greatest proportional increase oc- vernacular names in Surinam (190, 82, 180).
curs in compression parallel to the grain, followed (Logania family, Loganiaceae.)
by end hardness, compression across the grain, Distribution and habitat.— Inyak grows in the
elastic resilience, shear, side hardness, and stiff- Guianas and Brazil. It is one of the dominant
ness. A strength loss of 20 percent, occurs in species in the Kanaku Mountains of British Gui-
tension across the grain during seasoning. The ana and occurs as a rare to locally frequent tree
in the seasonal forest of the Northeast and Rupu- Kautaballi, which is usually made up of
nuni Districts of that country. Licania venosa Rusby and L. majuscula .Sagot. is
The tree.— Antonia ovata is a medium-sized also known as counterballi and farsha in British
tree, commonly 16 to 20 inches and occasionally Guiana, and gri-gri and bois galuette in French
up to 24 inches in diameter and 120 feet in height. Guiana. Kanta is composed of three species;
The boles are of moderately good form and gen- L. laxiflora Fritsch, L. mollis Benth., and L. per-
erally clear of branches for 60 to 70 feet above saudii Fanshawe & Maguire. In British Hon-
the low but tresses. duras, another species, L. platypus (Hemsl.)
The wood.— The heartwood and sapwood are a Fritscsh, is marketed under the name of monkey
uniform off white or greyish cream throughout apple, but is of no commercial importance because
and of medium texture and luster. The grain is pine and mahogany are locally available. (Rose
irregular and roey. Distinctive odor or taste arc family, Rosaceae.)
not detectable in seasoned wood (82, 190) Distribution and habitat.— The several species
Weight. — Inyak is medium weight, ranging of Licania included in this report are all from the
from 0.48 to 0.56 in specific gravity, based on air- area of the Guianas and Brazil. One or more of
dry weight and volume. Air-dry wood averages the species making up marish timber occur
between 30 and 35 pounds per cubic foot (82), throughout, the Guianas and the lower Amazon
which is similar to the weight of Douglas-fir region of Brazil; kautaballi is reported from both
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) of the United States French and British Guiana and may occur in
(242). other areas, while kauta is reported only from
Seasoning. — No data are available. British Guiana but may also have more extensive
Shrinkage. — No data are available. distribution.
Mechanical properties.— No data are avail- Fanshawe states in his Forest Products of
able. British Guiana (82) that kauta is frequent to
Working properties.— Invak is reported to locally common in the rain forest, especially on
work fairly easily and to finish smoothly. lateritic soils, and of general distribution except
Durability. — The Forest Department of Brit- in the northwest district; that kautaballi is domi-
ish Guiana rates inyak as moderately resistant to nant, in the rain and seasonal forest on sandy soils
decay (50, 82). and is of general distribution; while marish is
Uses.— Inyak has been recommended for infrequent in the rain forest, of occasional occur-
terior work, boxes and crates, and as a possible rence in the marsh and mora forests, and is of
timber for utility plywood and core stock (50, 82). general distribution.
It would appear to be suitable for inside sheath- Licania macrophylla is reported to occur fre-
ing, partitions and battens, millwork, and for tem- quently in the overflow woodlands of the Amazon
porary forms and protected outside sheathing. and in the upland forests of the lower Amazon
Supply.— British Guiana has inyak in export region (23, 248). Kautaballi is one of the most
quantities. common commerical species of British Guiana,
exceeded in number of trees only by mora, black
kakaralli, baromalli, wallaba, yaruru morabukea,
KAUTA, KAUTABALLI, MARISH and possibly crabwood. Marish is fairly plenti-
Licania spp.
ful, while kauta is relatively scarce.
The tree.— The species providing the timbers
At least nine, probably more, species of the described in this report are heavy crowned, un-
large genus Licania are marketed in the Guianas buttressed canopy trees, generally 16 to 24 inches
and Brazil under various trade names. The tim- in diameter and 80 to 110 feet high. The boles
bers are all similar: They are very hard, heavy, are ordinarily cylindrical and 50 to 60 feet long.
and strong: they are very difficult to work: their Although not buttressed, kautaballi is often
high silica content makes them teredo resistant. basally swollen and occasionally has adventitious
Because of a natural resistance of Licania to ma- shoots. Marish, the largest tree of the group, is
rine borers, the woods of this genus are of more sometimes found up to 36 inches in diameter (82,
than passing interest to the export trade. 50, 248).
Nomenclature. — Marish and kautaballi are in The wood.— The wood is very dense, hard,
more plentiful supply than kauta in the three heavy, and strong. The heartwood is generally
Guianas. Marish is often composed of any one a yellowish brown to brown or dark brown, some-
or a combination of Licania buxifolia Sandw., L. times with a reddish tinge; the sapwood is usually
densiflora Kleinh., L. macrophylla Benth., and distinct and tan in color. The wood is straight
L. micrantha Miq. It is commonly known as grained, with fine, close texture, and without
marishballi in British Guiana; anaura in Brazil; characteristic odor or taste. Growth layers are
anaura, sponsoehoedoe, and kauston in Surinam; not evident. Most species contain an abundance
and gris-gris, gris-gris coumate, and gris-gris of silica (see section on Durability) (82, 248, 231,
rouge in French Guiana. 50).
Weight. — Marish weighs from 71 to 75 pounds Both species were found to be somewhat below
per cubic foot in the green condition and from the average in strength for green wood of tropical
58 to 68 pounds when air-dry, according to studies species of similar density. In the green condition
at Yale University (248) of Licania buxifolia and they are generally inferior to greenheart but su-
L. macrophylla from British Guiana, Surinam, perior to white oak and hickory in all properties
and Brazil. The specific gravity of air-dry wood except in shear, cleavage, and shock resistance.
in this study ranged from 0.93 to 1.09. Specific Seasoned wood of Licania buxifolia is compar-
gravity based on green volume and ovendry able or superior to greenheart in most strength
weight ranged from 0.76 to 0.88. L. buxifolia is properties except in shock resistance and tension
the heavier of the two species and is represented perpendicular to the grain, while L. macrophylla
by the larger number under each condition. The is generally inferior to greenheart in all strength
British Guiana Forest Department lists an air- properties tested. Both species are superior to
dry weight of 61 pounds per cubic foot and air-dry white oak and hickory in bending properties but
specific gravity of 0.98 for the species providing somewhat below them in tensions across the grain,
the marish timber of that country (50). cleavage, and shear.
Both kautaballi and kauta are heavier than Working properties.— Wood of Licania is diffi-
marish, which is itself a very heavy wood. Kau- cult to work owing to high silica content and
taballi is reported to have an average specific hardness. The combination of these factors
gravity of 1.08 to 1.22 (air-dry) and to weigh causes a rapid dulling of cutting edges. When
from 67 to 76 pounds per cubic foot air-dry. sharp cutting edges are maintained, the wood can
Kauta is still somewhat heavier, weighing 70 to be machined to a smooth surface in planing, bor-
80 pounds per cubic foot air-dry, with a specific ing, sawing, and other operations.
gravity of 1.12 to 1.29 in that condition. Durablllty.— The wood of the genus Licania is
Seasoning.— Marish, kauta, and kautaballi are generally considered to be low in resistance to de-
rated easy to moderately difficult to air-season, cay (82, 190, 134, 175). However, in recent pure
depending on the species and geographic location. culture tests, marish (L. macrophylla) (231, 248)
One of the principal species of marish, Licania showed a resistance to decay varying from durable
buxifolia, is considered moderately difficult to air- to moderately durable when exposed to both a
season, drying at a moderate rate with slight white-rot fungus and brown-rot fungus. Kauta
warping and checking and very slight caseharden- is reported nonresistant to decay and kautaballi
ing. L. macrophylla from Surinam is rated easy slightly resistant by the British Guiana Forest
to air-season, drying at a fast rate with slight Department (82). L. densiflora of the marish
warping and checking and slight casehardening. group is rated as resistant to attack by the dry-
However, material of the same species from Brazil wood termite of the West Indies. Wolcott (263)
dries at a slower rate with slightly more warping rates this species at 62 in termite resistance, as
in the form of crook and twist (248). compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany and 59
Shrinkage.-Shrinkage values of marish are for Honduras mahogany. Kauta and kautaballi
relatively high compared to those of other tropical are likely similar in resistance to termites.
hardwoods of similar density. shrinkage values The Licania woods are widely known for their
for kauta and kautaballi are not available, but resistance to marine borers, presumably because
presumably they are similar to those for marish. of their high silica content. Three of the four
Licania buxifolia from British Guiana exceeds species sold as marish have been tested for teredo
greenheart in tangential and volumetric shrink- resistance. L. densiflora from British Guiana was
age but has a slightly lower radial shrinkage. L. rated as having “considerable resistance” by Ed-
macrophylla from Surinam undergoes greater tan- monson (76) on the basis of tests in Hawaiian
gential shrinkage than greenheart, but shrinks less waters; no infestation or but very slight attack
than that species radially and volumetrically. by teredos took place in a 12-month period. L.
Both species shrink slightly more in all directions buxifolia from British Guiana was rated as the
than white oak (248).
Mechanical properties.— Mechanical tests have sixth most resistant wood to damage by marine
been conducted on Licania buxifolia and L. macro- borers of 37 tropical hardwoods used in exposure
phylla, which contribute most of the volume of tests at Wrightsville, N.C. (58). These results
marish timber (248). The results can also be earned a rating of extremely high resistance for
safely applied, in general to both kauta and this species (248).
kautaballi, which are somewhat heavier and likely In the Wrightsville tests, Licania macrophylla
somewhat stronger in some properties. However, rated as the most highly resistant species of the
the tests at Yale indicate there is considerable var- 37 timbers tested, surpassing greenheart, man-
iation in strength properties between the differ- barklak, angelique, and other woods generally
ent species of Licania and, consequently, all state- considered highly resistant to marine borers (58,
ments concerning strength properties must be of 248). These results agree with earlier reports on
a general nature. this species (134).
All species of Licania apparently accumulate In British Guiana the tree occurs in the rain
silica. The silica content of several species has and seasonal forests on both light and heavy soils.
been determined by Amos (14) as follows : L. den- It is generally distributed throughout the near
siflora, 1.64 percent; L. macrophylla, 1.8 percent; interior, especially in the north and central dis-
L. mollis, 1.01 percent; L. persaudii, 2.53 percent; tricts. One small area along the left bank of the
and L. majuscula, 2.82 percent. Similar tests on Courantyne River contains up to 70 cubic feet per
L. buxifolia and L. macrophylla by Yale Univer- acre (500 to 550 board feet) (82). In Surinam,
sity showed silica contents of 0.43 and 1.52 per- Ocotea wachenheimii and other species known as
cent, respectively. On the basis of silica content, pisie are among the most numerous trees in the
L. persaudii and L. majuscula should be even more rain forests and are also fairly well represented
resistant to marine borer damage than the species in the marsh forests (231).
tested in Hawaii and in the Atlantic. The tree.— Kereti silverballi is a large evergreen
Uses.— The high marine borer resistance of of the upper canopy. It is often basally swollen
marish, kauta, and kautaballi indicates that the or occasionally has low buttresses. On good sites
highest use for these timbers is for piling and ma- trees may attain a diameter of 3 feet and heights
rine construction in waters infested with marine of 110 fret, but are normally 16 to 20 inches in di-
borers. The difficulty in working these timbers ameter and 80 to 90 feet high. Clear cylindrical
except with an ax or adz, as well as their high boles 60 to 70 feet long are common in mature
density and only moderate resistance to decay, trees. The trees have moderately heavy, rounded
suggests that their most suitable secondary use crowns and erect spreading, light branching.
would be in heavy construction above ground. The bark is flaky, cream colored, and faintly aro-
Kauta is used in British Guiana for light-gage matic (82, 34).
railway sleepers, roof shingles, mine timbers:, and The wood.— The heartwood is pale yellow
fuel and charcoal. Marish is used in that country brown to creamy yellow or pinkish yellow when
for house framing and paving blocks, and in Suri- seasoned and not easily differentiated from the
nam for fuel, charcoal, posts, riverbank structures. grayish sapwood. The texture is medium, and the
and substructures of bridges where teredo attacks grain straight to interwoven or roey and often
may occur. In British Guiana, kautaballi is used ribbon-grained at an oblique angle. The wood is
for house framing, mine logging, shingles, fuel, soft but firm with a satiny luster. It is without
and charcoal. any distinctive taste but is fragrant like Central
Supply.— Kauta, kautaballi, and marish are re- American cedar ( Cedrela spp.) (82, 231, 34, 50).
ported to be available for export from British Weight. — The wood is comparable in weight to
Guiana and kautaballi from French Guiana. Su- Douglas-fir and slightly lighter than shortleaf
rinam may also export. them if demand develops. pine and pitch pine of the United States. The
specific gravity of air-dry wood from British
Guiana and Surinam ranges from 0.48 to 0.56,
KERETI SILVERBALLI based on the volume and weight in that condition.
Air-dry wood weighs from 30 to 35 pounds per
Ocotea wachenheimii, Ocotea puberula
cubic foot (82, 231, 50, 34, 242).
Nomenclature. — Both Ocotea wachenheimii R. Seasoning. — Kereti silverballi seasons well un-
Ben. and O. puberula Nees are combined in Brit- der cover with little distortion (82, 231).
ish Guiana under the common trade name of kereti Shrinkage. — The timber has a moderately high
silverballi or sometimes as silverballi. Shipment but fairly uniform rate of shrinkage for a wood
under the latter name may contain one to several of its density. Shrinkage of Ocotea wachen-
species of the somewhat inferior woods of the heimii from green to oven-dry amounts to 3.6 per-
white silverballi group, particularly Ocotea oblon- cent radially and 7.2 percent tangentially as com-
ga (Meissn.) Mez, which is a cheap, soft grade of pared to 5.0 and 7.8 percent respectively, for
timber (82). Vernacular names applied to this Douglas-fir. Shrinkage from green to air-dry
timber in British Guiana include maipaima, map- (15 percent moisture content) is reported at 1.3
wirtan, siduabari, and atomahoko; in French Gui- percent radially and 3.6 percent tangentially as
compared to 1.8 and 3.6 percent, respectively, for
ana the name cédre gris is used. The timber is
Douglas-fir (231, 242). Data for O. puberula are
known in the trade as zwart and witte pisie in not available.
Surinam and as pisie when sold in combination Mechanical properties.— Tests of the mechan-
with other similar species of Ocotea and Nectan- ical properties of wood from Surinam at the
dra. (Laurel family, Lauraceae.) Agricultural University of Wageningen, Hol-
Distribution and habitat. — Ocotea wachen- land, (231) show normal strength properties for
heimii is reported from the Guianas and Trinidad. wood of its density. It is somewhat inferior to
O. puberula is reported from British Guiana and white silverballi (Ocotea canaliculata (Rich.)
other areas, but little is shipped as kereti silver- Mez) and yellow silverballi (Aniba ovalifolia
balli (34). Unless otherwise specified, the bal- Mez) in bending strength and is reported to fail
ance of this report is based on O. wachenheimii. suddenly under tension. Fansawe, in his Forest
Products of British Guiana (82) refers to kereti ish Guiana; kopie or copie in Surinam ; goupie in
silverballi as “the good kind of Kereti” and O. ob- French Guiana ; sapino in Colombia ; and cupiuba
longa as “the poor kind of Kereti.” However, or tento in Brazil. (Bittersweet family, Celas-
despite their differences, both species are com- traceae.)
monly known and marketed as kereti silverballi Distribution and habitat.— The natural range
in the trade (34, 50). of kopie includes the Guianas, the hinterlands of
Working properties.— The timber works easily Colombia, and the lower Amazon region of Bra-
with both hand and power tools and finishes zil. Found throughout British Guiana, it be-
smoothly in all operations. It also glues and comes dominant, in the seasonal forest on light
takes paint well. sandy soils in flat terrain and is an occasional tree
Durability.— Kereti silverballi was rated mod- on sandy or loam soils in the rain and lower mon-
erately durable in graveyard tests in Surinam tane forest (32). In Surinam it. is widely distrib-
(175, 231) and British Guiana (36) ; the tests in uted in the rain and marsh forests, becoming lo-
British Guiana lasted 5 to 6 years. Wolcott cally frequent on sandy soils (231). It is a com-
(263) found the heartwood only moderately re- mon tree in the uplands of the lower Amazon and
sistant to attack by the dry-wood termite of the in the hinterlands of Colombia, where it is often
West Indies, rating kereti silverballi at 48 as com- a dominant tree on sandy soils in the seasonal and
pared to 55 for the heartwood of Douglas-fir and rain forests (248).
59 for Honduras mahogany. Edmondson (76) The tree.— Goupia glabra is a large buttressed,
found little resistance to marine borers in Ha- semideciduous, canopy tree. It grows to 130 feet
waiian waters. in height and 36 inches in diameter, but usually to
Preservation.— Specific information is not only 20 to 24 inches. Clear cylindrical to some-
available regarding the timber’s resistance to what flattened boles 40 to 80 feet long are com-
impregnation with preservatives. However, ke- mon. Short logs squaring 30 inches and logs 60
reti (Ocotea sp.) of British Guiana has been suc- feet long squaring 12 to 16 inches are fairly com-
cessfully treated by nonpressure methods using mon. Freshly cut slash and stumps exude a gel-
several proprietary preservatives mixed with wa- atinous substance with a characteristic fetid odor
ter; all hare proved effective to date (50). Shell- (89, 32, 181).
tox in an oil carrier has also been effective in The wood.— Freshly cut heartwood is orange
preventing fungal stain in dressed lumber used in tan to dark russet brown, often with fine blackish
the British Guiana housing program. streaks. The sapwood is a light pink, brown, or
Uses.— Kereti silverballi is used extensively in yellowish color, sometimes with yellow dots about
its range for interior work, ceilings, partitions, 2 inches wide, and distinct from the heartwood.
paneling, and other applications in building con- Unseasoned wood has a fetid odor and disagree-
struction and in general carpentry. It is also able taste that dissipates during drying but. is still
used in low cost furniture and cabinetwork, turn- apparent in seasoned wood. The wood is moder-
ery, inlay work, and for planking in small ately lustrous; the texture is medium to coarse
boatbuilding. and uniform; the grain may be straight but is
In British Guiana it has been used for fruit more commonly interlocked and somewhat harsh
boxes, ladders, coffins, and walking sticks, and (143, 248). The British Guiana Forest Depart,-
is considered suitable for utility grade plywood. ment (32) differentiates two distinct varieties as
The government of British Guiana has designated (1) “white” variety and (2) “brown” variety as
kereti silverballi as one of the acceptable timbers follows:
for interior partitions, battens, sash frames,
White variety— Light brown, luster lower,
louvres, weatherstripping, and Demerara shutters
in the government housing program. The tim- texture coarser, harsher, pores more
open, grain more roey, lighter in weight.
ber is well suited far uses now occupied by the
imported pines and Douglas-fir, principally Brown variety— Pinkish brown, luster high-
where durability is not, of primary importance. er, texture finer, smoother, pores smaller,
Supply.— This timber is not too abundant in grain straighter, heavier in weight.
British Guiana but, is available in moderate quan- Weight.— Kopie is hard and moderately heavy,
tities for export. It. may also be available from with a specific gravity of 0.70 (0.62 to 0.75) based
Surinam and French Guiana. on green volume and ovendry weight. The spe-
cific gravity of air-dry wood averages about 0.83,
comparing closely with courbaril (Hymenaea
KOPIE courbaril) (248). Green wood weighs about 73
Goupia glabra pounds per cubic foot and air-dry around 52
pounds per cubic foot.
Nomenclature. — Kopie is the usual trade name Seasoning.— Kopie rates moderately difficult to
for timber of Goupia glabra Aubl., formerly air-season. The timber dries at a moderate rate
identified as G. paraensis Huber. It is also known with only slight degrade in the form of warp,
locally as kabukalli, goupi, and stinkwood in Brit- checking, and casehardening (248, 231, 32).
Shrinkage.— The timber undergoes moderate moved after 13 months in the dry zone of Johan-
shrinkage during seasoning for a wood of its nesburg, South Africa.
density. Shrinkage from green to oven-dry av- Heartwood of kopie resists dry-wood termites,
erages 4.5 percent radially, 8.0 percent tangen- rating only very slightly below West Indies
tially, and 12.6 percent volumetrically. These mahogany and cosiderably above Honduras
values are considerably less than those for white mahogany (263). The wood has little resistance
oak, although kopie is of greater density. The to teredo damage in salt water. In tests in Ha-
wood undergoes a normal longitudinal shrinkage waiian waters (76), kopie was severely damaged
of 0.18 percent from green to ovendry. Shrink- in 6 to 9 months. In the Atlantic at Wrights-
age from green to air-dry would amount to about ville, N.C. (58), damage was severe within one
half these values. year. This may be attributed in part. to the
For a wood of its density, kopie is relatively wood’s low silica content averaging 0.046 percent.
stable in response to changes in atmosphere condi- Woods with a high degree of resistance to marine
tions. According to Pfeiffer (175), ovendry tim- borers usually have 0.5 percent or more silica con-
ber increases 6.86 percent in volume when brought tent (248), though there are exceptions.
into equilibrium with a 40-percent relative hu- Uses.— Kopie is considered a good wood in the
midity, 9.37 percent in a 70-percent relative hu- Guianas for durable heavy building construction,
midity, and 13.5 percent in a 100-percent relative marine construction in areas not contaminated
humidity. It attains a moisture content of 11.5, with teredo, land communications materials, agri-
15.9, and 28.1 percent, respectively, in the three cultural and industrial uses, and joinery and
conditions of relative humidity. furniture. In building construction it becomes
Mechanical properties.— Kopie is a hard, foundations, sills, joists, framing, flooring, sid-
strong, tough wood. Compared to green woods of ing, posts, steps, paneling, parquet flooring, and
like density, it is above average in elastic resil- rustic building material. In marine construction
ience and tension across the grain; average in it is used in piling, decking, groins, revetments,
stiffness, crushing strength, end hardness, shear, and sluice gates. This wood is employed in land
and cleavage; below average in modulus of rup- communications for railway ties, paving blocks,
ture, side hardness, and bending strength; and par- crossarms, sign posts, bridge runners, bridge
ticularly low in shock resistance. It exceeds white decking, freight wagons, and truck bodies. In
oak in the green condition in all properties tested the agricultural and industrial fields, it is made
except toughness and shock resistance. into fences, gates, mining timbers, mill founda-
Kopie improves moderately in most strength tions, and beds (32, 143, 82, 135).
properties during air-drying, but in every prop- Kopie is the principal utility timber of Suri-
erty in far less proportions than domestic United nam, where it is valued for boat knees and com-
States hardwoods. In general, it is below the av- mon furniture, in addition to the uses cited above
erage expected for wood of its density in every (231). It has been designated as acceptable for
property, the greatest deficiency being in shock re- flooring, siding, interior partitions, and battens in
sistance. In comparison with air-dry white oak, the British Guiana Government’s housing pro-
kopie is inferior in shock resistance, shear, bear- gram. Natives in the savannas of that country
ing strength, and cleavage resistance (248). prefer kopie above all other wood for dugout
Working properties.— The wood is moderately canoes because of its resistance to splitting in the
difficult, to work. Smooth surfaces are obtained sun (53).
in sawing, boring, and turning, but it is difficult Supply.— Kopie is available in exportable
to plane, especially cross-grained material. Torn quantities in Surinam, British Guiana, and
and chipped surfaces are common in planing be- French Guiana. In 1951 the merchantable vol-
cause of the interlocked grain, and later require ume in British Guiana was estimated at 2,190,000
considerable sanding to smooth. The wood takes tons or 109,500,000 cubic feet. It is also one of
nails well and polishes smoothly, but, the coarser the most common trees in Surinam.
material requires a filler to obtain a smooth finish.
Although kopie can be sliced for veneer, it is not
attractive in this form (265, 32, 248). KUROKAI
Durability.— Kopie appears to vary in decay
Protium crenatum, Protium decandrum, Protium
resistance, but is generally reported very resistant sagotianum, Protium schomburgkianum
to decay below ground (32). The heartwood of
this species was rated durable to very durable Nomenclature.— The genus Protium, contain-
when exposed to a pure culture of a white-rot ing some 90 species, is of pantropical distribution
fungus and very durable to moderately durable but is most abundant in the Amazon Basin and
to a brown-rot, fungus (248). However, it, was British Guiana. Kurokai is the preferred trade
rated only moderately resistant to decay in grave- name in British Guiana for the timber of three
yard tests in British Guiana (50), and Horn species, P. crenatum Sandw., P. decandrum
(133) reports that kopie crossties had to be re- March., and P. sagotianum March., of which the
first named is the most abundant (82). Because Seasoning. — Seasoning defects develop unless
of the close similarity of the woods, timber of the care is taken to prevent too rapid initial drying,
three species is marketed separately or in combina- indicating that kurokai is moderately difficult to
tion as kurokai, and occasionally as porokai with- air-dry.
out distinction between species. Another com- Shrinkage.— Shrinkage values are not avail-
mon name in many areas is “incense-tree.” A able for the three principal species of kurokai.
fourth species, P. schomburgkianum Engl., also However, shrinkage values from green to ovendry
called kurokai, is sometimes included with the based on the original green dimensions for Pro-
other species but is of very limited importance. tium schomburgkianum are as follows: Radial,
(Bursera family, Burseraceae.) 4.2 percent,; tangential, 6.8 percent; and volu-
The wood is known as copal or incienso in metric, 10.7 percent (149). These values are all
Cuba and elimi in Brazil. Several species of within the limits for successful seasoning without,
Protium are often combined with Trattinickia serious degrade; they compare favorably with the
spp. and marketed under the name tingimonie in values of 3.8, 5.1, and 8.6 percent, respectively, for
Surinam, although the Protium woods appear to Honduras mahogany and are considerably below
be the better of the two genera (231). shrinkage rates for other hardwoods of similar
Distribution and habitat.— Kurokai occurs density. The low ratio of tangential to radial
frequently in the marsh forests and most types of shrinkage indicates uniformity in drying, which
ram forest throughout British Guiana, where it is contradicts the general impression that the timber
one of the more abundant trees (82). It is also is subject to considerable degrade during season-
indigenous to other tropical American areas but. ing.
not in volumes equal to those in British Guiana. Mechanical properties.— Tests of mechanical
The tree.— All four species are fairly tall trees properties have been made on Protium schom-
growing to 90 feet high and 28 inches in diameter. burgkianum from British Guiana by Kynoch and
On the average site, trees are usually 16 to 20 Norton (149). Green wood is somewhat superior
inches in diameter. The boles are slender, some- to Honduras mahogany in bending properties ex-
times fluted, often 60 feet long,, and generally cept in total work in bending in which mahogany
have short buttresses 3 feet or less in height. The is appreciably stronger. The wood is also inferior
tree crowns are heavy and round. The bark con- to mahogany in compression perpendicular to the
tains large quantities of a whitish or yellowish grain, side hardness, cleavage, and tension per-
fragrant oleoresin used in native medicine and as pendicular to the grain, but is about equal to ma-
incense in churches. hogany in other strength properties.
The wood.— Kurokai is a moderately strong, Working properties.— Conversion of logs is
hard, heavy wood resembling yellow birch (Be- rather difficult; resin accumulates and clogs the
tula alleghaniensis) in superficial appearance. saw teeth. This could be partially overcome by
The pale buff-colored sapwood is sharply demar- debarking logs prior to conversion, for the bark
cated from the pinkish-brown heartwood, charac- is the principal source of resin. Dry lumber saws
terized by irregularly spaced darker brown lines. and planes to a smooth surface except for the
The texture is uniform and fairly coarse; the tendency of raised grain to occur around the pores
grain is straight to interlocked and irregular; and when inclined grain is present. When this occurs,
the luster is rather high. The pores are large considerable sanding is required for a first-class
enough to be easily seen on all sections because finish. The grain needs careful filling before pol-
of the surrounding light -colored soft tissues, ishing, but when finished is difficult to separate
which sometime extend as short lines joining sev- from the white type of crabwood (Carapa gui-
eral vessels together. Rays are fine and numer- anensis ) (9, 152, 82).
ous but not visible to the eve. Growth rings are Durability.— Kurokai varies from moderately
not easily seen though they may be differentiated resistant to nonresistant. to decay in contact with
by narrow zones of denser tissue. These zones or the ground (50), and is very susceptible to termite
lines are somewhat irregularly distributed and damage. The Government of Jamaica reports
kurokai is durable only for interior use, according
mark the cessation of growth in various seasons to local experience over a long period of time
(152, 9, 193). (50). Wolcott (263) rates Protium decandrum
Weight.— The wood is comparable in weight to at 32 in resistance to dry-wood termites as com-
Honduras and West Indian mahogany. Air-dry pared to 59 for Honduras mahogany.
wood of Protium decandrum averages 0.53 in spe- The timber has no appreciable resistance to
cific gravity, and weighs about 40 pounds per marine borers. However, the wood of Protium
cubic foot. Green wood weighs about 56 pounds crenatum contains a fairly large amount of silica
per cubic foot (16). P. schomburgkianum is within its fibers and P. sagotianum has silica in
somewhat lighter, air-dry wood averaging 0.53 in both the fibers and rays. Silica is absent from
specific gravity and weighing 33 pounds air-dry both P. schomburgkianum. and P. decandrum.
and 56 pounds green (149). On the basis of silica content, the first two species
may have some resistance to damage by marine feet high and clear of limbs for 70 feet, although
borers. trees up to 36 inches in diameter are reported
Uses.— Kurokai is preferred over crabwood for ( 82 ).
furniture by some people in British Guiana. The wood,— The wood is reported to be very
The Forest Department of that country recom- similar to yemeri (Vochysia hondurensis), which
mends the timber for masts, spars, house fram- is described in detail in the discussion of that
ing, and plywood. It has also been designated timber.
as an acceptable wood for interior partitions and Weight. — Kwarie is generally reported to be
battens in the housing program of that country. somewhat heavier than yemeri but varies in
In Surinam the wood is considered suitable for weight by location and conditions of growth. Spe-
interior paneling, millwork, carriage bodies, and cific gravity of air-dry wood of Vochysia guianen-
furniture. sis is reported at 0.62 by the Surinam Forest Serv-
The reasonable good strength properties, mod- ice (231). 0.56 by the French Tropical Research
erate shrinkage values, and attractive color and Center (50), and 0.45 by Yale University (127) .
grain suggest the use of the wood in decorative The air-dry specific gravity of V. tomentosa is
plywood and veneer for paneling, furniture, and reported at 0.43 by the Surinam Forest Service.
general cabinetwork, and use of the lumber in On the basis of these data, the wood of Vochysia
furniture and other interior work. Kurokai’s guianensis averages about 34 pounds per cubic
low resistance to insects and decay suggests the foot when air-dry, and that of V. tomentosa about
timber would be most suitable where it will not 27 pounds per cubic foot. Green wood of both
be exposed to the weather or in contact with the species weighs about 67 pounds per cubic foot
ground. (127).
Supply.— British Guiana is reported to have Seasoning.— Kwarie lumber is rated moder-
kurokai available for export. ately difficult to air-season and kiln-dry. The
timber dries at a moderate to slow rate with slight
surface checking, casehardening, and warp. Fur-
KWARIE ther information on seasoning will be found in the
Vochysia guianensis, Vochysia tomentosa section on yemeri.
Shrinkage.— Vochysia guianensis undergoes
Nomenclature. — Two species of the genus considerable shrinkage during seasoning, quite a
Vochysia, namely V. guianensis Aubl. and V. bit more than vemeri. V. tomentosa also has high
tomentosa DC., are konwn in the trade as kwarie. shrinkage values for a wood of its density.
In Surinam the timber is also known locally as Shrinkage values for V. quianensis from green to
rode kwari, wiswis kwari, or wane kwari. It is ovendry are reported by Yale University at 4.8
known in French Guiana as grignon fou and in percent radially, 8.2 percent tangentially. 0.07
British Guiana as iteballi. Another closely re- percent longitudinally, and 15.4 percent volumet-
lated species, V. hondurensis Sprague of southern rically. These results are comparable to the
Mexico and Central America, is described later shrinkage values determined by Pfeiffer (231) of
under its usual trade name of yemeri. Two other 3.9 percent radially and 10.8 percent tangentially.
species of Vochysia commonly associated with shrinkage values for V. tomentosa from green to
kwarie are V. densiflora Spruce, the appel kwarie ovendry of 2.5 percent radially and 8.8 percent
of Surinam, and V. tetraphylla (G. F. W. Mey.) tangentially are lower than those for V. guianen-
DC., known as wane kwarie in Surinam and ite- sis. partially so because of difference in density.
balli in British Guiana. Kwarie timber is gen- Shrinkage from green to air-dry generally
erally used for the same purposes as that of ‘the amounts to about half the green to ovendry values.
related genus Qualea, with which it is often con- The high ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage
fused. Qualea is described in this reference for both species, but particularly of Vochysia to-
under the name gronfoeloe, (Vochysia family, mentosa, may cause most of the seasoning distor-
Vochysiaceae.) tion. The low radial shrinkage indicates the pos-
Distribution and habitat.— Kwarie is found in sible advantage in using quartersawed material
the Guianas and lower Amazon on silt soils adja- when stability is required.
cent to waterways and on sandy soils. The tree Mechanical properties.— Mechanical proper-
makes its best growth along the coastal plain. It ties of Vochysia guianensis are good to very good
also comes in on abandoned farmland on the for a wood of its density It is very similar in
poorer soils but rarely occurs on very swampy most strength properties to yemeri (see yemeri
sites or on limestone or marl areas (127 ). In for description). The wood of V. guianensis is, in
Surinam it is a frequent tree in the rain forest general, very comparable to Scotch pine or Baltic
on well-drained soils. red deal (Pinus sylvestris) and yellow-poplar
The tree.— The trees are unbuttressed, medium (Liriodendron tulopifera) but is generally infe-
to fairly large in size and range from good to rior to white oak (Quercus alba). Wood of the
poor in form. The usual mature tree in British less dense V. tomentosa was reported somewhat
Guiana is about 24 inches in diameter, 100 to 110 inferior to V. guianensis in all mechanical proper-
ties tested at the Agricultural University of Wa- public; and palo santo, guayacán in Venezuela.
geningen in Holland (231, 127, 249) . The wood of G. sanctum is often identified sepa-
Working properties.— Kwarie works readily rately from G. officinale by calling it “bastard” lig-
but possesses rather poor machining properties. numvitae, vera, bera, guayacán blanco, gaïac fe-
Consult the section on yemeri for a more complete melle, or guayacancillo, and referring to the latter
summary of these properties. as “genuine” lignumvitae. However, dealers more
Durability.— Other species of Vochysia are commonly identify the wood as to its country of
known for their variability in decay resistance, origin. (Caltrop family, Zygophyllaceae.)
and kwarie appears to be similar in this respect. Distribution and habitat.— The combined
The heartwood has little resistance to decay in range of the two species of lignumvitae covered
contact with the soil according to studies of Suri- here is from southern Florida and the Bahama
nam timber (175, 231). However, pure culture Islands through Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola,
tests indicate the wood is very durable to a white- Puerto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles to Martini-
rot fungus, although somewhat variable in this que, and on the continent from Mexico south-
respect, and moderately durable to a brown-rot ward through Central America to Colombia and
fungus (249). Other species of Vochysia that are Venezuela on the north coast of South America.
without silica are resistant to susceptible to dam- Both species have been planted elsewhere, but it
age by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies is doubtful if either is indigenous to Trinidad and
(263) and have little resistance to marine borers the nearby Gulf islands (165).
in Hawaiian waters (76). The tree is largely confined to dry, exposed
Preservation.— The wood offers little resistance sites where it is often the predominant species in
to preservative treatment, being similar to yemeri areas of low rainfall, and where the soil is very dry
in this characteristic (231). at least part of the year. It does well on shallow
Uses.— Kwarie is used and recommended for soils, particularly in limestone areas, but also
the same purposes as yemeri. It is recommended thrives in well-drained low areas, low foothills
for boxes and crates, general carpentry, inexpen- subject to hot dry winds and in rocky limestone
sive furniture, interior trim, and plywood. regions (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua)
Supply.— Export supplies are available from at altitudes of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (41, 229) .
British Guiana, French Guiana, and Surinam. The tree.— Lignumvitae is a small, slow-grow-
ing evergreen tree, normally 20 to 30 feet high
and about 12 inches in diameter, although some
LIGNUMVITAE trees grow to 30 inches. Clear boles in excess of
Guaiacum officinale, Guaiacum sanctum 10 to 12 feet are uncommon. Bolts or logs 2 to 10
feet. long and from 3 inches to 18 or 20 inches in
Lignumvitae is not only one of the hardest and diameter are marketed. Larger logs were once
heaviest woods known to commerce, but is also fairly common in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola
unique for its self-lubricating properties due to but are no longer available there in quantity (105,
the unusual resin content of the wood. These 230, 190). The largest logs are probably avail-
properties of strength and self-lubrication make able now in Central America. Logs of Guaiacum
this wood particularly well adapted for under- officinale are reported to be somewhat larger and
water bearings. In this use it has three to four to have a greater proportion of heartwood than
times the service life of brass and babbit-metal those of G. sanctum. Logs of different species
bearings. The wood has been exported for nearly are readily identified by their bark; the bark of
450 years. First, its resin, called “guaiac” or Guaiacum officinale is thin, smooth, with irregu-
“guaiaci resin,” was used as a curative in Europe. lar-shaped glossy flakes of varying size and depth
Later, the wood was used principally to make similar to sycamore (Platanus), while the bark of
self-lubricating bearings or bushing blocks to line G. sanctum is rough (118).
the stern tubes of propeller shafts on steamships. One other species, Guaiacum coulteri A. Gray,
For centuries, it has remained in great demand occurs in Mexico as a shrub or small tree, grow-
despite its relative scarcity, small size, and accom- ing to 25 or 35 feet tall and 16 to 28 inches in
panying high prices. diameter. G. guatemalense Planch. of Nicaragua
Nomenclature.— The woods of Guaiacum offi- is synonymous with G. sanctum, although occa-
cinale L. and G. sanctum L. are principally sionally reported as a separate species.
known in commerce as lignumvitae, but are also The wood.— Lignumvitae is an extremely hard
called guayacán in Spanish, bois de gaïac in and heavy wood. The heartwood is a dark green-
French, and wayaca and pokhout in Dutch. These ish brown to almost black and readily distin-
woods are also known as guaiacum-wood in Eng- guished from the narrow pale yellow or cream-col-
land, gaïac in French West Indies, guayacán in ored sapwood. Heartwood becomes even darker
Puerto Rico, guayacán negro, palo santo, guayacán after exposure. The wood is very fine and uni-
in Cuba; ironwood in Florida, United States; vera, form in texture with a heavily interlocked grain.
bera, gaïac, gaïac franc, gaïac mâle in Haiti; lig- It has a characteristic oily feel due to the resin
numvitae in Jamaica; guayacán in Dominican Re- (guaiac content) that constitutes about one-
fourth of the air-dry weight. Heating the wood tools, tending to ride over the cutters in planing.
to a temperature of 100° centigrade causes the A cutting angle of 15 degrees or less is recom-
resin to ooze out with an accompanying lessening mended in planing to prevent raised or chipped
of the period of its self-lubricating properties. A grain on quartersawed surfaces when interlocked
slight scent is evident when the wood is warmed grain is present. Increased pressure is also re-
or rubbed. It is occasionally figured by color quired on pressure bars and shoes to hold material
changes or a fine ripple marking from the inter- firmly during the planing. The dulling effect on
locked, irregular grain (265, 230, 229) . cutting edges is not unduly severe because of the
The heartwootl of Guaiacum sanctum contains oily nature of the wood. In sawing, a narrow
less resin than G. officinale, although the amount tooth-pitch and limited hook are necessary to pre-
of resin in both species varies considerably be- vent severe vibration. Saw type F is recom-
tween different, localities. Wood from trees grow- mended by the Forest Products Research Labora-
ing in the hotter, drier locations is thought to be tory (105). In most, other operations a good
more resinous than that from more humid, cooler finish is possible; the wood turns and shapes very
sites. well. It takes a high polish (237). but on account
Weight.— Lignumvitae is one of the heaviest of its oily nature requires special surface treat-
woods in the trade. The specific gravity of air- ment for satisfactory gluing (240).
dry wood ranges from 1.20 to 1.36, averaging Durability.— The heartwood is very resistant
about 1.28 at 15 percent moisture content (105, to decay and is one of the few woods exceptional-
50). The weight of air-dry wood varies from 75 ly resistant to termite and teredo attack; it also
to 85 pounds per cubic foot and averages about 80 resists acid (265). Wolcott (263) considers the
pounds at 15 percent moisture content. heartwood of lignumvitae more resistant to ter-
Seasoning.— Lignumvitae is difficult to season mites than West Indies mahogany, rating it at
because of its refractory tendencies, and consider- 100 as compared to 80 for that wood. The sap-
able care is required to avoid shakes and splitting wood is moderately resistant to termites, rating
during seasoning (222, 265). Logs left exposed equal to the sapwood of West Indies mahogany
to the tropical sun are also very liable to develop and the heartwood of Honduras mahogany.
checks and ring shakes at the ends (105). End However, damage to green logs by longhorn bee-
coating logs at the time of logging with an as- tles has been recorded on several occasions, al-
phalt, bituminous, or plastic roof coating would though no record is available as to whether sap-
probably eliminate most of this difficulty. End wood or heartwood was damaged.
coating the sawed material and piling it so that Lignumvitae is generally reported to be highly
it will air-dry slowly would also help to reduce resistant to marine borers in Caribbean waters.
defect during drying. Kiln Schedule 2 of the Calvert (49) reports of observing a post of lig-
Forest Products Research Laboratory in England numvitae in the West Indies that had been sub-
(222) is suggested for kiln-drying the wood. merged for several hundred years. Lignumvitae
Shrinkage.— Shrinkage data are lacking for has also proved resistant to marine borers in tests
lignumvitae. However, its refractory nature in- at Aukland, New Zealand, in which untreated
dicates a considerable difference between radial wood of this species was undamaged after 7 years’
and tangential shrinkage. The very interlocked exposure (122).
grain would also indicate a comparatively high Uses.— The principal use for lignumvitae is in
rate of longitudinal shrinkage. bearings and bushing blocks for propeller shafts
Mechanical properties.— Limited tests of sea- of ships, pulley sheaves, dead eyes, and as a re-
soned timber at the Forest Products Research placement for metal bearings in roller mills in
Laboratory in England indicated lignumvitae is steel and tube works. It is reported to last 3 to
3 to 4 times as hard as English oak. Record states 7 years as unlubricated bearings in ships and from
that Guaiacum sanctum ranked first in hardness 50 to 70 years as pulley sheaves.
over 405 woods tested and was far above any of The extreme hardness and interwoven grain of
the common woods of the United States in this lignumvitae withstands the tremendous pressures
property (188). According to the Forest Prod- applied by the screw-shafts of the largest vessels
ucts Research Laboratory in England, straight- with the resin content serving as a lubricant.
grained wood has a resistance to splitting in a Brush (41) reports that bearings for large steam-
radial plane about double that of English oak, but ships are made of a series of strips built up of lig-
splits very easily on the tangential plane at loads numvitae blocks. The strips are assembled in a
of about 30 to 40 percent of those for English oak way that the shaft bears on the end grain of each
(105). However, most material is not straight- block. Bearings for smaller vessels are sometimes
grained but severely interlocked and irregular, bored from one solid piece of wood.
and to split it would require much greater loads Because of its hardness, wearing qualities, and
than those needed for straight-grained material. self-lubrication, the wood is useful for bandsaw
Working properties.— Lignumvitae is a very guides and awning rollers, furniture casters, and
difficult wood to work with hand tools (237, 24) . similar uses. It is also used for mallet heads be-
It is also difficult, to saw and machine with power cause of its hardness and resistance to splitting;
then too it is made into parts that come in contact bino (Magnolia splendens Urban) and jagüilla
with acid or alkaline solutions that would soon (M. portorioensis Bello) are confined to Puerto
destroy most metals. In steel and tube mills lig- Rico, where laurel sabino is considered one of the
numvitae is used to replace brass and babbit metal most valuable trees.
for bearings; the initial cost of the lignumvitae Magnolia is not an exacting species as to soil
bearings is less than for metal, and the useful life and is generally one of the most common and gen-
several times longer with no lubrication required. erally distributed species in the humid, many-
It is particularly useful where bearings are sub- storied forests between 1,400 and 2,500 feet eleva-
merged or in constant contact with water as in tion (220). The tree develops best. in deep rich
turbines and papermill machinery. soils in valleys and on level sites at middle eleva-
The wood is also used to a limited extent for tions in hot, humid climates. It is never found on
gunstock stencils and chisel blocks, masthead ridges or slopes or as a dominant, species. It is
trucks, bowling balls, cable dressers, brush backs, reported to be in plentiful supply in St. Lucia
rulers, batons, pestles, and packing between saws (153).
in machine saw-frames, and for various turned The tree.— The tree is straight, erect, and well
novelties. “Gum guaiac” for the drug trade is formed, with a large round, well-developed crown
extracted from the wood or sawdust, or collected in dominant trees. Long buttresses are common.
in the form of exudations from the living trees. On favorable locations the tree may attain a
The resin is obtained by heating the pieces of wood height of 130 feet or more and diameters to 36
and collecting the resin as it emerges, by heating inches. Clear boles 40 to 60 feet long are common.
sawdust and chips in water, or by extracting the Magnificent, specimens are said to be present in
gum with alcohol or ether. Most of the “gum almost all valleys in the central forests of the is-
guaiac” is used in proprietary preparations (265, lands where it occurs. The bark of old trees is
143, 12). rough and uniformly white with shallow longi-
Supply.— Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica, British Hon- tudinal fissures. The magnolialike flowers are
duras, and the Dominican Republic are the prin- large, white, and sweet scented (220, 93).
cipal sources of lignumvitae. As recently as 1951, The wood.— The wood resembles yellow-poplar
Haiti exported fairly large quantities of the wood. (Liriodendron tulipifera) in structure hut not. in
There may be other sources in the West Indies, color. The sapwood is white to light yellow and
Central America, and northern South America sharply differentiated from the dull dark brown
where sizable quantities might be obtained for or black heartwood, which is often streaked with
export. shades of brown. The wood vessels are very thin
and grouped in concentric arches. Wood rays are
MAGNOLIA irregular and long, giving rise to medullary spots
Talauma dodecapetala
or pith flecks. Growth rings marked by fine
bands of marginal parenchyma are difficult to dis-
Of the several species of Talauma in tropical tinguish. The wood is without distinctive odor or
America, T. dodecapetala (Lam.) Urban (T . taste: its grain is fine textured and straight (50,
plumierii (Sw.) DC.) is the only one in the Lesser 220).
Antilles. The tree serves a dual purpose in some Weight.— The specific gravity of air-dry wood
islands where its majestic appearance, white flow- averages about 0.64 based on air-dry volume and
ers, and excellent form make it an attractive orna- weiglit. Air-dry wood weighs about 40 pounds
mental and an equally important source of timber per cubic foot for magnolia as compared to 48
(190, 193). Stehlé (220) considers the wood su- pounds for white oak.
perior to that of all other timbers of the Carib- Seasoning.— Magnolia seasons without serious
bean Archipelago. degrade; 1-inch boards air-dry in 6 months on St.
Nomenclature.— The tree is known locally as Lucia.
magnolia, for its leaves, flowers, and wood closely Shrinkage.— The wood is reported by Stehlé
resemble those of the related genus Magnolia. It (220) to be resistant, to swelling, shrinkage, and
is also called pin, bois pin, pomme pin, and bois pin expansion because of its homogeneity.
marron in the various islands of the Caribbean, Mechanical properties.— There are no pub-
including the British Islands of Dominica and St.
Lucia. These names result from the resemblance lished data on the strength properties of mag-
of the fruit to that of the pine trees. In Guadel- nolia. However, the wood is reported to be hard,
oupe and Martinique it is also known as cachiman tough, and strong. The timber is also reported
de montagne and bois cachiman (93). (Magnolia to be resistant to shock, stress, compression, and
family, Magnoliaceae.) tension, and is difficult to split or twist. Its elas-
Distribution and habitat.— Magnolia is en- ticity is also reported as fairly good.
demic to the hydrophytic forests of five of the Working properties.— Magnolia is regarded as
largest islands of the Lesser Antilles, namely “probably the local wood which turns out easiest
Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and best on the machines” (153) in the govern-
and St. Vincent. Two related species, laurel sa- ment-owned woodworking shop in St. Lucia.
This is in agreement with other reports that the after beating. The inner bark is used for making
wood works easily but does not take nails or rope and cord, which is reported to be very dura-
screws well. ble in salt and brackish water (171). Hibiscus
Durability.— Some confusion exists as to the tiliaceus of the lowlands seldom grows to com-
resistance of magnolia to decay and insect attack. mercial size.
Stehlé (220) reports that the heartwood is never The wood.— The sapwood is narrow and nearly
attacked by insects, while Lang (159) states that white. The heartwood is basically a greyish
magnolia is susceptible to termite and fungus at- brown or olive, but is often richly variegated with
tack on St. Lucia. The latter rating is more streaks of purple, metallic blue, and olive, or sep-
comparable to the experience with the closely re- arated by plain olive patches. The grain is fairly
lated laurel sabino of Puerto Rico. straight and of medium texture. Freshly pol-
Uses.— Magnolia is a highly cherished wood ished wood has the appearance of marble but
and commands a high price. It is prized for lacks luster and unless well finished rapidly as-
flooring because of it’s stability and the variety sumes a very dull color. So distinctive odor or
of colors present in the heartwood, and is also taste is present in seasoned wood. Mahoe is con-
used extensively in small boat construction and sidered one of the most valuable woods of Jamaica
in the hulls of fishing canoes. Other uses include and Cuba (171, 143).
marquetry, interior finish, gunstocks, and furni- Weight.— Mahoe is a moderately heavy wood
ture. Its principal uses on St. Lucia are in truck reported to weigh 47 pounds per cubic foot when
bodies and for interior work (93). air-dry (50). On this basis, the specific gravity
Supply.— Limited supplies of magnolia may of air-dry wood would be 0.75. It is somewhat
become available for export. from Dominica, St. heavier, darker in color, and more durable than
Lucia, Martinique, and Guadeloupe when ade- that of Hibiscus tiliaceus.
quate logging and milling facilities are estab- Seasoning.— No information available.
lished on these islands. Shrinkage.— No information available.
Mechanical properties.— Mechanical tests are
not available for mahoe but it is considered a
MAHOE hard, tough, elastic wood of overall good quality
Hibiscus elatus (48).
Working properties.— The timber works easily
Nomenclature.— Hibiscus elatus Sw. is com- but needs particular care to attain a good polish.
monly known as mahoe, blue mahoe, or mountain Durability.— Mahoe, based on casual observa-
mahoe in Jamaica. In Cuba it is known as maja- tions, is generally reported to be durable to very
gua, majugua, emajagua, and majagua azul (232) . durable (50, 229, 207, 230), but no authentic dura-
Other common names are bois flot or seaside bility tests have been completed to verify these
mahoe (50). Some authors have considered this observations.
species to be the upland variety of H. tiliaceus Uses.— The timber is most highly prized in
L., sea hibiscus, a closely related but small shrubby Jamaica and Cuba for high-grade furniture, cabi-
tree common on shores throughout the tropics. netmaking, inlay work, and interior trim. It is
(Mallow family, Malvaceae.) also used for footings, sills, framing, flooring,
Distribution and habitat.— Mahoe is reported shingles, and window and door frames in house
from Jamaica (229) and Cuba (207) and may oc- and building construction. Other uses include
cur in other areas in the Greater Antilles. The railway sleepers, shipbuilding, as well as naves,
tree has been widely planted and naturalized from spokes, and fellows in wheelwright work, and
southern Florida and Cuba to Trinidad and To- shafts and bodies of carts and wagons. But the
bago, and on the continent from Mexico to Peru timber is scarce and costly, and most of the avail-
and Brazil. It has been planted quite extensively able supply is consumed in the higher grade uses.
in St. Lucia from seed imported from Jamaica. Supply.— The very limited supply of mahoe is
Mahoe occurs throughout Cuba and Jamaica not equal to the local demand and is not available
under a wide range of elevations and soil condi- for export. It should be readily marketed when
tions from sea level to 4,000 feet, but is not well sufficient volumes are available.
suited to rocky, exposed, or degraded ridges, or
to areas with a rainfall of less than 60 inches
(230). Heavy cutting in the past has seriously HONDURAS MAHOGANY
reduced the volume of merchantable timber. Swietenia macrophylla
The tree.— Mahoe commonly grows to a height
of 60 to 70 feet and a diameter of 12 to 18 inches, Nomenclature.— Honduras mahogany is prob-
although on favorable sites trees occasionally at- ably the most common trade name for Swietenia
tain diameters of 36 inches. The boles are macrophylla King, which is also commonly
straight and of fairly good length (190, 230). known as South American mahogany, baywood,
The bark is clear in color, rather soft in texture, Central American mahogany, and broadleaf ma-
and consists of many layers that can be separated hogany. According to the country of origin, the
timber is also known as Mexican, Tabasco, British Deposits of dark-colored gum in the vessels are
Honduras, Guatemalan, Nicaraguan, Costa Rica, common and white deposits are sometimes present.
Panama, Brazilian, Peruvian, and Colombian The presence of ripple marks on the tangential
mahogany (195). Caoba and caoba hondureña longitudinal surface is usually apparent to the
are the most commonly used names in Spanish- naked eye (195).
speaking areas. In Mexico the names zopilote Saks (197), reporting on the veneering qualities
and gateado have been used, and in Peru aguano of forest-grown Swietenia macrophylla, described
(42). The French name for mahogany is acajou. the wood figure as follows:
The local British Honduras names are bastard True Mexican mahogany produces broken stripe, roe
lime, red cedar, and sisam (190). (Mahogany and mottle figures in addition to the common figure and
family, Meliaceae.) occasionally some other exceptionally rare designs. One
Distribution and habitat.— Honduras mahog- of these is the fine curly figure with rain-drop marks in
which the curls are ¼ inch in length and clearly designed,
any occurs from southern Mexico southward resembling hair waves. The rarest figure in Mexican
along the Atlantic slope of Central America from mahogany is bird’s-eye figure, similar to the bird’s-eye in
British Honduras to Panama, and in Colombia, hard maple. Fiddleback is comparatively rare but if it
Venezuela, and parts of the upper reaches of occurs gives an excellent lustre. Plum pudding figure is
the Amazon and its tributaries in Peru, Bolivia, produced by the seashell veined or male mahogany.
Quartersawn mahogany usually shows a delicate stripe
and Brazil (105, 190, 191). The tree is not native without the rigid regularity characteristic of the African
to the West Indies islands, where it is replaced mahogany. The well-known leaf or shell figure, narrow
by West Indies mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) heart, wide heart and wild heart can be achieved in ma-
on some islands (165). However. plantation- hogany by plain slicing. However, the real beauty of the
Mexican mahogany is largely in quarter sliced veneer.
grown mahogany is found throughout Central Rotary cut mahogany often completely loses its fine
America and the West Indies as well as in other characteristics. Hardness and strength are as variable
tropical regions of the world (241). as the color in mahogany, which includes yellowish-white,
The tree makes its best development both in tea-color, salmon-pink, and golden-brown variations. Ma-
hogany changes to reddish-brown color with an overall
plantations and in the forest on deep, fertile, well- golden hue after extended exposure to sunlight and air.
drained soils, but, it does fairly well on many sites
from sea level to 3,000 feet in altitude. Weight. — Plantation-grown wood appears to
A closely related species, Swietenia humilis be somewhat less dense than forest-grown wood.
Zucc. (S. cirrhata Blake), occurs in dry locations The specific gravity of forest-grown wood aver-
along the Pacific coast from western Mexico to ages about 0.45, based on green volume and oven-
Costa Rica (190). The wood is indistinguishable dry weight, and 0.53 based on air-dry weight and
from that of S. macrophylla. Other names from volume. Green wood weighs about 44 pounds per
South America— S. candollei Pittier, S. tessman- cubic foot and air-dry wood about 33 pounds per
nii Harms, and S. krukovii Gleason & Panshin— cubic foot, (249, 248, 149, 125) .
are usually regarded as synonyms of S. macro- Plantation-grown wood averages about, 0.42 in
phylla. A form in British Honduras is named S. specific gravity, based on green volume and oven-
belizensis Lundell. dry weight, and 0.50 based on air-dry weight and
The tree.— Forest-grown mahogany trees are volume. Green wood weighs 40 pounds per cubic
often very large, sometimes 150 feet in height and foot and air-dry wood 31 pounds per cubic foot.
6 feet or more in diameter above the heavy but- There appears to be no appreciable difference in
tresses (73, 178). However, the principal source the density and technical properties of wood from
of Honduras mahogany lumber in the area cov- different countries or geological areas. This was
ered by this report will be from plantation-grown. substantiated by studies at Yale University (248)
trees in the West Indies and in some parts of using forest-grown timber from several sources in
Central America. Plantation-grown trees often Central and South America.
make very rapid growth, frequently reaching Seasoning.— Honduras mahogany, one of the
small saw-log size in 20 years on good sites, and nonrefractory woods, can be air seasoned and kiln
under average conditions 12- to 14-inch saw logs dried rapidly and easily without appreciable
(d.i.b.) are grown in about 40 years. warping or checking (105). Plantation-grown
The wood.— The wood of plantation-grown ma- stock was seasoned in tests at Yale University
hogany from Honduras is described in Tropical (248) without degrade except for slight crook
Woods (71) as follows: and bow. However, a high rate of longitudinal
shrinkage usually accompanies the presence of
Heartwood pinkish or salmon colored when freshly cut
in the unseasoned condition, later becoming light reddish tension wood and gelatinous fibers. This condi-
brown with a golden luster. Sapwood generally one to tion is not uncommon in Honduras mahogany and
two inches wide, sharply demarcated, yellow to white. generally results in an increased amount of warp-
Grain commonly interlocked, producing a wide attractive
striped figure on radial surfaces. Texture rather fine to ing (176). Kiln Schedule 5 of the Forest Products
medium, uniform; growth layers indistinct. Heartwood Research Laboratory in England is recommended
without characteristic taste or odor when seasoned. for kiln-drying (222).
Occasionally mottled, fiddleback, raindrop, roe, Shrinkage.— Mahogany is well known for its
or curly figures are present in the wood (42) . unusually low shrinkage and stability. It has
lower shrinkage values than any of the commonly will frequently develop cracks when not properly
used woods in the United States (42). In the boiled. This is prevented by a 60-hour boiling
Yale tests (71) plantation-grown wood was found process that starts with a cold soaking followed
to have average shrinkage values from green to by a gradual increase of temperature up to 170°
ovendry of 2.4 percent radially, 4.2 percent tan- F . (197).
gentially, 0.42 percent longitudinally, and 6.6 Durability.— Honduras mahogany is generally
percent volumetrically. The relative high longi- considered resistant to decay. Field tests of for-
tudinal shrinkage is probably the result of the est-grown wood from British Honduras showed
characteristic interlocked grain in the wood and heartwood to be resistant but not highly resistant
the presence of tension wood in some specimens. to decay. In these tests sample specimens lasted
Shrinkage tests of forest-grown material from 10.5 and 11.0 years in contact with the soil (206) .
Central and South America by Heck (125), Ky- Pure-cultuie tests (71) rate plantation-grown
noch and Norton (149), and at Yale University mahogany very durable to durable in resistance
(248) showed similar results. The averaged re- to a white-rot fungus and very durable to a brown-
sults of the three studies give shrinkage values of rot fungus. The wood has shown little resistance
3.1 percent radially, 4.2 percent tangentially, and to marine borer attack in either Hawaiian (76) or
7.6 percent volumetrically. Atlantic (58) waters. It is rated moderately re-
Studies of the movement of forest-grown Hon- sistant to termites by Wolcott (263), who rates
duras mahogany at the Forest, Products Research the wood at 59 as compared to 80 for West Indies
Laboratory in England (108) substantiated this mahogany. This critical rating of Honduras ma-
wood’s reputation of being very stable in use. hogany does not appear wholly justified in lieu
A movement of 1.0 percent radially and 1.3 per- of its extensive use in termite-infested areas of
cent tangentially were measured between equilib- the Caribbean without any appreciable number of
rium in 60- and 90-percent relative humidities. complaints of termite damage. The sapwood is
This amounts to a movement of 1/8 and 5/32 inch quite susceptible to insect attack. Logs that are
per foot, respectively. The wood attained a mois- not properly sprayed with insecticides and end
ture content of 12.5 percent, in the lower humidity coated against sun cracks are vulnerable to pin-
and 19.0 percent in the higher humidity. hole borers and the subsequent brown discolora-
Mechanical properties.— The strength prop- tion (197).
erties of Honduras mahogany are extremely good Both plantation-grown and forest-grown ma-
for a timber of its weight; for this reason it was hogany have excellent weathering properties with
once used almost exclusively for airplane propel- only minor surface checking and warping occur-
lers. Plantation-grown timber is slightly below ring when exposed to the weather without the
forest-grown wood in bending strength and work protection of paint (55).
to maximum load in static bending in proportion Preservation.— Honduras mahogany is ex-
to its slightly lower density. But plantation- tremely resistant to impregnation with preserva-
grown timber is generally superior in hardness, tives. Even under pressure treatments, only a
compression across the grain, and shear. In the small quantity of preservative is absorbed with
air-dry condition, the plantation-grown material only very light penetration along the end grain.
is very much lower in modulus of elasticity, al- Uses.— Honduras mahogany is one of the most
though the two types of wood are about equal in cherished cabinet woods in the world. Its USPS
shock resistance. Air-dry, forest-grown wood is are generally confined to the more expensive types
also apparently slightly superior to forest-grown of furniture and cabinetmaking, interior trim,
wood in tension across the grain and cleavage re- paneling, and other uses where a high-grade, at-
sistance (71, 249, 248, 15, 125, 149). tractive wood is required. It is also used exten-
Working properties.— Mahogany is one of the sively in shipbuilding for paneling and interior
easiest. and most satisfactory of all woods to work work in both large passenger vessels and small
with either machine or hand tools and has very boats. Because of its durability, stability in use,
little dulling effect on cutting edges. In fact, ma- and good weathering properties, the timber is
hogany is often a “standard of perfection” for used for planking on yachts and small boats and
rating the machining qualities of other woods. also for the shells of racing or speed boats (118).
The frequent presence of tension wood gives rise It is employed also for several types of musical
to fuzzy surfaces in machining, which necessitates instruments, particularly pianos.
an unusual heavy sanding. However, excellent In some countries mahogany is the preferred
finishes are obtained in most operations with wood for burial caskets because of its attractive
“wooliness” encountered in some material, where appearance. The characteristic low shrinkage,
the use of sharp tools is essential. The wood is stability, and ease of working make mahogany
easy to glue (240), takes nails and screws well, particularly adaptable for use in molds, dies, and
and will take an excellent polish by any of the pattern making. A large portion of all mahog-
accepted methods (105, 42, 265). any is used in the form of veneer and plywood,
Honduras mahogany is one of the easier woods often with cedar (Cedrela) or other less valuable
to slice or rotary cut into veneer, although flitches wood used as a core or backing.
Supply.— Plantation-grown mahogany from mahogany is acajou, and the Spanish know it as
the Caribbean region may become available in lim- caoba and caoba dominicana. In the Bahamas the
ited quantity from Trinidad and possibly other tree is called madeira or redwood. It is sometimes
areas within a few years. Present export sup known as bay mahogany or caobilla in Cuba and
plies of forest-grown timber are largely confined as mahogany petites feuilles in Guadeloupe. For-
to Mexico, British Honduras, Honduras, and esters in the Caribbean area often refer to this
South America. species as small-leaf mahogany to distinguish it
from S. macrophylla, referred to as broadleaf
mahogany. (Mahogany family, Meliaceae.)
WEST INDIES MAHOGANY Distribution and habitat.— West Indies ma-
Swietenia mahagoni hogany is native to southern Florida, the Baha-
mas, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican
West Indies mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni Republic. It has been introduced and naturalized
Jacq., is probably the best known and most cher- in Puerto Rico and most of the Lesser Antilles,
ished cabinet wood in the world. It has been ex- including St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent, Marti-
ported from the West Indies for nearly four nique, Guadeloupe, the Grenadines, and the Lee-
hundred years, first to Europe and later to the ward Islands. The tree also grows in Trinidad,
United States and throughout the world. The Tobago, and the American Virgin Islands, but is
timber was once in bountiful supply on many of not considered indigenous to those locations (50,
the Caribbean islands and as late as 1919, H. O. 18).
Neville included the following comments in his Mahogany has been planted in many parts of
Hardwoods of Cuba (171): the world, including east and west, tropical Africa,
For domestic purposes, the Mahogany is used in such the Philippine Islands, Java, India, and Ceylon.
freedom that it seems sacrilege to the newcomer from Commercial timber has been produced in India
the North, who has known this wood only in its finished and Java. It is extensively planted nowadays
and very expensive forms. Many hundreds of cords of
this timber, ranging from 12 inches in diameter down, throughout the West Indies, largely on the drier
are annually burned under the boilers of our sugar mills sites where it, competes more favorably with the
and locomotives: hundreds of trees of the proper sizes native species (18, 229, 165).
are annually cut down and rough-hewed into railroad The tree.— Mahogany trees are seldom found in
ties; and for posts, corralled fences, and the myriad other
uses of the plantation, Mahogany is utilized. There will abundance, but are generally scattered thoughout
come a day not very far distant when the waste of this the forest, one or two trees per acre or even less.
valuable timber will be regretted. The tree thrives in rich, moist soil but because of
The “day” Neville forecast has arrived and heavy exploitation it, is now generally confined to
West Indies mahogany is now of more historical dry, stony, arid areas. The trees vary in size and
than commercial significance. By 1946 the an- in quality of wood according to site: trees grow-
nual cut declined to 2 million board feet in Cuba ing on dry, rocky sites are generally of smaller
(207). Haiti, Cuba, and Dominican Republic diameter than those in the more moist, fertile
have banned the export of all mahogany logs and areas. The wood of the dry areas is, however,
lumber, and the other Caribbean sources can only proportionately better in that it is finer textured,
Supply small quantities at intermittent intervals. heavier, darker, and more highly figured than that
Fortunately, another true mahogany, Swietenia of the faster growing lowland tree.
macrophylla King, and a number of other “so- The History of Jamaica 3 carries the following
called” mahoganies, although inferior in some re- description of mahogany:
spects to West Indies mahogany,, have filled the The tree grows tall and straight, rising often sixty feet
position formerly occupied by this wood. from the spur to the limbs; the foliage is a beautiful
An indication of the esteem in which the true deep green; and the appearance, made by the whole tree,
mahoganies, Swietenia spp., are held in the wood- so elegant, that none would be more ornamental for an
working field throughout the world is evident by avenue or decorative planting. It generally bears a great
number of capsules in the season. The flowers are of a
the numerous timbers that are called “mahogany.” reddish or safron color; and the fruit of an oval form
Some of these woods are superficially similar to about the size of a turkey’s egg. It is easily propagated
mahogany; others bear virtually no resemblance from seeds and grows rapidly. Some of them have
to the true mahoganies. Nevertheless, the adopted reached to a monstrous size, exceeding one-hundred feet
in height and proportionately bulky.
trade name “mahogany” helped to sell them;
otherwise, the timbers would have carried their The tree is planted extensively on the drier sites
local names. on many of the West, Indies islands. In some
Nomenclature.— The tree and timber of Swie- arid, rocky areas pure stands of mahogany have
tenia mahogoni are known on the export, market developed from the original plantings. Wads-
as mahogany, true mahogany, Spanish mahogany, worth (245) describes the establishment of ma-
West Indies mahogany, Cuban mahogany, Domin- hogany on an adversely dry ridgetop site on the
ican mahogany, Jamaica mahogany, and other 3
Long, Edward. The History of Jamaica. 3 v. London.
names related to the source. The French word for 1774.
island of St. Croix in the American Virgin islands lar density. Shrinkage from green to air-dry
in which some of the trees contain 2 to 2½ straight amount to about half these values.
logs 16 feet long. Dense thickets of straight sap- Mechanical properties.— A c c o r d i n g to
lings and poles of various ages had come in natu- strength tests conducted at the Forest Products
rally on all sides of this nucleus of older trees. Laboratory in Madison (125) and the University
A sample plot in the densest part of the stand of Michigan (149) the wood has good strength
showed a volume of over 14,000 board feet per properties, particularly in bending and compres-
acre and a basal area of 210 square feet per acre. sive strength factors in which it is somewhat
However, the average stocking per acre for the en- superior to English oak. The wood. is strong
tire stand at the time of measurement was less enough for the uses to which it. is ordinarily ap-
than 3,000 board feet. West Indies mahogany, plied except for the tendency to be somewhat
acknowledged to be a better wood, generally grows fissile, which can be a disadvantage where split-
at a slower rate in plantations than Swietenia ting may occur (118).
macrophylla. It is also considered more disease Working properties.— The wood works well
resistant (165). with both hand and power tools and finishes to an
The wood.— In color, the heartwood varies exceptionally smooth lustrous surface. It also
from a deep, rich red to a pinkish and occasionally makes excellent veneer, glues and bends well, and
a yellowish color, but deepens to a rich red or is a superior wood for turnery. Because it takes
brown with age and exposure. The surface of a fine polish, the wood is particularly well suited
freshly sawed boards quickly turns a dark red for French polishing but is perhaps most attrac-
upon exposure to the sun. The sapwood is yellow tive when finished with only a colorless wax. The
to white and clearly differentiated from the heart- worldwide custom of staining mahogany a dark
wood. The texture, grain, color, and figure vary red brown before polishing actually conceals most
according to site, but, in general, the texture is of the true beauty of the wood (265, 42, 143, 196) .
fine and the grain straight to roey, wavy or curly, Durability.— The heartwood of West Indies
often with an exceptionally attractive figure. mahogany is highly resistant to decay and insect
Interlocked grain was present in 10 percent of attack. Wolcott (263) rates the wood at 80 in
the samples studied in one test at the U.S. Forest resistance to dry-wood termites compared to 59
Products Laboratory (68). Occasionally a mot- for Honduras mahogany. Recent laboratory
tled, fiddleback, raindrop, and roe figure are pres- tests (169) of the decay resistance of West Indies
ent. The stumps, crotches, and distorted parts mahogany, Honduras mahogany, and several of
of the trees often yield some of the most attrac- the false mahoganies (Khaya spp. and Shorea
tively figured wood, such as blister figure and burl. spp.) from Africa and the Philippines showed
The luster is high, silky, and golden. Odor and that the true mahoganies were superior in decay
taste are absent or not distinctive. Wet sawdust resistance to the other species. Only West Indies
and shavings transmit a red stain to concrete and mahogany showed absolutely no decay damage
wooden surfaces and have been used for this pur- during the test. Honduras mahogany was next
pose (143, 229, 50, 42, 241). in decay resistance, followed by Khaya spp. and
Weight.— The specific gravity of Swietenia Shorea spp. These species are also inferior to
mahagoni from the Dominican Republic is re- both of the true mahoganies in insect, resistance.
ported at 0.56, based on green volume and ovendry But West Indies mahogany showed no appreci-
weight (149). The specific gravity of air-dry able resistance to marine borers in tests conducted
wood ranges from 0.70 to 0.85, averaging around in Hawaiian waters (76).
0.77. Air-dry wood weighs about 48 pounds per Uses.— The wood is principally used for lum-
cubic foot and green wood about 68 pounds per ber and veneer in the more expensive types of
cubic foot (50, 265). furniture and cabinetwork. In Europe, the major
Seasoning.— West Indies mahogany, being a use of the lumber from the limited number of
nonrefractory wood, is easily air-seasoned or kiln- small logs available is in turned rails and rungs
dried without warping or checking. Kiln Sched- of chairs. It is also used for high-class joinery
ule 5 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory work, woodwork in yachts and pleasure ships,
in England (222) is recommended for kiln- turnery, carvings, and for other comparable jobs.
seasoning.
The wood is especially well adapted for pattern
Shrinkage.— This species is noted for its low
and uniform shrinkage. Shrinkage values from work because of its stability and ease of working,
green to ovendry of 4.6 percent radially, 5.4 per- but it has been largely replaced by Honduras ma-
cent tangentially, and 6.9 percent volumetrically hogany. However, its main local use is for turned
(160) show both a low rate of shrinkage and very products for the Caribbean tourist trade. Be-
good uniformity between the radial and tangen- cause of its resistance to termites (228), its natural
tial directions. These factors are responsible for beauty and ease of working, the wood is also used
mahogany’s ability to hold its shape and stay in locally for window frames, doors, sills, interior
place much better than most other timbers of simi- woodwork, and inlay work.
Supply.— Limited quantities of logs or lumber up to 2.43 percent silica, based on ovendry weight
may be available at intermittent intervals from of the wood (14).
Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Trinidad, Martinique, St. Weight.— The specific gravity of manbarklak,
Vincent, and Grenada. Haiti, Cuba, and the Do- Eschweilera subglandulosa, averages about 0.87,
minican Republic have banned the export of logs based on green volume and ovendry weight, and
so that more timber can be used locally. In 1955, 1.08 based on air-dry volume and weight. Air-
a small circular sawmill was established in St. dry wood weighs about 67 pounds per cubic foot
Croix of the American Virgin Islands to convert and green wood around 78 pounds per cubic foot
West Indies mahogany growing on that island. (248, 231). Both species discussed in this report
are very similar in density.
Seasoning.— The wood is fairly difficult to air-
MANBARKLAK dry, seasoning at a moderate rate with slight crook
Eschweilera longipes, Eschweilera subglandulosa and twist, slight end and surface checking, and
slight casehardening (248).
Nomenclature.— The timber from Eschweilera Shrinkage.— Manbarklak is c o n s i d e r a b l y
longipes (Poit.) Miers and E. subglandulosa heavier than white oak but undergoes about the
(Steud.) Miers enters the export trade from same shrinkage in drying. Shrinkage values of
Surinam as manbarklak (175). E. longipes is also 5.0 percent radially, 10.3 percent tangentially, and
called black kakaralli in British Guiana and mahoe 15.9 percent volumetrically for Eschweilera sub-
noir in French Guiana. E. subglandulosa is known glandulosa are only slightly higher than the cor-
as black kakaralli, barklak, kakaralli, and toledo responding values of 5.3, 9.0, and 15.8 for white
wood, and in Trinidad as guatecare. (Brazilnut oak (248). The ratio of tangential to radial
family, Lecythidaceae.) shrinkage is favorable for uniform drying.
Distribution and habitat.— Surinam is the Shrinkage values for E. longipes are not available.
main source of manbarkalak from Eschweilera Mechanical properties.— The wood is ex-
longipes and E. subglandulosa. These species are tremely hard, dense, tough and strong but, except
two of about 80 species of Eschweilera distributed for shock resistance in which manbarklak is out-
from eastern Brazil through the Amazon Basin standingly high, the unseasoned (green) wood
to the Guianas, Trinidad, and Costa Rica. Fifteen is average or below average in strength for a wood
or more species of Eschweilera that grow in British of its density. Bearing strength across the grain
Guiana are known as kakaralli, but at least 75 per- is particularly low. In the green condition It is
cent of the trees are the more valuable black kaka- slightly inferior to greenheart in all mechanical
ralli, E. sagotiana Miers, which closely resembles properties, except, shock resistance: in this man-
the manbarklak of Surinam (95, 190). E. odora barklak surpasses greenheart. However, the
(Poepp.) Miers of the Amazon Basin and the strength properties of manbarklak are generally
Guianas is another very closely related species much better than those of any domestic wood
known as manbarklak in Surinam and mata-mata of the United States (190, 95).
in other areas (71). Unlike most tropical hardwoods, manbarklak
Manbarklak grows in dense stands along the improves substantially in strength during season-
estuaries in Surinam; it becomes less important ing. It equals the proportionate increase shown
along the rivers (231). It is found throughout by temperate-zone hardwoods during seasoning
British Guiana where it becomes frequent to abun- in bending strength and compression perpendicu-
dant in the rain and seasonal forests (82). lar to the grain (bearing strength), and exceeds
The tree.— The trees vary from small to very the average in side hardness and work to maxi-
large in size with heavy oval crowns and black to mum load (shock resistance). The air-dry wood
brown, mottled bark. They are normally 90 to 120 compares very well with greenheart in static bend-
feet in height, 16 to 20 and occasionally up to 40 ing, elastic resilience, and shear, but is inferior
inches in diameter, and have moderately well- to greenheart in stiffness and tension across the
formed boles 40 to 60 feet long. The trees are grain (bearing strength). When green and air-
often somewhat fluted or slightly buttressed (8 2) . dry, manbarklak exceeds white oak in all prop-
The wood.— Manbarklak is an extremely heavy, erties except cleavage (splitting) in which it is
hard, strong wood. The heartwood when first cut equal to oak when green and slightly more than
is greenish yellow to olive brown, turning a brown- half as strong as oak when air-dry (248) .
ish buff upon drying. Black streaks are occasion- Working properties.— The wood is difficult to
ally present in the heartwood. The sapwood is work because of the high silica content. It is
1½ to 4½ inches wide, creamy tan and not well also difficult to glue but takes a good finish. Cut-
differentiated from the heartwood when green but ting edges are quickly dulled by the silica and
becoming more apparent when seasoned (248). the wood’s inherent hardness, but when knives
The wood is typically straight grained and uni- are kept sharp a slate-smooth surface is obtained.
formly fine textured. Both species contain a high Rammer caps are required when driving man-
percentage of silica. Samples of Eschweilera sub- barklak piling, because of the ease in which it
glandulosa show up to 1.31 percent and E. longipes splits (82, 231, 248, 95).
Durability.— Untreated manbarklak, Eschwei- genus Symphonia occurring outside of Madagas-

lera subglandulosa, is resistant to very resistant car. In addition to the common trade name of
to decay, according to graveyard tests in British manni, the timber is commonly known as chew-
Guiana (50) and Trinidad (39), and pure cul- stick in the English trade. Other local and trade
ture tests at Yale University (248). Other tests names are as follows: matakkie, masagrie in Sur-
of untreated heartwood in Surinam showed a life inam; manil, bois cochon in French Guiana; waika
expectancy of 15 to 30 years in permanent con- chewstick, corbán in British Honduras; leche am-
tact, with the soil, or 40 to 50 years when exposed arilla in Honduras; yellow mangue in Trinidad;
to the elements. mangle blanc in Dominica; hog plum, doctor’s
Manbarklak is noted for its high resistance to wood, boarwood in Jamaica; palétuvier jaune in
marine borers, which some authors attribute to French West Indies; vanani in Brazil; cerillo,
the high silica content of the wood. It is particu- boncillo in Costa Rica; permán in Venezuela:
larly resistant in brackish waters where green- barillo in Panama; brea-caspi in Peru; boarwood,
heart (Ocotea rodiaei) has been severly damaged doctor gum in British West Indies; barillo, leche
(188, 190, 76). The timber has withstood marine amarillo in Honduras; manniballi, brick-wax
borer attack for 17 years in one test in Surinam, tree in British Guiana. (Mangosteen family,
and had the best record of a large number of re- Guttiferae.)
sistant species in 15 years of exposure to marine- Distribution and habitat.— Manni occurs in
borer attack in the ocean waters at Balboa, Canal the West Indies in Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola,
Zone (71). One record is available of manbarklak Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Lucia, and Trinidad,
piling “at least 50 years old being perfectly sound and on the continent from Mexico southward
and as hard as nail and quite untouched by through Central America to northern South
teredo.” America. Its distribution in South America in-
Manbarklak, Eschweilera subglandulosa, ranked cludes Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil,
fourth in resistance to marine borers of 37 tropical Peru, and Ecuador. The species occurs in Africa
American hardwoods under test at Wrightsville, through the Ivory Coast and Gabon south to the
N.C. (58). In this test one manbarklak panel was Belgian Congo and Angola.
lost to teredo and 3 others suffered only slight It is a rather common tree in the mixed-hard-
damage over a 36-month period. Licania macro- wood and palm forests of low, humid locations and
phylla Benth., Parinari rodolphii Huber, and P. at times is the dominant species in limited areas
campestris Aubl. ranked slightly above manbark- (190). In British Honduras the tree is most com-
lak in the order listed. Greenheart ranked well mon and attains its best development in swamps
below manbarklak in twelfth place. along the southern rivers from Moho to Temash.
Wolcott (263) rates black kakaralli, Eschweilera It also occurs at the rate of 1.5 trees per acre
sagotiana, a closely related species, slightly above along part of the coastal plain but is absent from
West Indies mahogany in resistance to dry-wood the limestone regions (150). In Surinam the tree
termites. This very resistant rating agrees with is locally abundant in swamp forests and marsh
tests in Trinidad, where manbarklak also resisted forests outside the young coastal plain and is
subterranean termites. occasionally found in the rain forest (231). It is
Uses.— Because it has very good resistance to found throughout British Guiana n-here it occurs
marine borers, manbarklak is especially suited for as a dominant to occasional tree in the marsh for-
use in both temperate zone and tropics in marine ests and riparian forests (82).
construction, especially for marine piling (231, In Trinidad manni grows principally in
248). Good strength properties and high resist- swampy areas, where it is often locally abundant,
ance to wear or abrasion make the timber well especially in the palm swamps. It also occurs in
suited for ice sheathing for boats, factory flooring, most other Trinidad forest types that receive 50
shoe keels for landing boats and beaters and bed inches or more rainfall, but in most places of the
plates in pulpmill equipment (116). It is also territory it is only an occasional tree (165). In
used locally for house framing, mine lagging, rail- Jamaica the tree is found principally in damp
way ties, and posts. The timber is especially use- mountain woods (229). In French Guiana it is
ful where good decay and termite resistance is scattered throughout the forest, except in the
essential. marshy regions where it sometimes forms almost
Supply.— Manbarklak is available in commer- pure stands (69). Elsewhere in the West Indies,
cial quantities from the Guianas. it is also generally confined to the more moist
humid areas.
The tree.— On favorable sites the trees often
MANNI prow to 100 feet, in height, and have long, straight,
Symphonia globulifera
slightly buttressed boles that average 20 to 30
inches in diameter and 70 to 80 feet long. How-
Nomenclature.— Symphonia globulifera L. f. ever, trees up to 36 inches and 130 feet high are
is found in both tropical west Africa and the found in British Guiana and British Honduras
American tropics, and is the only species of the (150, 82). Trees are commonly supported by stilt-
like roots, and sometimes have elbow buttresses tively, from the green condition to ovendry. Ma-
up to 4 feet in height. In swampy areas the tree terial of similar density from Surinam and British
develops pneumatophores. The crowns are small Guiana, tested at Yale, averaged 5.7 percent ra-
with the long, whippy, drooping, irregularly dially, 9.7 percent tangentially, 0.15 percent longi-
whorled branches resembling those of spruce. The tudinally, and 15.6 percent volumetrically from
bark is rather thick, smooth, red brown and exudes green to ovendry. White oak of similar density
a sticky yellow latex when cut. This latex be- undergoes a shrinkage of 5.3 percent radially, 9.0
comes black and pitchy upon exposure in which percent, tangentially, and 15.8 percent volumetri-
condition it is used for calking boats. cally (160). Shrinkage from green to air-dry
The wood.— The sapwood is distinct, a near would be about half these values.
white that contrasts sharply with the varied Mechanical properties.— Mechanical t e s t s
colored heartwood. This latter may be yellowish, have been conducted on wood from British Hon-
grayish, or greenish brown; several shades of duras by Yale University (90, 250) and the For-
these colors may occur as stripes on the face of est, Products Research Laboratory in England
a single board. A distinct but unattractive silver (15) and by Pfeiffer with material from Surinam
grain figure is risible on planed quartersawed (175). Pfeiffer derived values somewhat lower
boards. The luster is medium to high; the texture than those obtained at Yale and in England. The
is rather coarse with a feeling somewhat harsh. difference has been attributed to the consistently
The grain varies from straight, to irregular. Soft, higher moisture content and the somewhat lower
parenchyma tissue is abundant and readily visible specific gravity of the air-seasoned material used
on a clean-cut end surface as wavy broken or con- in Pfeiffer’s tests.
tinuous lines crossing the fine, invisible rays. Test averages in England and at Yale Univer-
Growth rings are absent or poorly defined. sity showed manni superior to white oak in static-
Freshly cut wood has a “tarry” odor, but, dry wood bending properties and in maximum crushing
has neither a distinctive odor nor taste (5, 231, 143) . strength parallel to the grain. Manni is slightly
Weight.— The specific gravity of manni based inferior to oak in shear parallel to the grain, cleav-
on ovendry weight and green volume, averaged age, and side hardness but is slightly superior in
0.544 (0.470 to 0.593) in tests at the Forest Prod- end hardness. In general, the wood compares
ucts Laboratory in Madison (68), 0.58 in tests at very favorably with white oak in all mechanical
Yale University with material from Surinam and properties tested and in density, rating it as a
British Guiana (250), and 0.59 in tests with wood wood that is strong for its weight. In toughness
from British Honduras by the Forest Products manni proved quite inferior to yellow birch, sugar
Research Laboratory in England (15). The spe- maple, and some oaks (160).
cific gravity of air-dry wood based on volume and Working properties.— Manni is a very easy
weight in that condition is generally reported at wood to work. It hardly dulls cutting edges, al-
from 0.65 to 0.78, averaging about 0.72. Weight though it is somewhat harsh and splintery. Be-
of air-dry wood averages 44 pounds per cubic foot. cause manni has an abundance of soft parenchyma
Green wood weighs about, 67 pounds per cubic tissue, the surface tends to roughen in planing and
foot, at 85.4 percent moisture content. These aver- shaping, particularly on irregular grain. How-
ages are very similar to those of white oak (Quer- ever, in general it may be sawed, planed, turned,
cus alba). shaped, and bored without difficulty (82, 231) .
Seasoning.— British Honduras, Surinam, and Machining tests at the Forest Products Labora-
Dominica report manni as seasoning well with tory in Madison (68) indicate the wood turns,
very little checking or distortion. However, the bores, sands, and mortises very satisfactorily
Forest, Products Research Laboratory in England under rather severe machining conditions, but
states that though the wood seasons fairly rapidly, raised and chipped grain may occur in planing
It is inclined to check and split during seasoning and shaping. However, for 15 tropical American
and should not be exposed to direct sunlight, and, species tested, the wood was above average except
if possible, some protection should be given to the in shaping and turning, which exceptions were
ends of boards to retard drying. Wangaard only slightly below average. Splitting may oc-
(250), reporting on tests at Yale University, states cur during nailing because of the wood’s some-
that wood seasons rapidly with moderate surface what fissile nature (5) but, in general, it holds
checking, slight to moderate end checking, and nails and screws well. Manni also polishes easily
casehardening and warp in the form of crook and and affords a satisfactory surface for the applica-
twist. Mold was observed on some material. It. is tion and retention of glue, paint, and varnish
generally concluded that a slower rate of drying (90, 191, 178).
would reduce seasoning degrade. Durability.— The wood is durable in contact
Shrinkage.— Manni undergoes m o d e r a t e with the ground and has very good durability in
shrinkage during seasoning and is fairly stable in water. Presumably it is not resistant to marine
use. Wood from French Guiana of 0.775 and borers. Graveyard tests in British Guiana (50)
0.728 specific gravity (air-dry) underwent a volu- and England (206) showed that the wood will
metric shrinkage of 12.7 and 11.3 percent, respec- last 5 to 6 years and 12 years, respectively, in con-
tact with the ground. It is also rated resistant battens; and one of 8 timbers acceptable for struc-
to decay in graveyard tests conducted in Trinidad tural timbers, scantlings, and other similar items.
(39). Pure culture tests conducted in England The papermaking characteristics of manni from
rated manni very resistant to both white-rot and Trinidad have been studied by the Imperial Insti-
brown-rot fungi (84). Recent tests at Yale (250) tute in England (116), where tests indicated the
were less favorable. They show the heartwood wood produces “a well digested pulp which fur-
varied in decay resistance from very durable to nishes a soft, opaque, bulky, brown paper, of fairly
moderately durable, averaging durable in resist- good strength. The pulp bleached fairly readily,
ance to a white-rot fungus and very durable to and then furnished a pale cream-colored paper of
durable to a brown-rot organism. Subject to ter- similar character and strength to that from the
mite damage, manni rated by tests in Puerto Rico unbleached pulp.” The wood is suitable for
and Trinidad as only moderately resistant to dry- making acceptable book and printing paper.
wood and subterranean termites (263). Logs are The resin is used for medicinal purposes in
reported by Fanshawe to be subject to damage by tropical America under the local names of doctor
pinhole borers. gum in West Indies, mani in French Guiana, and
Preservation.— Heartwood is highly resistant danani in Brazil. The resin serves specifically in
to impregnation with preservatives. Absorption the medicinal field as a vulnerary and diuretic, as
in the sapwood is limited to the vessels, for the a gout plaster, and as a substitute for copaiba. It
fibers do not take the preservative (150). is also reported to be used as a tonic and an effi-
Uses.— The timber of Symphonia globulifera cacious balm in the healing of ulcers and absesses
is used locally throughout most of its range for a (90). The resin, which darkens on exposure, is
variety of purposes and has occasionally been ex- reported by Le Cointe (155) to serve as a ship
ported in small lots from tropical America to the pitch and tar, called cerol in Brazil, where it is
United States and Europe for veneer and plywood used for caulking boats, for fitting arrowheads to
(191, 178). Saks (197) reports that the wood spears, as a substitute for shoemaker’s pitch, and
should be suitable for rotary-cut veneer after to impregnate cord for use as torches, for it burns
thorough tests have been completed. without smoke or odor.
In the West Indies and Central America, manni Supply.— Exportable supplies are available in
is used in general construction work, flooring, the Guianas, British Honduras, Trinidad, Guade-
piling in nonteredo areas, carpentry, railway ties, loupe, and Dominica.
shingles, boxes and crates, cooperage, boat keels,
and bridge timbers. Because of its good machin-
ing and finishing qualities, it is looked upon with MANNIBALLI
favor for furniture, cabinetwork, and interior and
Inga alba
exterior finish. The yellow variety is particularly
recommended for exteriors; it has a more attrac- Nomenclature.— Inga alba Willd. is one of the
tive color and takes a higher finish. many species of the genus Inga distributed
In British Honduras the wood was used for throughout tropical America. Many species are
crossties; it was reported as fairly durable and cultivated for decorative purposes but their princi-
held well in the track. However, the heartwood pal use is for shade trees in coffee and cacao planta-
became brittle with age and broke under pressure tions. The timber is marketed as manniballi and
of the rolling stock without sufficient ballast under maporokon in British Guiana, prokonie in
the rails (86, 208). According to Horn, railway Surinam, and bois pagoda or bois sucre in French
crossties of this species have been exported from Guiana. A synonym is I. praxinea. Willd.
the Lower Amazon region of Brazil (133). (Legume family, Leguniinosae.)
Manni has been used for cooperage in British Distribution and habitat.— Manniballi grows
Guiana. as a substitute for gum staves in the manu- in the Guianas and the Rio Negro area of Brazil.
facture of molasses barrels. Demougeot (69)
states it is particularly well suited for use in In Surinam the tree occurs in the rain, marsh,
barrels of small dimensions for it has a finer grain, and high savanna forests (231). In British
is less permeable, and makes a more solid barrel Guiana it is an occasional to frequent tree of gene-
than oak. Barrels made of manni are reported ral distribution throughout the primary and
to be more rigid than those of oak and to last secondary forests (82).
longer when filled. The staves of empty barrels The tree.— Manniballi is a medium-sized, un-
are also less apt to shrink and break. The Forest buttressed tree with a heavy rounded crown. In
Products Research Laboratory in England sug- British Guiana trees may attain heights of 110
gests that the timber may be a satisfactory sub- feet and diameters up to 30 inches in the most
stitute for oak in construction work. favorable sites, but it is usually 16 to 20 inches
Manni has been selected in the government in diameter and less than 100 feet in height. The
housing program of British Guiana as one of the boles are often fluted, varying from poor to
10 woods acceptable for siding and flooring; one moderately good in form and up to 50 feet in
of 18 woods acceptable for interior partitions and length (82).
The wood.— Whitish sapwood of manniballi is It, can give good service for many uses where re-
indistinct from the pale reddish-brown to reddish- sistance to decay and insects is not a factor.
white heartwood that is occasionally streaked with Manniballi has been selected in the government
darker colors. The wood is coarse textured, lus- housing program of British Guiana as one of the
trous, and with a straight to roey grain. Dis- 12 timbers acceptable for use as structural timber,
tinctive taste or odor is lacking in seasoned wood. scantlings, and similar uses; it is one of 10 tim-
Growth rings are generally rather distinct (231, bers acceptable for siding and flooring, and one
50, 22). of 18 timbers acceptable for interior partitions
Weight.— Manniballi is a moderately heavy and battens. The relatively low radial shrinkage
wood. The specific gravity of air-dry wood is as compared to tangential shrinkage suggests the
reported by the Surinam Forest Service (231) use of quartersawed material in flooring and other
and Benoist (22) at 0.57, based on air-dry volume uses where stability is required.
and weight at 15 percent moisture content. Air- Supply.— British Guiana and possibly Surinam
dry wood weighs about 36 pounds per cubic foot, and French Guiana can supply manniballi for the
about the same as Douglas-fir of the United States. export trade.
Seasoning.— No data are available on the sea-
soning properties of manniballi. However, ex-
perience in Puerto Rico with guaba (Inga vera MARBLEWOOD
Willd.) and guamá (I. laurina (Sw.) Willd.), Marmaroxylon racemosum
both closely related species, indicates these species
dry rapidly with a moderate amount of degrade Nomenclature. — Marmaroxylon racemosum
from cup, twist, and crook. On this basis, manni- (Ducke) Killip is the only species of the genus
balli can be classed as moderately difficult to air- Marmaroxylon, meaning marblewood, so named
season. Logs and freshly cut lumber are sus- from the appearance of the lumber (185). How-
ceptible to discloration by sap-stain fungi. ever, this species is known also as Pithecellobium
Shrinkage.— The wood undergoes moderate racemosum Ducke (P. racemiflorum Ducke).
shrinkage during seasoning. A radial shrinkage (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
of 1.1 percent and tangential shrinkage of 3.1 The wood is often called snakewood in the Eng-
percent, from preen to air-dry (15 percent mois- lish trade and in British Guiana, because it re-
ture content) is reported in recent tests (231) , sembles the color and markings of the skin of
as compared to 3.1 and 7.2 percent, respectively, certain snakes. It is commonly known as bois
from green to ovendry. The ratio of tangential serpent, bois zebra, and bois macaque in French
to radial shrinkage is slightly above normal, indi- Guiana. In Surinam the local names are bousi
cating the possibility of considerable distortion tamarin, puta locus, slang houdou, and snecki hou-
during seasoning unless the material is carefully sou. Timber cut in Brazil is known generally
stacked. as angelim rajado (streaked angelim) and oc-
Mechanical properties.— Recent mechanical casionally as ingá caetitú or urubuzeiro.
tests of manniballi by the Argicultural Univer- Distribution and habitat.— Marblewood grows
sity of Wageningen, Holland, show it to be aver- in the lower Amazon region and the Guianas.
age or better in toughness, cleavage, shear, It is reported to be fairly common in parts of
compression parallel to the grain and in all static- Brazil where it has been known in the trade for
bending properties. It is considered to be many years. In the Guianas the tree occurs in-
moderately hard and strong in comparison to frequently on the drier sites in the upland rain
woods of similar density (82, 231). forests and seasonal forests. It was first authen-
Working properties.— According to numerous tically discovered in British Guiana in 1937, when
reports, the wood is easy to work and finishes to a large 100-foot tree was found growing in the
a smooth surf ace. rain forest on high land in the Essequibo River
Durability.— Manniballi, as well as the other basin.
species of Inga, is reported to have little resistance The tree.— It is, in general, a medium-sized
to insects or decay. Wolcott (263) found guaba unbuttressed but basally swollen tree. Trees are
(I. vera) of Puerto Rico very susceptible to dam- commonly 16 to 20 inches in diameter and 90 to
age by the dry-wood termite of the West Indies. 100 feet in height with clear boles up to 50 or 60
Pfeiffer (175) rated Inga spp. as “little durable” feet long. Marblewood probably makes its best
in contact with the ground and easily attacked by growth in French Guiana, where the tree is rare
but large. Trees with clear boles 60 to 80 feet long
subterranean termite’s. Presumably, manniballi
and diameters of 18 to 24 inches above the basal
is also very susceptible to damage by marine swelling are not uncommon in this area (185, 82) .
borers.
The wood.— Marblewood, though not abun-
Uses.— The timber has been recommended for dant, is an attractive wood and highly valued in
utility plywood, flooring, sheathing, general con- some areas. The sapwood is yellowish and not
struction, carpentry, interior woodwork, furni- clearly demarcated from the light yellow to
ture, boxes and crates, and light cabinetmaking. orange-brown heartwood, which is overlaid with
characteristic large, irregular purplish-brown and Uses.— Although the wood possesses. good
occasionally black streaks and patches. These strength, it appears that, its highest use is for
markings, being darker than the yellowish back- furniture, cabinetmaking, turning, joinery, mar-
ground, give the wood a distinctive and unique quetry, flooring, and decorative panels, as these
beauty. The wood also exhibits a fine pencil- uses can best capitalize on the wood’s unique at-
striping of light-colored lines. It is very hard, tractiveness. It is also used for heavy and durable
strong, medium to coarse textured, and rather construction and for wheelwright work in French
harsh to the touch. The grain is straight to ir- Guiana and Brazil, despite the timber’s moderate
regular; luster is low to medium; and no distinc- strength properties and high value. The wood
tive odor or taste are evident in seasoned wood also seems suitable for cutlery handles, novelties,
(82, 143, 190). and for other special uses requiring a hard, heavy
Weight.— Specific gravity of air-dry wood falls wood of unusual appearance.
within a range of 1.05 to 1.25, based on air-dry Supply.-French Guiana is the only area in the
volume and weight. Air-dry wood weighs from Caribbean reported to have marblewood available
65 to 78 pounds per cubic foot. for export. Small quantities may be available on
Seasoning.— There is no information available special order from Surinam and British Guiana.
concerning either air-seasoning or kiln-seasoning
of the wood.
Shrinkage.— Marblewood shrinks 14.3 percent MORA
in volume from equilibrium in 100-percent humid- Mora excelsa, Mora gonggrijpii
ity (green and thoroughly saturated) to ovendry,
4
based on the original green volume. Shrinkage Mora timber is supplied by two very similar
from green to air-dry would amount to about half species, Mora excelsa Benth. and M. gonggrijpii
this amount, or roughly 7 percent. This is a (Kleinh.) Sandw. It is one of the most plenti-
moderately high rate of shrinkage but is not un- ful high-quality heavy timbers in the Caribbean
usual for woods of high density. It is equal or area. The two species grow on totally different
below similar values for some woods of much sites and are not similar in appearance or growth
lower density (50). Other shrinkage values are habits, yet their wood can scarcely be separated.
not available. As a result,, the timber of both species is sold
Mechanical properties.— In tests of mechani- separately or in combination.
cal properties at the French Centre Technique Nomenclature.— The timbers are generally
Forestier Tropical (50), marblewood exhibited marketed together under the trade name mora or
lower strength than many other woods of similar on occasion as morabukea when Mora gonggrijpii
high density. Generally the wood is hard and is predominant. Local names for M. excelsa are
stiff, but falls below other woods of similar density prakue, waspisiana, and torore in British Guiana;
in bending strength, resistance to splitting, com- peto, roode, witte mora, perakaua, and mora-yek
pression strength, and resistance to impact bend- in Surinam; muru in Trinidad; peto and mora de
ing. It compares fairly well in most strength Guayana in Venezuela; mahot rouge in French
properties with West Indies mahogany (Swietenia Guiana; and belarbre in Martinique.
mahagoni), which is, however, of much lower Mora gonggrijpii is principally known as mora-
density. On the basis of its greater density, bukea throughout its range, although other local
marblewood should be the much stronger of the names may have restricted usage. Some authors
two and is, consequently, not particularly fitted include Mora within the genus Dimorphandra.
for uses where strength is important. Synonyms of M. excelsa include M. guianensis
Working properties.— Working marblewood Schomb., Dimorphandra excelsa (Benth.) Baill.,
with either hand or machine tools is difficult be- D. mora Benth. & Hook. f., and D. guianensis
cause of its high density. But it is reported to (Schomb.) Baill. D. gonggrijpii Kleinh. is a
finish smoothly and to take an exceptionally fine synonym of M. gonggrijpii (Legume family,
polish. Leguminosae.)
Durability.— The wood is generally considered Distribution and habitat.— Mora excelsa is
resistant to decay, but no graveyard or laboratory widely distributed in the Guianas but much less
tests are found in the literature (82). Wolcott so in Trinidad and the Orinoco Delta of Vene-
(263) lists marblewood as resistant to termites, zuela. It makes its best development on low-ly-
rating it slightly above Honduras mahogany ing, moist sites but not those constantly inundated.
(Swietenia macrophylla) in this respect. He In British Guiana it is strongly dominant on river
rates the resistance of Honduras mahogany at levees and flood plains on alluvial clay or silt
59 and marblewood at 64, based on laboratory tests soils, occurring in dense stands along stream
with captive members of Cryptotermes brevis courses on the heavier soils. It is also of frequent
Walker known as the West Indies dry-wood ter- occurrence in the rain and seasonal forests on
mite or “polilla.” Tests in Hawaiian waters indi-
cate that the wood has little resistance to marine 4
Marish is listed under Kauta, out of alphabetical
borers (76). order.
hillsides and in low-lying sandy areas and is of The wood of morabukea is similar to that of
occasional occurrence in the marsh forests. In- mora, being very hard, heavy, tough, and strong
dividual stands of from 10,000 to 15,000 board with the same general physical properties. Mora-
feet per acre in merchantable trees are not uncom- bukea is sometimes slightly harder and, to some
mon. Although the tree occurs in pure stands, extent, finer in texture than mora (143, 265) .
it is normally a gregarious species and often the Weight.— The wood of both mora and mora-
dominant species in the stand (29, 20, 121) . bukea ranges from 0.90 to 1.10 in specific gravity,
Mora gonggrijpii is not as widely distributed averaging about 1.00 based on air-dry weight and
or as abundant as M. excelsa, being restricted volume. The specific gravity based on green
to British Guiana and Surinam (190). It is the volume and ovendry weight is reported at 0.78
dominant species in the morabukea forests of Brit- by Kynoch and Norton (149), Yale University
ish Guiana where it covers large areas in the in- and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in
terior, but it is rare in the northwest district and England. The weight per cubic foot averages
along the coast. The tree is best adapted to hill- about 77 pounds for green wood and 62 pounds
sides on heavy clay soils even though it occurs for air-dry wood (15, 231, 82, 29).
occasionally in other types of rain forest. The Seasoning. — There are conflicting reports as to
tree is also widely distributed in Surinam. the seasoning characteristics of the timber. The
The tree.— Mora excelsa is an outstanding tree Forest Products Research Laboratory in England
in appearance. The huge buttresses and flanges (222) reports mora seasons slowly in the kiln with
at the base of the large trees spread out 15 feet appreciable degrade. The timber was reported to
from all sides of the trunks and at times extend have a tendency for shakes to extend during sea-
for 50 feet, up the tree (121). Normally the tree soning, surface checks to develop rapidly, and a
is 100 to 120 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in diameter good possibility that cupping and twisting will
with clear boles for 50 or 60 feet, above the but- prove serious. Kiln Schedule 2 of the Forest
tresses that extend horizontally to 8 feet and from Products Research Laboratory in England is
5 to 15 feet up the trunk. Trees 160 to 200 feet recommended.
high and 4 feet in diameter are reported. Their Mora was rated difficult to season in tests at
boles are straight and have fairly good form but Yale University (250). Stock dried at a moderate
are sometimes flattened. Logs are commonly 30 rate with moderate crook and slight checking.
to 40 feet long and 1½ to 2½ feet in diameter at Only slight casehardening was noted in this test.
the butt; but some run to 60 feet long and 5 feet In British Guiana, the wood of the mora tree is re-
through at the butt. Large trees are often hollow ported to air-season and kiln-dry well with very
butted, yet they still contain much sound timber little checking if properly stacked and carefully
(29). handled (29).
Mora gonggrijpii is smaller on the average than On the basis of these reports, mora should be
M. excelsa, although occasional specimens are as classed as moderately difficult to season. A slow
tall as the largest moras. Its plank buttresses rate of drying and careful stacking are recom-
seldom extend more than 6 to 10 feet, high. The mended to keep warp and other degrade to a
tree is commonly 16 to 20 inches in diameter and minimum.
100 to 120 feet in height, with long crylindrical Shrinkage.— Mora undergoes a high rate of
boles 60 to 80 feet in length. Occasional trees are shrinkage during seasoning. Mora excelsa is re-
found up to 24 inches in diameter and 150 feet ported by the Forest Products Research Labora-
tall (82). tory in England to have a radial shrinkage from
The wood.— The wood of both species is almost green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content) of
identical in appearance, weight, structure, and 5.0 percent and tangential shrinkage of 7.5 per-
strength. The sapwood of the mora tree is yellow- cent, compared to 4.0 and 7.0 percent, respectively,
ish to pale brown, 2 to 6 inches wide, and distinct for M. gonggrijpii (15). Wangaard, Stern, and
from the dark brown, reddish brown, or dark Goodrich (250) report that M. excelsa from Suri-
red heartwood, which is streaked with white or nam and British Guiana undergoes an average
brown lines. The wood is mealy in appearance shrinkage from green to ovendry of 6.9 percent
radially, 9.8 percent tangentially, 0.36 percent
and rather harsh to the feel. The grain is straight longitudinally, and 18.8 percent volumetrically.
to commonly interlocked, very variable and often These values are somewhat greater than corre-
has attractive bird’s-eye, wavy, or sometimes rib- sponding values for white oak of 5.3, 9.0, and
bon-grain figures (142). Growth rings bounded 15.8 percent for radial, tangential, and volumetric
by terminal parenchyma are present. The shrinkage, respectively (242). Mora’s ratio of
luster is high, and the texture varies from medium tangential to radial shrinkage is within the range
to coarse, usually the latter. It has a distinct considered favorable for reasonably uniform dry-
astringent taste and a slightly sour odor. Two ing in respect to stresses that occur during
timber varieties are recognized: black and white. seasoning.
Black mora has more heartwood and is heavier Both mora and morabukea are relatively un-
and more durable than the white mora. stable in use; as timbers they have large move-
ments. Both species move 3.5 percent tangentially durability of the material from Surinam or Brit-
from equilibrium in a 60-percent relative humid- ish Guiana.
ity to equilibrium in a 90-percent relative humid- Mora is readily susceptible, to damage by marine
ity. Mora also undergoes a radial movement of borers (76) but very resistant to dry-wood ter-
2.3 percent, and morabukea 2.0 percent under the mites and other insects. A low silica content
same conditions (108). (0.02 percent) may be a factor in its poor resist-
Mechanical properties.— Mora (mora and mo- ance to marine borers
rabukea) is a very strong, stiff, hard, tough wood. Morabukea is considered more resistant to decay
When green, mora is considerably denser and than mora, averaging very resistant as compared
stronger than any domestic wood of the United to resistant for mora (50). Morabukea is rated
States. However, when compared to other trop- slightly higher than West Indies mahogany
ical woods of similar density, mora falls below (Swietenia mahagoni) in termite resistance (263) ;
the average in most strength properties, except it is very susceptible to damage by marine borers.
in shock resistance and stiffness, which are aver- The sapwood of both species is susceptible to pin-
age. It greatly exceeds green white oak in all hole borers, powder-post beetles, and longhorn
properties except tensile strength across the rain beetles, and is not durable in the ground
and cleavage resistance. In the air-dry condition Preservative treatment.— The sapwood re-
mora is superior to white oak in bending and sponds readily to preservatives, but the heartwood
crushing, stiffness, and hardness, and it is more of mora resists impregnation. Under prolonged
shock resistant. However, mora is inferior to pressure treatment, sapwood absorbs only 4 pounds
the lighter white oak in compression and tension per cubic foot, compared to the 10 to 15 pounds
across the grain, cleavage, and shearing strength. required. In heartwood, penetration is fairly uni-
In general, its strength characteristics average form but extends only about 3/8 inch deep.
about 30 percent greater than those of white oak Uses.— Being hard, heavy, tough, and strong,
(149, 15, 29, 250). mora timber has man uses. Because of its fire
Working properties.— The wood is moderately resistance, it is rated by Lloyds as an A–1 mate-
difficult to work but machines well. It is fairly rial for stem posts, ribs, knees, and framing in
hard to saw, and springs in sawing with a dulling ship building (118). Because of its instability
effect similar to that of teak. It planes to a and lack of cabinetwood beauty, the wood is not
smooth surface unless interlocked grain is present, well fitted for furniture, interior flooring, turnery,
in which case there is considerable “pick up” and and similar uses. But it is well qualified for
chipped grain. This can be reduced by using a bridge timber, house framing, bridge decking and
cutting angle of 10 degrees on knives. Saws hav- planking, marine construction, and piling in
ing teeth with a 10-degree hook spaced at a me- teredo-free areas. The timber is also successfully
dium wide interval are recommended. The wood used for mining timbers, mill beds, heavy-duty
turns easily, seldom splintering, and requires industrial flooring, and heavy construction of all
little sanding. It finishes smoothly and is easily types.
polished. The wood holds nails and tie spikes Mora has been used successfully in Holland for
extremely well, and is very difficult to split. Mo- piling in teredo-free areas. Danks (67) reports
rabukea is considered a little more difficult to its use in England for warehouse flooring, where
work than mora. its ability to withstand hard wear is an ap-
Durability.— The durability of Mora excelsa preciated quality. Hohenkerk (128) reports that.
appears to differ between locations and sources, untreated mora ties were decayed only at the rail
but it generally resists decay in contact with the grooves, but otherwise were sound after 8 years’
ground. The timber is reported to last 15 years service on a poorly ballasted roadbed in a hot,
or longer in contact with the ground in England humid section of British Guiana.
(206). Even better results are realized in British Pulped by the soda process, the wood yields a
Guiana, where mora is considered variable in re- good quality pulp suitable for strong paper (113).
sistance to decay but lasts up to 20 years in the It also is highly rated as a charcoal wood, having
ground. However, Brooks reported it to last only a caloric value of 13,800 B.t.u. (51).
2 to 3 years in the soil in Trinidad, where it is Supply.— Mora timber is available in relatively
considered susceptible to decay (39, 29). large quantities from British Guiana and Suri-
Findlay (84) reports that, on the basis of pure nam, and in lesser amounts from French Guiana
culture tests, material from British Guiana rated and Trinidad.
resistant to decay, but wood from Trinidad rated
moderately resistant to nonresistant. These re- NARGUSTA
sults are in general agreement with the post tests
in British Guiana and Trinidad. Pure culture Terminalia amazonia
tests at Yale University (250), using wood from Nomenclature.— A number of species of the
Surinam and British Guiana, rated mora durable genus Terminalia grow in the American tropics
to a brown-rot organism and very durable to a of which T. amazonia (J. F. Gmel.) Exell is the
white-rot fungus. No difference was noted in the most widely distributed. Several other species
occurring in the Caribbean area have similar wood, texture and usually shows marked irregularity in
but too little is known about them to assume that the grain, which is normally interlocked showing
they have the same properties as nargusta. In- a fairly distinct “stripe” or “roe” figure on quar-
cluded in this group are T. latifolia Sw. of tersawed boards. Growth rings are usually not
Jamaica, discussed separately as broadleaf, and clearly defined, and no distinctive odor or taste
T. chicharronia (Griseb.) Wright (T. intermedia are evident in seasoned material (143, 6, 246).
(A. Rich.) Urban) of Cuba. T. catappa L., Weight.— Nargusta is a rather heavy wood,
Indian-almond, is a widespread exotic planted and with an average specific gravity of 0.66 (0.53 to
naturalized in tropical America. T. obovata (R. 0.77) based on ovendry weight and green volume
& P.) Steud. is a synonym of T. amnzonia. (Com- (71). The specific gravity of air-dry wood gen-
bretum family, Combretaceae.) erally averages about 0.80. Air-dry wood aver-
In addition to the preferred trade name of nar- ages about 50 pounds per cubic foot and green-
gusta, this species and its various forms are known wood about 71 pounds per cubic foot (150, 105,
by the following vernacular names: fukadi, 82, 165).
pookadi, coffee mortar in British Guiana; almen- Seasoning.— Nargusta is a moderately difficult
dro, bullywood in British Honduras; guaba, wood to air-season and kiln-dry. Depending on
almendro in Honduras; cochun in Mexico; ama- the timber source, it also exhibits considerable
rillo in Panama; white oliver in Trinidad; variability in seasoning characteristics. In one
guayabo león in Colombia; pau-mulato brancho test in the United States, wood from British Hon-
in Brazil; roble in Ecuador; amarillón in Costa duras air-seasoned at a fast rate with no checking
Rica; pardillo negro and chicharro in Venezuela; and only slight warping, but wood from British
volador, guayabo, naranjo in Guatemala. Guiana seasoned more slowly with very pro-
Distribution and habitat.— Nargusta is com- nounced end and surface checking, particularly
mon on the moist slopes and flat lands within in thick stock (71, 249). In a similar test in Eng-
the rain forests of southern Mexico southward land, wood from British Honduras air-seasoned
through Central America and into northern South rather slowly with a tendency to split and check
America to Brazil and Peru and on the island although piled under corer in the most favorable
of Trinidad (190, 71). conditions. In this test very little warping oc-
It is widely distributed in the rain forests of curred and knots generally remained sound (105).
Trinidad, where it is most abundant on poor sands The wood kiln-seasons slowly with little
and gravel. It also thrives on clay soils within warping but with a marked tendency to split and
this colony but is absent from the drier sites (165). check and for existing shakes to become more ex-
In British Guiana the tree is common throughout tended. It is also difficult to remove moisture
the seasonal and wallaba forests. It is one of the from the center of quarter-cut material over 2
commonest trees in British Honduras except on inches thick. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest Prod-
the deeper limestone soils of the northern plain ucts Research Laboratory in England is recom-
area. Concentrations of 4 to 5 trees per acre are mended (222).
not unusual in British Honduras, especially in the Shrinkage.— Nargusta undergoes moderate
lighter canopy forests. shrinkage for its density. Shrinkage from preen
The tree.— Nargusta is a large, virtually ever- to ovendry averages about 4.8 percent radially,
green tree with a long, clear symmetrical bole 7.9 percent tangentially, 0.18 longitudinally, and
above the large buttresses (6). It attains heights 12.7 percent volumetrically. These values are
of 70 to 140 feet and reaches up to 4 or 5 feet in somewhat lower than shrinkage of sugar maple
diameter, depending on the site and location. and white oak and very similar to those for white
However, trees with diameters larger than 20 or ash, although all three species are considerably
25 inches are often hollow (71, 105). Boles are lower in density than nargusta (242, 249) .
commonly 60 to 70 feet long on the better sites Shrinkage from green to air-dry (12 percent
(82). In British Honduras the tree is noted for moisture content) IS reported to be 2.5 percent in
its ability to coppice and for fallen trees to send the radial direction and 5.0 percent in the tan-
5 5
up new shoots that develop into large trees as- gential direction, or /16 inch and /8 inch per foot,
tride the fallen parent. The bark is a dull brown, respectively (222). The ratio of tangential to
rather thin with shallow longitudinal fissures radial shrinkage indicates moderately uniform
(150, 165). shrinkage characteristics, which may account for
The wood.— The sapwood, a yellowish color, is the absence of severe warping during seasoning.
not readily separated from the heartwood for the Nargusta timber responds to atmospheric
wood usually darkens gradually from the sapwood changes with only moderate movement. It under-
to the heart or pith of the tree. The heartwood is goes a radial movement of 1.7 percent and a tan-
varied; it may be a brownish yellow, light yellow- gential movement of 2.7 percent, or 13/64 and 21/64
ish brown, or yellowish olive. In some trees the inch, respectively, between equilibrium in a rela-
wood has distinct and prominent reddish streaks tive humidity of 60 percent and equilibrium in a
and stripes at widely spaced intervals,. The luster relative humidity of 90 percent (108). Heartwood
is medium to rather high. The wood is of medium of nargusta is moderately resistant to moisture
absorption, being intermediate to mahogany and able in the ground, lasting about 12 years. In
white oak in this characteristic (198). similar tests the wood was rated only slightly
Mechanical properties. — Narguda v a r i e s resistant, in British Guiana (50) and fairly resist-
somewhat in strength according to its source and ant in Trinidad (39).
density. Tests at Yale University (71, 249) indi- Nargusta was found to be very durable to both
cate the wood’s strength properties are related di- brown-rot and white-rot, fungi in one series of
rectly to its density. Seasoned wood from Trini- pure culture tests at Yale University (249).
dad is reported to be 20 to 30 percent superior to Similar tests at the U.S. Forest Products Labora-
the wood of the same species from British Hon- tory (199) rated nargusta as only resistant (dur-
duras (105). Similarly,. wood from Panama is able). This rating was substantiated in grave-
inferior to that of British Guiana and British yard tests at two locations in the United States.
Honduras in compression strength across the On the basis of the available data, nargusta seems
grain. to be durable to very durable with the possibility
The timber from all sources is heavy, hard, of considerable variability.
and strong. Tests of wood from Trindad and The wood is resistant to the dry-wood termite
British Honduras by the Forest Products Re- of the West Indies, ranking intermediate to Hon-
search Laboratory in England (105) and of wood duras mahogany and West Indies mahogany in
from British Guiana, British Honduras, and this characteristic (263). However, graveyard
Panama by Yale University (71, 249) are in rea- tests in Trinidad indicate only fair resistance to
sonably good agreement. Nargusta in both the subterranean termites. Logs left in the woods for
green and air-dry condition was found to be defi- any length of time are subject to attack by am-
nitely superior to white oak (Quercus alba) in all brosia beetles. Pinhole borers are also reported
static bending and compression parallel to the to attack the wood. It is not reported to be resist-
grain properties. In the green condition it is ant to marine borers. Unpainted wood exposed
also superior to white oak in compression and to the weather checks some and loses its surface
tension perpendicular to the grain and shear, but smoothness, classifying nargusta as only fair in
after air-drying it becomes slightly inferior to resistance to weathering (55).
oak in these same properties. It is definitely in- Preservation.— This species is extremely re-
ferior to oak in cleavage in both the green and air- sistant to impregnation with creosote, which even
dry condition, but is about 70 percent harder than under high pressure does not penetrate laterally
that species. except in a few isolated vessels. The sapwood
Seasoned nargusta from Trinidad is about 70 is also relatively difficult. to treat with only the
percent harder than oak, 40 to 60 percent stiffer, vessels being penetrated (105).
tougher, stronger in bending and in compression Uses.— The characteristics of this wood make
along the grain, and 30 percent stronger in shear, it suitable for many uses; it has hardness, dura-
but is about 40 percent less resistant to splitting. bility, high strength properties, moderate shrink-
Working properties.— The timber is somewhat age and movement values, and attractiveness. It
difficult to work with hand and machine tools. can be substituted for oak in many places, includ-
It is comparable to beech (Fagus) in its resisting flooring, railway ties, cartwrights’ work,
ance to cutting and sawing and other machining cabinetwork, and furniture. The timber appears
operations. Straight-grained wood planes, molds, to be well suited as framing, planking, and deck-
bores, mortises, and saws cleanly but with a slight ing in boatbuilding, and for turned articles. It
tendency to char in crosscutting, drilling, and has been recommended for use in plywood and in-
mortising. Raised grain may occur when planing struments. Because of the wood’s durability,
quartersawed boards with interlocked grain, and nargusta is well suited for general construction,
a much greater amount of tearing may occur when bridgework, outside construction, and railway
fiddleback ripple is present. A little tearing of ties. The bark is used for tanning in British
knots may also take place in planing. Nargusta Honduras and other areas. It has been selected
turns to a very smooth finish. It is easy to glue as one of the 18 local species in British Guiana
and stains and polishes easily to a high luster. suitable for use in interior partitions and battens
In nailing, nail holes must be prebored to prevent in the government housing program.
splitting (150, 240, 178, 191, 6) .
Saws having 54 teeth with 15-degree hook Supply.— British Honduras, British Guiana,
are recommended. A knife angle of 10 degrees and Trinidad are the principal sources for export
is best for planing interlocked or fiddleback grain supplies of the timber.
material (105), Nargusta is a fair to poor wood
for steam bending, but Woods (265) reports that PAKURI
it bends well without steaming.
Durability.— The resistance of nargusta to de- Platonia insignis
cay appears to be variable. Graveyard tests in Nomenclature.— The wood of Platonia insignis
England (206), using wood from Trinidad and Mart. from British Guiana is imported into the
British Guiana, showed the wood to be very dur- United States under the English trade name of
pakuri. Other local British Guiana names for the been found in a free state in the vegetable
wood are wild mammee apple, pakouri, and pa- kingdom.
koorie. In Surinam it is called pakoelie, geelhart, Weight.— The specific gravity, based on air-dry
papoelie, and bakoerie. The French Guiana weight and volume, ranges between 0.70 and 0.85,
names are parcourie, parcouril, manilparcouri, averaging about 0.80. Air-dry wood weighs be-
and naracouril. It is commonly known as tween 44 and 53 pounds per cubic foot, averaging
bacoropary, bacury, and pacuru in Brazil, mato- about 50 pounds (50).
zama in Ecuador, and bacury-guazú in Paraguay Seasoning.— No information is available on
(88). (Mangosteen family, Guttiferae.) seasoning characteristics. However, lack of such
This species is similar to Symphonia globulifera information sometimes means lack of difficulty in
L. f., the manni timber of British Guiana and seasoning.
manil of French Guiana. The woods of manni Shrinkage.— Pakuri undergoes a relatively
and pakuri are also similar in structure. The most high rate of volumetric shrinkage during season-
apparent difference between the wood is the color; Tests in France showed a shrinkage of 16.7
pakuri tends to be darker than manni and, accord- percent from green to ovendry based on the oven-
ing to Demougeot (69), gradually turns black dry volume (50). This would amount to 17.3 per-
upon exposure to the air. The natives of French cent, based on the original preen volume. These
Guiana often confuse standing trees and their results compare closely with Pfeiffer’s determina-
vernacular names. tion of 17.1 percent swelling (movement) between
Distribution and habitat.— Pakuri occurs ovendry and equilibrium in 100 percent humidity,
from British Guiana, Surinam, and French and 10.2 percent, swelling from ovendry to the
Guiana to Brazil, Paraguay, Ecuador, and Co- air-dry condition in 70-percent relative humidity
lombia. The tree grows scatteringly throughout (175). Thus, pakuri’s movements as a result of
French Guiana, especially in marshy regions and, atmospheric changes are quite large.
with manil, comprises about 5 percent of the total Mechanical properties.— Mechanical proper-
timber stand of the colony. It is of rare occur- ties of pakuri were included in “Allowable Stresses
rence in the marsh forests of Surinam, and in for Surinam Timbers” by Pfeiffer in Volume II
British Guiana is rare to locally frequent in the of Surinam Timbers (175) and by the Centre
wallaba, rain, and seasonal forests of the near Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent sur Marne,
interior (82, 231, 69). France (50). Both studies showed pakuri to be
The tree.— Pakuri is an unbuttressed, heavy a moderately strong wood but still weaker than
crowned, canopy tree of medium to large size. other tropical American hardwoods of similar
They are commonly 90 to 100 feet tall and 24 to density. It was found to be inferior to white oak
36 inches in diameter. The boles are cylindrical, of the United States and purpleheart of British
well formed, and clear of branches for 60 or 70 Guiana and Surinam in practically all strength
feet. The bark is white, exfoliating, fibrous, and properties. The wood’s best, feature is probably
is valued both for cordage and for its black vis- its elasticity.
cous resin used for caulking boats. Working properties.— The wood works fairly
The wood.— Heartwood of pakuri is dark yel- well with both hand and power tools, and though
lowish brown or orange brown with conspicuous it takes nails poorly, it polishes very well (82,
grayish parenchyma markings, often in the form 231). Pakuri’s uses indicate that it ‘is no more
of streaks or striping. The sapwood is yellowish difficult to work than most other woods of com-
white and clearly demarcated from the heartwood, parable density, and possibly with less difficulty
which is reported to gradually turn black on ex- than some characteristically cross-grained timbers.
posure. A moderately hard and heavy wood, it Durability.— Pakuri is rated durable in respect,
has a low luster and no distinctive odor or taste. to decay (82, 231) and resistant, to dry-wood ter-
The texture is medium; the grain is generally mites, rating 76 as compared to 80 for West In-
straight but at times irregular (143, 69). dies mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) (263) in
According to a review in Tropical Woods (20 : resistance to the drywood termite of the West
Indies. No information is available as to the tim-
37), the wood of Platonia insignis from Surinam
ber’s resistance to marine borers.
upon extraction with benzene was found to have a Uses.— Pakuri is used in the Guianas for pil-
residue of 1.5 percent of a substance that appeared ing, boatbuilding, furniture, turnery, carriage
to be euxanthone, melting point 239° C., which building, and general carpentry and construction.
was identified by comparison with an authentic In French Guiana it is also used for rum (aguar-
specimen of euxanthone prepared from Indian- diente) barrels, packing cases, and crates. It
yellow. The substance Indian-yellow is a mag- has been recommended for plywood, house fram-
nesium salt to euxanthin acid, which is obtained ing, flooring, and paneling. However, the rela-
in Bengal from the urine of cows fed mainly on tively high rate of shrinkage and movement would
the leaves of the mango tree (Mangifera indica exclude the wood from use in such flooring, panel-
L.). So far as is known, euxantone has never ing, and other places where this characteristic
is undesirable. Perhaps the highest uses for the CARIBBEAN PINE

wood is in tight cooperage, boatbuilding, and util-
ity plywood. Pinus caribaea
Supply.— French Guiana, Surinam, and Brit- Nomenclature.— Pinus caribaea Morelet is the
ish Guiana have exportable supplies of this tim- principal coniferous species of the Caribbean re-
ber, with French Guiana probably having the gion. Until recently it was considered the same
largest accessible volumes. as slash pine of southeastern United States, but
the discovery of minor morphological differences
between the trees of the Caribbean area and south-
PARAKUSAN eastern United States required a separation of the
Swartzia jenmanii, Swartzia polyphylla, Swartzia species. There are also small but. important differ-
schomburgkii ences in the wood of the two species. Inasmuch
as the original description and nomenclature of
Nomenclature. — Parakusan is the common P. caribaea were made from material obtained on
name applied in British Guiana to the wood of the Isle of Pines, that name was retained for the
Swartzia jenmanii Sandw., S. polyphylla DC., Caribbean species and P. elliottii Engelm. as-
and S. schomburgkii Benth. Other species of signed to the United States species slash pine. A
Swartzia are described under Wamara. (Legume synonym of P. caribaea is P. hondurensis. Loock.
family, Leguminosae.) Other species of Pinus are native in Hispaniola,
The species furnishing parakusan timber are Cuba, and Central America. (Pine family,
of frequent to locally common occurrence in the Pinaceae.)
rain forests of British Guiana,, especially in the The timber is known in British Honduras as
poor type of rain forest from the northwest dis- British Honduras pitch pine, pitch pine, white
trict to the Demerara River. pine or huhub; in Honduras as ocote, pino ocote,
The tree.— These three species of Swartzia are and pino veta. It is called pino, Gautemala pitch
unbuttressed canopy trees with deeply fluted and pine, Nicaraguan pitch pine, and Caribbean pine
twisted trunks without a central core. The trees in Guatemala; and pino macho and Cuban pine
are commonly 24 to 36 inches in diameter and 90 in Cuba. In Nicaragua this pine is called pino,
to 110 feet high. The boles are clear of branches auau, or ocote, but Pinus oocarpa Schiede is called
for 60 to 70 feet but, because of the deeply fluted ocote also. The timber from the Caribbean area
and twisted nature of the bole, only short, thin and P. elliottii of the United States are com-
billets are obtainable. monly sold in the United States in combination
The wood.— The wood is a lustrous pale creamy with and under the name of longleaf pine. P.
yellow. The grain is straight and the texture palustris Mill (242, 250).
fine, The wood is hard, tough, and resilient. Distribution and habitat.— Pinus caribaea
Weight.— The specific gravity of air-dry wood grows in the Bahama Islands, western Cuba and
is reported at 0.75 to 0.80, based on weight and the Isle of Pines, and in Central America from
volume when air-dry. Air-dry wood weighs from British Honduras to eastern Guatemala, northern
47 to 50 pounds per cubic foot (82). Honduras, and northeastern Nicaragua (158) .
Seasoning. — No data available. This species does not occur in Bermuda (118).
Shrinkage. — No data available. Extensive pine forests are found on the dry
Mechanical properties.— Results of mechani- sandy soils of the interior Mountain Pine Ridge
cal tests on this timber are not available. Tests in British Honduras at an average elevation of
on other more dense species of Swartzia indicate 2,000 feet. The well-demarcated pine zones are
that this timber may possess high strength prop- separated by belts of rain forest on the deeper and
erties, particularly in resilience (50). richer soils. The pine occurs principally in pure
Working properties.— Parakusan is reported stands with stunted hardwoods, coarse grass, and
to be an easy mood to work and to finish very other low plants beneath (223). These stands are
smoothly (82). presently the principal source of lumber in British
Durability.— The timber is said to be moder- Honduras, and exceed all other forest products
ately resistant to decay but subject to sap-stain combined in sale value (35).
fungi in the log and during seasoning of the In Honduras, the species grows in the northern
lumber. pine belt about 50 miles inland from the coast, in
Uses.— Parakusan is used in British Guiana for open, parklike stands on the slopes of the hills
paddles and is recommended for tool handles by and mountains and on the ridges and plateaus.
the Forest Department, of that country. The tim- Stands vary from 2,000 to 10,000 board feet per
ber will likely have many additional uses when acre but are not consistent, in volume over any
more is known concerning its properties. large area. It grows largely on a red subsoil or
Supply.— Parakusan is one of the most plenti- laterite soil located on the exposed ridges and
ful timbers in British Guiana and is available for slopes, growing larger and taller on the higher
export in large quantities. elevations than on the lower slopes. Hardwoods
are often associated with the pine but never be- of dense tissue and are conspicuous on all surfaces. As
come the predominant species. Patches of hard- in the wood of Pines of temperate regions a relatively
wide band of late wood appears to terminate the annual
woods also often occupy the more fertile gully growth, but in addition from one to several lines of dense
bottoms, stream beds, and heads of draws up to wood forming secondary rings are commonly present and
1,500 feet, becoming less common at higher eleva- the late wood also very frequently shows stratification.
tions and more or less disappearing above 2,500 The transition from the light-colored early wood tissue
to late wood is abrupt. The average number of primary
feet. rings per inch varies from 5 in the first few inches from
Caribbean pine is found only at low elevations the pith to about 16 near the bark, 7-10 inches from the
in Guatemala, sometimes extending to cliffs at pith.
the edge of the ocean but never occurring far The difference in color between the early wood
above sea level. Standley (216) reports this spe- and late wood produces a prominent stripe on
cies has much the same scenic appearance in Guate- longitudinal surfaces. The wood shows a medium
mala as the pine of the Florida everglades. luster and is greasy to the touch, because of the
The optimum development of Caribbean pine heavy resin deposits in the wood.
occurs in northeastern Nicaragua between Rio Weight.— Wood from British Honduras and
Grande and Rio Prinzapolca. The best stands Nicaragua averages 48 pounds per cubic foot at
occur along a strip about 30 miles wide at the 12 percent moisture content. On this basis, the
coast. and extending inland for 55 miles, where it specific gravity averages 0.77 based on air-dry
narrows to about a 15-mile width at the western volume and weight (250, 100, 15). The specific
end. Over most of this commercial range, the gravity based on green volume and ovendry
pine grows on scattered ridges of several thousand weight averages 0.66. Green wood weighs about
acres, separated by savannas or “brush” land along 57 pounds per cubic foot at 66 percent moisture
the creeks and rivers. The stands are usually content.
light, averaging about 3,000 board feet per acre Seasoning.— The timber air-seasons rather
(79). slowly with a tendency for end splitting in the
The tree.— The Forest Products Research Lab- thicker stock and for the sapwood of green lumber
oratory in England (100) describes Pinus caribaea to be attacked by sap-stain fungi unless it is dried
of British Honduras as follows: without undue delay (8). Protection of the ends
The tree attains a height of about 100 feet with a cor- of flitches and the use of narrow stickers are rec-
responding diameter of about 3 feet, and is often free ommended. Thinner stock air-seasons fairly well
from branches for 50-70 feet. Its habit of growth when
young is similar to that of the Loblolly Pine, Pinus taeda, provided drying is not too rapid, although con-
but with increasing age it develops heavy horizontal siderable lengthwise bowing may occur in 1-inch
branches and a rounded crown approaching more closely stock if a wide sticker spacing is used. However,
in appearance to the Longleaf Pine, Pinus palustris, or the distortion in other directions and forms is not
to old Scots Pine.
serious. The timber also kiln-seasons rather
In Nicaragua the tree grows to 100 feet in slowly. Considerable care is required for check-
height and 30 to 40 inches in diameter, occasionally ing, and splitting may be severe in the early stages
exceeding these dimensions. The boles are often of kiln-seasoning, along with a marked tendency
clear of branches for 70 feet with a moderate taper for distortion to occur. Kiln Schedule 6 of the
of 1 inch per 16 feet in height. According to Forest Products Research Laboratory in England
Fahnestock and Garratt (79), timbers up to 50 is recommended (105, 222).
feet long are occasionally cut and pieces 40 to 45 Shrinkage.— Caribbean pine shrinks moder-
feet long are common in Nicaragua. ately in drying. Shrinkage rates for wood from
Trees in the pine stands in Honduras vary in British Honduras of 6.3 percent radially, 7.8 per-
size according to location. They are usually 14 cent tangentially, and 12.9 percent volumetrically
to 18 inches in diameter on the lower elevations from green to ovendry compare favorably with
and one or two 16-foot logs high, while on the values of 5.5, 7.8, and 12.2 percent, respectively,
higher elevations the diameters increase to 30 to for slash pine of the United States. Shrinkage
34 inches or more and trees may have three or from green to air-dry would amount to about
more 16-foot logs (75). half these values.
The wood.— Pinus caribaea of British Hondu- The timber is reasonably stable in respect to at-
ras is described by the Forest Products Research mospheric changes (8, 250, 242).
Laboratory (100) as follows: Mechanical properties.— Pinus caribaea is a
The wood is moderately heavy . . . somewhat coarse hard, dense, resinous timber of high strength prop-
in texture, generally with a more or less pronounced erties, resembling longleaf pine, the densest grade
resinous odor, but possessing no distinctive taste. The of American pitch pine. In the green condition,
grain is typically straight. The heartwood, constituting Caribbean pine is heavier and considerably
42 percent by volume of the eight logs selected from the
consignment for examination, is reddish brown, the depth
stronger in most properties than slash pine (P .
of color varying with the amount of resin present. The elliottii) of the United States. However, the two
pale yellowish brown sapwood forms a zone 2-3 inches species are nearly equal in compression across the
in width. Growth zones are clearly defined by bands grain and cleavage, and slash pine is definitely
596544 O-62–7
superior in tension perpendicular to the grain. fungus but nondurable to a brown-rot fungus. On
In comparison to other woods of similar density, this basis, preservation is required when the wood
unseasoned Caribbean pine is above average in is used under conditions favorable to decay.
stiffness and average in shock resistance, but is Logs are occasionally attacked by pinhole borers,
somewhat below average in all other strength which usually cause no damage beyond the sap-
properties. wood. The timber’s resistance to termites is
After air-drying Caribbean pine exceeds the largely governed by the resin content of the wood.
average for woods of similar density in stiffness, Very resinous heartwood is very resistant to
shear strength and toughness, and equals the aver- termites; the resistance decreases along with the
age in cleavage, modulus of rupture, work to resin content (242). In termite resistance, Carib-
maximum load, and maximum crushing strength. bean pine is similar to West Indies pine (Pinus
It falls below the average in hardness, bearing occidentalis Sw.) of the Dominican Republic.
strength, and tension across the grain. which is rated resistant, compared to the rating
Seasoned wood of this species is very similar to of moderately resistant for longleaf pine Of the
Pinus elliottii except in shock resistance where United States (263). The timber has little re-
Caribbean pine is definitey inferior. It is also sistance to marine borers.
slightly superior in bending strength stiffness, Preservation.— The heartwood is moderately
cleavage resistance, shear, stiffness, and hardness resistant to preservatives but can be thoroughly
but slightly inferior to P. elliottii in tension across impregnated by pressure treatment. Retention of
the grain, elastic resilience, and maximum crush- preservative material varies considerably with
ing strength. According to the Forest Products differences in resin content of the wood. The sap-
Research Laboratory in England, the best grades wood absorbs preservative readily by either the
of Caribbean pine have a distinct resemblance to open-tank or pressure processes.
longleaf pine; but, at its best, it is not quite equal The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory (242)
to prime longleaf pine, although it can be safely recommends a retention of 20 pounds of coal-tar
substituted for that species in many uses (8, 218, creosote per cubic foot for all species of southern
250, 100, 112). yellow pine piling, lumber, and structural timbers
Working properties.— The timber is easy to used in coastal waters; 8 pounds per cubic foot for
work with either machine or hand tools, compar- railway ties and poles; 12 pounds for piling used
ing closely with longleaf pine in resistance to cut- on land or in fresh water; 6 pounds for posts,
ting and cleanness of finish. Its dulling effect on lumber, and elevated structural timbers; and 10
cutting edges is usually not severe unless pro- pounds for lumber and structural timbers used in
longed runs are made with cutters or teeth clogged fresh water, in contact with the ground, or for
with resin. Resin also adheres to tool edges, ma- important structural members not in contact with
chine tables, and fences causing difficulty in ease the ground or water.
and steadiness of feeding if the resin is not oc- Uses.— Caribbean pine is suitable mainly for
casionally removed. Incompletely or partially the same purposes for which the other pitch pines
seasoned timber is particularly troublesome. are used. Its uses are too numerous and well
There is a slight tendency for pickup in planing known to be covered in detail here. It is a good
and molding near knots; thin can be minimized structural timber and quite suitable for heavy
by careful setting and jointing of knives to assure joinery flooring and all types of light construc-
that each knife shares equally in the cutting. But tion, with adequate preservative treatment. The
in most operations a clean finish is obtained. timber has many other uses, including posts, poles,
Caribbean pine takes nails and screws satisfac- marine piling and structures, railway ties, bridge-
torily and is successfully stained and varnished, work, and mining timbers. In the Caribbean
although pitch blisters sometimes cause trouble area the principal use is for general construction
in painting. The wood bends moderately well, and carpentry.
but some trouble is encountered with resin exuda- Supply.— Caribbean pine is presently the ma-
tions during the steaming process (105, 100) . jor timber harvested in British Honduras. More
Durability.— The heartwood is moderately re- pine was cut there in 1954 than all other species
sistant to resistant to decay but apparently varies combined— 1,016,000 cubic feet, of which 40 per-
between the highly resinous and less resinous wood, cent was used locally and the balance exported,
as well as with the individual fungus attacking the principally to the West Indies. Only 5.2 percent
wood. Timber from British Honduras is durable of the export volume was sold outside of the West
for 10 to 15 years on the basis of graveyard tests Indies (35).
in England (206). However, heartwood of Pinus The extent of the supply of Caribbean pine in
caribaea was rated as only moderately resistant Central America and the Antilles is not accurately
to fungal attack on the basis of pure culture tests known. Present supplies are good, but there are
by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in indications that some type of cutting control and
England (100). Similar tests at Yale University forest management, will be required to prevent
(250) found the wood very durable to a white-rot depletion of merchantable stands (128).
PODOCARP The wood.— The wood is soft, light in weight,

and of good quality, superficially resembling
Podocarpus coriaceus, Podocarpus guatemalensis
white pine (Pinus strobus.) Sapwood and heart-
Podocarpus is one of the few genera of conifers wood are not separate except in old trees, which
native to tropical America. Various species are have a reddish-brown core up to 6 inches wide.
scattered in mountains from the West Indies and The wood is a uniform pale yellowish brown, with
southern Mexico south to southern Chilie (190, 47, straight grain and a fine, uniform texture.
19). (Yew family, Taxaceae; or podocarpus Growth rings are faintly marked by bands of
family, Podocarpaceae.) slightly darker and more dense tissue. Gum ducts
Nomenclature.— In the West Indies the most are absent but resin cells are present, giving the
widely distributed species is Podocarpus coriaceus wood a finely stippled appearance resembling
L. C. Rich., which ranges from Puerto Rico to white pine. Exeedingly fine ripple marks are
Trinidad. Formerly, it was also referred to as visible on the tangential surface. No odor or
P. salicifolius Kl. & Karst., and uncertain name taste is evident in seasoned wood (178, 265, 135,
now rejected (50). The tree and wood are known 150).
in Guadeloupe and Martinique as laurier rose, and The description of podocarp by Stehlé (218)
in Puerto Rico as caobilla. Names in Trinidad differs from the above as follows: “pink sapwood,
and Tobago are podocarp and wild pine. P. heartwood brown, yellowish, reddish, or dark,
trinitensis Buchh. & Gray is another species of heavily streaked with purplish hues, fairly soft,
Trinidad. A few more species occur in mountains cross-grain.” It would appear that his specimens
of Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola. included the dark center core of old trees.
Podocarpus oleifolius D. Don and P. guate- Weight.— The specific gravity averages about
malensis Standl. have the greatest ranges of the 0.51, based on air-dry volume and weight. Air-
few Central American species. The common dry good weighs about 32 pounds per cubic foot
name in Guatemala and Honduras is ciprés. In and green wood 42 pounds at 50 percent moisture
British Honduras P. guatemalensis is marketed as content. (15, 150, 165, 265). The timber is slightly
British Honduras yellow wood and is often called heavier than the white pines of northern and west-
cypress. ern United States, but considerably lighter than
Distribution and habitat.— The common spe- the yellow pines of the southeastern United States
cies Podocarpus coriaceus is native in Puerto Rico, and the Caribbean area.
St. Kitts, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Seasoning.— The British Honduras Forest De-
Martinique, St. Lucia, Tobago, and Trinidad. P. partment reports that the wood air-seasons rap-
oleifolius ranges from southern Mexico to Vene- idly with little distortion or splitting (150). It is
zuela and Peru; P. guatemalensis from British reported to kiln-dry at a moderate rate with some
Honduras and Guatemala to Panama (190, 216, tendency to split and check but with little tend-
178, 223, 18). ency to warp. Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest
Podocarpus coriaceus, a tree of the uplands, oc- Products Research Laboratory in England is rec-
curs rarely to occasionally on poor sandy or semi- commended (222).
swampy soils in the higher elevations of Trinidad Shrinkage.— The timber undergoes little
and Tobago and seldom occurs below 2,000 feet shrinkage in seasoning and is very stable in use.
elevation in Guadeloupe (165). P. guatemalensis It is intermediate to Central American cedar and
grows on well-drained sites on hills of meta- Honduras mahogany in shrinkage and compara-
morphic rocks in British Honduras, reaching a ble to both timbers in stability. A radial shrink-
concentration of seven trees per acre in the Mana- age of 2.0 percent, and tangential shrinkage of
tee area. This species is also found in the Temash- 3.5 percent from green to air-dry (12 percent
Moho River swamp forests in association with moisture content), or ¼ inch and 7/16 inch per
santa-maria (150), but is reported to make its best foot, respectively, are indicative of uniform sea-
development above 2,000 feet elevation (223). soning (222). It is a timber with small movement
The tree.— Podocarp (Podocarpus coriaceus) values in response to atmospheric changes. It
is a dominant evergreen tree in Trinidad, reaching increases 0.9 percent, radially and 1.7 percent tan-
13
80 to 100 feet in height and 24 inches or more in gentially or 7/64 inch and /64 inch per foot, re-
diameter (165): Cypress or yellow wood (P. spectively, from equilibrium in a 60-percent to a
guatemalensis) is a canopy tree in British Hon- 90-percent, relative humidity (108).
duras, reaching 80 to 90 feet in height and 24 Mechanical properties.— Determinations of
inches to occasionally 30 inches in diameter on the air-dry strength properties of Podocarpus
good sites. In mature trees the bole is generally coriaceus from British Honduras were made by
clear of branches for 40 feet and often somewhat the Forest Products Research Laboratory in Eng-
fluted but without buttresses (150). Although land (15). This timber was found equal or su-
conifers, some species have leaves resembling those perior to Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) or Baltic
of willows (Salix). redwood in all properties tested except stiffness
in bending in which Scotch pine was slightly su- The wood is often know as amaranth, saka, or
perior to podocarp. violet wood in the English trade. Local or ver-
Working properties.— The timber works easily nacular names used in different areas are koro-
with all hand and power tools with about. the boreli, saka, amaranth, and sakavalli in British
same resistance to cutting as American basswood Guiana; purperhart, lastan, dastan, malako, and
or American whitewood (Tilia americana) or kuruburelli in Surinam; amarante, bois pourpre,
Scotch pine. It nails easily without splitting and bois violet, and violet in French Guiana; sapater
takes stain, varnish, and paint satisfactorily (162, or zapatero in Trinidad: pau roxo, barabú, ellon-
165). grypho, pao violeta, guarabú rajado in Brazil;
Durability.— Graveyard tests in England using and morado in Venezuela.
wood from British Honduras indicate that the Distribution and habitat.— The several com-
heartwood is durable in contact with the ground mercial species of purpleheart are distributed
and can be expected to last 10 to 15 years under widely throughout tropical America. Their com-
average conditions in that country (206). In bined range extends from Mexico through Central
British Honduras, it is considered moderately America and into South America to southern
durable in contact with the ground and dur- Brazil.
able when used above ground in exposed loca- Peltogyne pubescens occurs from Mexico
tions (150). Stehlé (218) rates podocarp very through Central America to Colombia. Vene-
resistant to decay in the Lesser Antilles. zuela, the Guianas, and to Para. Amazonas,
Preservation.— Podocarp is reported to have a and Rio Branco in Brazil. P. porphyrocardia is
fairly low resistance to impregnation with pre- reported only from Trinidad and British Guiana,
servatives. Good penetration and retention result and P. venosa var. demiflora from British Guiana
from pressure treatments, but some difficulty is to Brazil and Colombia (149).
encountered in open-tank processes (150). There appears to be little need for anxiety over
Uses.— The timber has proved suitable for the the botanical identity of the several species, for
better class of joinery work. low-cost furniture, all the timbers have about the same general ap-
and for general utility. where high strength is pearance and structure regardless of their source.
not required. It should also be suitable for for boxes, Logs emanating from different sources are usually
crates, interior work, concrete forms, and many sold in the trade as purpleheart, violet wood, or
other purposes for which pine is imported. The amaranth without further distinction. Lack of
wood gives satisfactory service as sills and beams preference among the users for wood of different
in British Honduras. origins or species would indicate that there is
Because of its low shrinkage, stability, close little variation between species and that they can
straight grain, and good machining character- be safely treated as one timber (166) .
istics, podocarp should be very suitable for pat- The trees grow in the moist soils along the rivers
ternmaking. A similar species, Podocarpus gra- and in the fertile valleys in the Guianas and along
cilior Pilger, from East Africa is acceptable for the Amazon River. All three species covered here
utility plywood; podocarp may be suitable for are of general distribution throughout the near
the same use but lacks the attractive figure or interior of British Guiana, with Peltogyne por-
grain required for decorative veneer. phyrocardia occurring most frequently in the far
Supply.— Podocarp is presently available from interior (28). P. pubescens is found as an oc-
British Honduras and possibly other areas in casional to frequent tree on white sands in the
Central America, and in the future may become wallaba forest and on river flood plains in the
available from Guadeloupe and Martinique. mora forest of British Guiana (82). In Suri-
nam this species occurs as an occasional tree on
sandy soils in the rain-and-high savanna forest
PURPLEHEART (231). P. venosa var. densiflora is an occasional
Peltogyne pubescens, Peltogyne porphyrocardia, Pelto- tree in the rain and evergreen seasonal forest in
gyne venosa var. densiflora British Guiana.
Nomenclature.— Purpleheart is the usual trade In Trinidad, Peltogyne porphyrocardia occurs
name for several species of the genus Peltogyne. principally on hard, red clay soils in an isolated
About 20 species of Peltogyne are reported from area of possibly 1,000 acres in the southern water-
tropical America but only three species are of shed reserve. The tree also grows on dry sites.
economic importance in the Caribbean area but seems to do best on hard, dry clays receiving
covered by this report. These are Peltogyne a rainfall of 60 to 70 inches annually (165). It
pubescens Benth., P. porphyrocardia Griseb., and grows in British Guiana on the same sites occu-
P. venosa (Vahl) Benth. var. densiflora (Spruce) pied by the other two species. Some of the finest
Amsh. (P. densiflora Spruce). P. venosa, grow- stands of this species in British Guiana are found
ing in the Guianas and Amazonas, Brazil, is of along the Unabaruka, a branch of the Supenaam
general economic importance in the Amazon re- River, and the Kaburi River, a branch of the
gion. (Legume family, Leguminosae.) Mazaruni River.
The tree.-Purpleheart of the Guianas is a semi- based on green volume and ovendry weight: P.
deciduous, predominant tree with small planktype venosa var. densiflora averages 0.75 on the same
buttresses 2 to 3 feet high in Peltogyne pubescens, basis (149, 15). One report that wood of P. pu-
and 6 to 12 feet high and sometimes spread out bescens from British Guiana weighs 68 pounds air-
over a 15-foot diameter in P. venosa var. densi- dry indicates some fluctuation in density may
flora. The trees, moderately large, grow to 4 feet occur (149). Density information is not available
in diameter and 170 feet high, but are usually 1½ for P. porphyrocardia.
to 3 feet in diameter and 90 to 120 feet high. Seasoning.— Purpleheart is moderately difficult,
Boles are clear for 60 to 90 feet, straight, cylindri- to season in the open air and in the kiln. It
cal above the buttresses and with considerable air-seasons slowly with light to moderate de-
taper. grade. Wangaard reports moderate crook and
The heavy crown is umbrella shaped with flat, slight twist occurring during air-seasoning tests
spreading branches and flexible branchlets. The at Yale University. along with slight end and
bark is flaky, thin, and reddish brown to blackish surface checking and slight casehardening (250).
brown. Logs are usually 40 to 60 feet long and The Forest Products Research Laboratory in
2 to 3 feet in diameter at the butt, but are avail- England reports that purpleheart air-seasons
able up to 75 feet long and 4 feet in diameter. rather slowly with some warp and a pronounced
The wood.— One of the most, distinctive woods tendency to split (110). Thin lumber kiln-dries
of tropical America, purpleheart is very hard, ex- readily with only very minor degrade, but planks
tremely heavy, strong, tough, and durable, but it and other thick material require special attention
is most often recognized for its unusual coloring, to overcome the difficulty of removing moisture
which at times is actually purple (166). The from the center of the heavy pieces. Kiln Sched-
sapwood, distinct from the heartwood. is 2 to ule 5 of the Forest Products Research Laboratory
4 inches thick and creamy white to light pinkish is recommended (222, 118).
cinnamon streaked with light brown. The heart- Shrinkage. — Purpleheart shrinks at a moderate
wood is a grayish purple when freshly cut, later rate for a timber of its density. Shrinkage values
becoming a violet purple to deep purple through of 5.3 percent radially, 8.4 percent tangentially,
an oxidation process. Sapwood and heartwood and 13.2 percent volumetrically from the green
are clearly demarked. condition to ovendry were reported by the Uni-
In due time, the purplish color is lost and the versity of Michigan (149) for Peltogyne pubes-
wood turns a permanent attractive dark brown. cens from British Guiana. The Forest Products
However, the exterior brown color is only at the Research Laboratory in England (222) reports
surface and by removing a thin layer the original wood of this species from British Guiana shrinks
coloring can be restored. Unfortunately, the 2.0 percent radially and 4.5 percent tangentially
oxidation process will again prevail, turning the from green to air-dry (12 percent Moisture Con-
wood first to purple and later to a walnut brown tent). These reports are in general agreement as
and finally to a black-brown color with age (1, 82). shrinkage from green to air-dry is generally
However, Wangaard reports that some specimens about half the value from green to ovendry.
in the Yale University Wood Collection are still In the Yale studies, the closely related Pelto-
bright purple after many years, while others have gyne venosa shrank 3.2 percent radially, 6.1 per-
turned a brownish-purple or brown color. The cent tangentially, and 9.9 percent volumetrically
color is not always uniform throughout; some- from green to ovendry. That these values are
times it shows alternating streaks of dark violet somewhat below those for P. pubescens can be at-
with faint orange or yellow lines, which give the tributed to the difference in density of the two
wood a peculiar variegated or mottle effect. species.
The uniform texture of purpleheart varies from The wood has average or slightly better stabil-
fine to medium. The grain is usually straight ity in reference to changes in atmospheric con-
and seldom interlocked but is sufficiently irregu- ditions. Coarse-grained wood (lighter) is re-
lar, along with variation in luster and color, to ported to have greater stability, and less total
give the wood a pleasing stripe figure on the movement (shrinkage and swelling) than fine-
quarter-cut surface. Bands of darker colored grained (heavier) material.
elements give the appearance of growth rings Mechanical properties.— Purpleheart is inter-
(250). The wood is of medium luster, somewhat mediate between white oak (Quercus alba) and
greasy in appearance, and cold to the touch. No greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei) in strength proper-
distinctive odor or taste is present in seasoned ties. Compared to white oak, seasoned wood is
wood (190). roughly 100 percent harder, 50 percent stronger
Weight.— Peltogyne pubescens and P. venosa in bending and compression along the grain, 70
var. densiflora from British Guiana and Brazil, percent stiffer and more resistant to shock loads,
respectively, are reported to weigh 54 pounds per and 40 percent stronger in shear and in resistance
cubic foot air-dry and 75 to 77 pounds green. to splitting (149, 250).
Both species have an air-dry specific gravity of In the green condition, purpleheart surpasses
0.87; specific gravity of P. pubescens averages 0.74, white oak in every property and is generally equal
or superior in strength to most other species of (Ocotea rodiaei) (263). However, in some areas
comparable high density. It is also superior to purpleheart is considered only moderately resist-
black walnut. (Juglans nigra) in bending, com- ant to termites, although this may only be based
pression, stiffness, elasticity, toughness, and hard- on casual observations rather than controlled tests
ness, but is inferior in resistance to splitting. as in Puerto Rico.
However, purpleheart is about 50 percent heavier The wood is considered to have little resistance
than walnut, which accounts for some of its to marine borers in accordance with tests in
superior strength qualities. Purpleheart is par- Hawaiian waters (76). The wood of Peltogyne
ticularly outstanding in its ability to withstand cenosa var. desiflora is reported by Amos to con-
suddenly applied loads and difficult strains (28, tain only 0.02 percent silica (14). Most woods
15). that resist marine borers contain a much higher
Working properties.— Working purpleheart silica content, generally 1 percent or more. Pur-
with either hand or machine tools is moderately pleheart burns slowly and is considered very re-
difficult, for the wood resists cutting and dulls sistant to fire.
cutting edges. It also exudes a gummy resin Preservation. — The heartwood is extremely re-
when heated by dull tools; this resin clings to sistant to impregnation with creosote. Even
cutter teeth and other tool parts and complicates under high pressure, penetration occurs only along
the machining operations. Straight-grained ma- a few isolated vessels (105). The sapwood is
terial saws and planes well if sharp tools are used, permeable.
but some care is required on irregular-grained Uses.— Purpleheart is a relatively expensive,
material to prevent “pick-up,” especially on the high-quality wood and should, in general, be put
radial surface. into one of two uses: (1) Those requiring wood
The Forest Products Research Laboratory rec- of great strength, particularly the ability to with-
ommends saw type D or E for machining purple- stand strain and sudden shocks; and (2) those
heart (28). Material is best run slowly through requiring wood of unusual beauty or coloring.
machines equipped with high speed steel knives Purpleheart, because of unique shades and
(60). A 15-degree cutting angle is required to peculiar variegated or mottle color effect, is partic-
properly machine wood with interlocked grain ularly well adapted for use in turnery, marque-
(105, 265). try, cabinets, ornamental furniture, counters, office
The wood turns smoothly and requires but little desks, counter tops, carving, inlaying, billiard
sanding to bring out a good finish (237). It is cue butts, swagger sticks, paneling, decorative
easily fastened by gluing and takes stain and handles, veneer parquet flooring, handles, billiard
either wax or French polish well, but its purple tables, and other similar uses (138, 24, 12) .
color is dissipated by spirit polishes. A lacquer The good mechanical characteristics of the wood
finish is reported to hold this purple coloring. fits it for such specialized uses as gymnasium ap-
Purpleheart splits when nailed and requires pre- paratus, diving boards, skis, mill rollers, shafts,
boring. It can be veneered with a hot glue. and tool handles. Purpleheart is considered
Purpleheart is knife-cut into 1/28-inch veneer Brazil’s best timber for spokes in cart wheels. Be-
or more generally sawed to 1/16- and 1/24-inch veneer cause the wood has dimensional stability, it is used
without a preparatory steaming. It is inadvis- in the tropics for window frames and sliding
able to steam the wood as the coloring matter, shades. Though expensive, its high strength,
known as “phonicoin,” is partially soluble under hardness, and resistance to decay qualify it for
prolonged steaming (166). structural purposes, house framing, bridging,
Durability. — The wood of purpleheart is gener- fresh water piling, and for many other parts of
ally regarded to be highly durable in the American house construction from millwork to flooring and
tropics. Graveyard tests in England (206) and siding.
British Guiana found British Guiana purpleheart The wood at one time was very popular in Paris
durable to very durable in contact with the for boatbuilding and furniture. It is used nowa-
ground. Similar tests in Surinam also gave the days in British Guiana for knees, transoms, dead-
wood a durable rating (50). In the English test, woods, stems, interior work, corrals, woodskin
2- by 2-inch stakes were found to have a life of canoes, and other uses in boat and shipbuilding.
10 to 15 years. Peltogyne porphyrocardia in It is one of 12 woods accepted in the British
Trinidad was found to be highly resistant to both Guiana housing program for structural timbers
brown-rot. and white-rot fungi in pure culture and scantlings, and one of 10 native woods
tests (84). Similar tests at Yale University with accepted for siding and flooring.
P. venosa from Brazil showed this species to be The bark of mature trees is used by the natives
durable to a white-rot fungus and very durable to for canoes. In Brazil an aromatic resin is ex-
a brown-rot fungus. tracted from the wood and used in medicine, as a
Peltogyne pubescens proved to be very resistant substitute for turpentine, and to produce a red
to dry-wood termites in Peurto Rico, rating 92 as dye for dying textile fabrics (128, 174).
compared to 80 for West Indies mahogany Supply. — There is not an unlimited supply of
(Swietenia mahogoni) and 91 for greenheart this wood, but the remaining merchantable stands
are not being fully exploited. British Guiana is of Dominica reports it is not liable to termite
estimated to have 91,000,000 cubic feet of sound attack (50).
merchantable purpleheart in accessible forest Uses.— Resolu is used principally in construc-
areas (28). Surinam and French Guiana also tion for sheathing, flooring, and framing, but may
have sizable quantities for export. be suitable for many other uses where a strong,
durable wood is required.
Supply.— The timber is not plentiful, but small
RESOLU quantities may come on the market when adequate
Chimarrhis cymosa logging and conversion facilities become available
on several of the larger islands in the Lesser
Nomenclature. — The genus Chimarrhis is rep- Antilles.
resented by several species tropical America
(190). One of these, Chimarrhis cymosa Jacq., ROBLE
is fairly common and of general economic impor- Tabebuia rosea, Tabebuia heterophylla
ance in the West Indies. The tree is call resolu
or bois rivière in the Lesser Antilles except in St. Roble, the Spanish name for oak (Quercus ), is
Vincent where it is known as waterwood (162). applied to several groups of trees in tropical
In Cuba the tree is called penda (207). (Madder America, including a few species of Tabebuia.
family, Rubiaceae.) The wood of these trees is superficially like
Distribution and habitat.— Resolu is recorded oak but lacks the characteristic rays of the
from Cuba, Jamaica, Guadaloupe, Dominica, oak group (190, 193). On the Continent the
Martinique, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Colombia, Ven- common species is T. rosea (Bertol.) DC.,
ezuela, and British Guiana (207, 218, 50) . while in parts of the West Indies T. hetero-
The tree grows best in wet lowlands and borders phylla (DC.) Britton is more frequent. (Trum-
of streams in Guadeloupe but occurs in limited pet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)
quantities at the higher elevations in St. Lucia Nomenclature.— Tabebuia rosea formerly was
(154). In Trinidad its optimum habitat appears known as T. pentaphylla, a name now rejected.
to be in the northern range with an annual rain- The wood is commonly exported as roble, apamate,
fall of 100 inches or more. It grows here as an or amapa, and also occasionally from British Hon-
occasional to locally frequent tree in the crappo- duras as mayflower (126). Other common names
debasse forests, but it is rare in other forest types are mano de león in Guatemala, cortés in Hon-
(165). duras roble de savana in Panama, ocobo in Co-
The tree.— Resolu is a medium-size, evergreen lumbia, apamate in Venezuela, and pink poui in
tree reaching a diameter of 5 to 6 feet and up to Trinidad.
80 feet or more in height. The trunk is straight Tabebuia heterophylla, a variable species of the
with shallow buttresses. The outer bark is light West Indies, was included by some authors under
colored. smooth and papery in appearance (165, T. pentaphylla also. Synonyms, considered by
154). some as varieties, are T. pallida (Lindl.) Miers
The wood.— The wood is orange colored, moder- and T. dominicensis Urban. Common names are
ately coarse textured, and medium hard, roble and roble blanco in Puerto Rico, poirier
Weight.— Resolu is reported by Stehlé (218) to rouge and poirier blanc in Guadeloupe and Mar-
range from 0.65 to 0.85 in specific gravity. Air- tinique, poirier in Dominica and St. Lucia, and
dry wood on this basis weighs from 41 to 53 apamate or pink poui in Grenada. The name
pounds per cubic foot, about the same as white white-cedar is used in the Virgin Islands, Do-
oak. minica, St. Lucia, and Grenada.
Seasoning.— The timber is reported to air- Distribution and habitat.— The natural range
season in Dominica in 4 to 5 months but to split of Tabebuia rosea extends from Mexico through
readily during drying. Central America to Colombia and Venezuela. It
Shrinkage.— Shrinkage is reported to he mod- is found on various sites from wet lowlands to dry
erate. uplands, and may occur in essentially pure stands,
Mechanical properties.— Published results of as isolated trees, or in a mixed forest.
detailed mechanical tests are not available for Tabebuia heterophylla is native from Hispan-
resolu; however, according to limited data re- iola, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands through
ported by Stehlé, it is medium hard, fairly elastic, the Lesser Antilles to Grenada and Barbados. In
and semifissle (150, 218). The wood is reported Puerto Rico, roble grows from sea level to 3,000
to be brittle by the Government of Dominica (50). feet in elevation and is widely distributed (244) .
Working properties.— Resolu works without The tree.— Tabebuia rosea 5 is a medium-size
difficulty but is said to split when nailed unless tree 40 to 60 feet high, but occasionally reaching
prebored. a height of 90 feet. Its diameter is commonly 18
Durability.— The heartwood is reported as 5
“probably durable” by Record and Hess (190) Described under Tabebuia pentaphylla in Nos. 95 and
98 of Tropical Woods and in numerous other reports on
and as durable by Stehlé (218). The Government this wood from Central and South America.
to 24 inches, yet at times it reaches 36 inches in age from green to ovendry of 9.5 percent, a radial
diameter. Boles grow clear for 20 to 35 feet and shrinkage of 3.6 percent, and tangential shrinkage
occasionally 50 feet above the buttresses, which of 6.1 percent in tests at Yale University (71).
often extend 7 to 10 feet above the ground (147). Similar tests conducted on T. heterophylla from
The trunk, frequently fluted or irregular, is some- Puerto Rico gave shrinkage values of 9.7 percent
times squarish in cross section. It is one of the volumetrically, 4.1 percent radially, and 5.5 per-
best known and most useful trees of Central cent tangentially. Shrinkage from green to air-
America; when in blossom it has few rivals in dry would be about half these values. The low
beauty. For this reason, it is often planted as a ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is usually
shade and ornamental tree throughout its range. indicative of very favorable seasoning character-
The West Indian species generally is a smaller istics.
tree than that of the mainland (147, 65, 71, 177) . Mechanical properties.— Roble is tough and
The wood.— Wood of both species is very simi- strong for its weight. Mechanical tests on
lar in appearance and properties. The sapwood Tabebuia rosea at Yale University (71, 249)
is narrow, white to yellowish when first cut, turn- found the unseasoned wood was superior to most
ing light brown after drying and exposure; gen- species of comparable density in all static-bending
erally it is not clearly distinct from the heartwood. properties except stiffness. It is also superior in
The heartwood is light brown with a grayish cleavage, tension across the grain, and toughness,
or, more commonly, a golden hue. Fine brown and is average for a wood of its density in com-
lines of parenchyma give the wood a distinctive pression parallel to and perpendicular to the
figure on the quartersawed surface and an at- grain, in hardness, and in shear.
tractive feather pattern on the tangential or Roble is noticeably better in several strength
flat-sawed surface. The grain is straight to inter- properties than white ash and white oak of the
locked, showing a ribbon-stripe on the quarter- United States, even though it is slightly less dense
sawed surface when interlocked. The texture is than either of these species. It is appreciably
medium to somewhat coarse. The luster is me- better in bending strength, elastic resilience, crush-
dium. No distinctive taste or odor is present in in strength and tension across the grain than
dry wood. Some consider the wood to resemble either species, both of which are valued for these
white ash (Fraxinus americana) more than white same characteristics. It is intermediate to these
oak (147, 71, 249, 265, 190). species in stiffness, hardness, shear, and cleavage,
Weight.— The wood is comparatively heavy. and about equal to oak in compression across the
Tabebuia rosea from Panama (71) weighs 37 grain and shock resistance. In the air-dry con-
pounds per cubic foot air-dry and 55 pounds green. dition, roble is only slightly below oak and ash in
Wood from Venezuela (149) is reported to weigh modulus of elasticity and is nearly comparable to
35 pounds air-dry and 58 pounds green. The white oak in shock resistance. Roble is similar
specific gravity of air-dry wood averages 0.58 or superior to black walnut (Juglans nigra) in
(0.56 to 0.60), being similar to white ash but many of its mechanical properties (147) .
somewhat lighter than Caribbean pine (Pinus Working properties.— Except in planing, roble
caribaea). The wood of T. heterophylla from has excellent working properties. It can be
Puerto Rico is somewhat lighter, averaging 59 sawed, shaped, bored, and turned with excellent
pounds per cubic foot when green and 42 pounds results, and stays in place after manufacture (65,
air-dry. Specific gravity for this species aver- 265). Some care is required in planing to prevent
aged 0.58 based on green volume and ovendry torn and chipped grain. However, the wood can
weight, and 0.67 when air-dry. be planed to a glossy smoothness; it machines
Seasoning. — Roble air-seasons at a fast rate cleanly with clean smooth edges but has a tend-
with a nominal amount of surface checking and ency to split when nails or screws are driven with-
slight warping (71). One-inch lumber has been out adequate size lead holes. It takes mahogany
seasoned in Puerto Rico in 4 months and in and oak stains well and can also be finished
Dominica in 3 to 4 months without any appreciable naturally with excellent results. It takes a high
degrade. No checking occurred during air- polish under all types of finishing (150) and is
seasoning tests in Puerto Rico and only very slight
warping in the form of twist and bow. The wood considered easy to glue (240). The wood’s steam
also kiln-dries with little degrade. Forest Prod- bending properties vary from good to poor (57) .
uct Research Laboratory’s (222) Kiln Schedule 4 This species has excellent workability as flat-cut
and Schedule T4-D2 of the Forest Products Lab- sliced veneer but requires a careful boiling before
oratory in Madison (147) have been recommended slicing. Quarter-cut, material gives a mottle
for roble. figure that one large Mexican producer considers
Shrinkage.— This species had a moderate rate superior to all other species. However, slicing
of shrinkage, being intermediate to mahogany must be precisely done to avoid torn and rough
and black walnut in this respect (248). Wood of grain. The veneers dry evenly to a smooth flat
Tabebuia rosea from Panama, British Honduras, appearance, are easy to joint in splicers, and pos-
and Honduras has an average volumetric shrink- sess good gluing properties (197).
Durability.— The heartwood of Tabebuia rosea Sot until December 1927, however, was its present
rated as moderately durable to a white-rot fungus identity established by Paul C. Standley, who
and very durable to a brown-rot fungus in pure named it in honor of Neil S. Stevenson. (Legume
culture tests at Yale University (249). Pure family, Leguminosae.)
culture tests at the U.S. Forest Products Labora- The tree and timber are known simply as rose-
tory rated Tabebuia sp. as very durable (199). wood in British Honduras. In the trade it is
It was also found to be very durable in graveyard generally known as Honduras rosewood and in
tests in British Guiana. The wood has little re- the United States also as nogaed or nogaed wood
sistance to marine borers (76). Amos (14) re- (193). Another closely related species, Dalbergia
ports roble (T. rosea) as having only 0.01 percent nigra Fr. Allem., is of considerable importance
silica compared to the 1.0 percent or more present in Brazil where it is known as jacaranda. Un-
in most woods showing good resistance to marine fortunately, several other species representing
organisms. The wood of this species is rated only several genera in the family Leguminosae are
fair in weathering characteristics; when exposed also known as jacaranda in that area. Several
to weather. unpainted material remains free from of them belong to the genus Machaerium and re-
warp but loses its smooth surface and develops semble Honduras rosewood but are lighter in
considerable checking (55). Wolcott (263) rates color and not so highly figured.
roble (T. heterophylla) very susceptible to termite Two other related species of common occur-
damage on the basis of tests with the West Indies rence in Central America are Dalbergia retusa
dry-wood termite in Puerto Rico. Hemsl., the cocobolo of the west, coast of Central
Uses.— Roble’s appearance and technical prop- America, and D. tucurensis Donn. Smith (D .
erties resemble those of ash and oak species, which cubilquitzensis (Donn. Smith) Pittier), the rose-
it replaces for many uses. It is particularly wood of Guatemala and Honduras and also Brit-
suitable for handles of all types, sporting goods. ish Honduras and southern Mexico. Other spe-
and agricultural implements. Because of its cies of good quality are found in Mexico and
stability, ease of working, pleasing appearance, Central America but not in sufficient volume for
and good strength, the wood is also especially export (190, 132).
suited for flooring, boat decking and other boat Distribution and habitat.— Honduras rose-
parts, millwork, furniture, cabinetwork, and gen- wood is confined entirely to British Honduras
eral construction. It is used extensively for fur- where it is one of the best known timbers. Neil
niture and interior trim throughout its tropical S. Stevenson, collector of the herbarium material
range (65). It is also used and recommended in leading to identification of the species, describes
the Caribbean area for paddles, shingles, and its habitat as follows (223):
carts. Lower grades are often made into packing It grows in damp Broken Ridge of the riverain type
boxes and crates. In Mexico it is becoming a from the Sarstoon River northward to the Monkey River
highly prized species for face veneer, probably its in the Toledo District of British Honduras. Between
highest use. Deep River and the Temash it appears in fairly large
patches, concentrated for the most part along the rivers
Supply.— Honduras, British Honduras, and the though occurring also in their interriverain and drier
islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Grenada areas.
have roble in exportable quantities. It grows in
many other Caribbean locations and should be The tree.— The tree attains a height of 50 to 100
available in sizable quantities (178). feet and is commonly forked at about 20 or 25
feet from the round. The trunk is fluted. The
rough papery bark is about one-fourth inch thick,
HONDURAS ROSEWOOD the scaly outer part varying in color from a pale
brownish ray to a dingy yellow-brownish gray.
Dalbergia stevensonii When freshly cut the bark has a distinctive odor,
Honduras rosewood. Dalbergia stevensonii suggesting stored apples, and a slightly bitter
Standl., is one of a group of about 15 rosewood taste. The dried bark separates readily into a
timbers known throughout the world to the thin solid outer layer and an unusual mottled
cabinetmaker and others for their good technical inner port ion (225). Trees grow to 3 feet in
qualities, richness of color and grain, and usually diameter (110).
pleasant fragrance. The rosewoods are among The wood.— The wood is very hard and heavy.
the most important, trees of Central America; at The sapwood is generally 1 to 2 inches thick and
least seven species, and probably more, are of sharply delineated from the heartwood. It is a
economic importance in tropical America. One white color, marked with yellow vessel lines when
of these, Honduras rosewood, has been known in first cut but turning yellow rather quickly after-
the trade for at least 100 years, but this fine wood wards (105). The heartwood is pinkish brown to
has never been exploited to anywhere near its purple with irregular black markings or zones,
potential (190). which are independent of the growth rings. These
Nomenclature.— Honduras rosewood was class- alternate dark and light bands give the wood an
ified as a species of Dalbergia for many years. unusual and very attractively figured appearance.
The texture is medium and the grain straight to ately difficult to saw and machine; it dulls cutting
slightly roey. Luster is low to medium. The edges more readily than many other woods. It
wood has no distinctive taste, but fresh heart- planes well but must be held securely during plan-
wood has a roselike odor which generally dissi- ing to prevent vibration. A cutting angle of 20
pates with age. It is this vanishing roselike odor degrees on planer knives is recommended, partic-
that is responsible for the name rosewood, not the ularly for wood having interlocked or wavy grain.
presence of roselike flowers as is commonly It makes excellent turnings and finishes well, ex-
supposed. cept, for some trouble with very oily specimens, but
Weight.— The specific gravity of air-dry wood does not take a high natural polish (265). Saw
based on weight and volume in that condition var- type F, as described in Appendix C of Empire
ies from 0.92 to 1.08, averaging about 1.00 (143) . Timbers (105), is recommended.
Air-dry wood weighs from 58 to 68 pounds per Durability.— The heartwood is highly durable
cubic foot, averaging about 62 pounds. in contact with the ground. One record shows a
Seasoning.— The wood is reported to season house post in Punta Gorda, British Honduras,
slowly with a tendency to check and split. Kiln remaining completely sound after 37 years, except
Schedule 3 of the Forest Products Research Lab- for the sapwood which had disappeared much
oratory is recommended (222). earlier (187, 132). Information is not available
Shrinkage. — Though shrinkage values have not on the wood’s resistance to termites or marine
been determined for this species, it is reputed to borers.
hold its place well after manufacture, indicating Uses.— Because of its unusual beauty and excel-
a low rate of shrinkage during drying. Harrar lent, technical properties, Honduras rosewood is
reports that cocobolo (Dalbergia retusa Hemsl.), highly regarded for a number of specialized uses
a closely related species from Central America, Manufacturers of musical instruments use the
shrinks 2.65 percent radially, 4.26 percent tan- wood for finger boards for banjos, mandolins, and
gentially, 0.21 percent longitudinally, and 7.20 guitars, and for percussion bars in xylophones
percent volumetrically from green to ovendry and other similar instruments. Well-figured wood
(123). Wangaard (250) reports shrinkage values is used also in guitar bodies, mandolin ribs, harp
of 2.9 percent radially, 4.6 percent tangentially, bodies, piano legs, piano pilasters, veneered piano
0.34 percent longitudinally, and 8.5 percent vol- cases, and organ stops. Some of the best figured
umetrically for material from one log of Dalbergia wood is made into veneer for furniture, cabinets,
sp. from Brazil. Shrinkage from green to air- carpet sweepers, billiard and pool tables, and bank
dry would be about half these values. Honduras and store fixtures. Darker and more highly fig-
rosewood has similar shrinkage values and thus ured wood is often used in brush backs, jewelry
is comparable to Honduras mahogany, a wood trays, and jewelry cases.
noted for its unusually low and uniform shrinkage. Rosewood is employed in the manufacture of
Mechanical properties.— Honduras rosewood high-grade carpenter tools, and in other items
has not been subjected to mechanical tests, per- like canes, moldings, picture frames, and novel-
haps because it has been used for specialized ties, and is used to some extent for molding, trim
purposes where strength is not of prime impor- and other interior work in boats and shipbuilding
tance. Tests conducted on Indian rosewood Dal- The rosewood from Brazil is used extensively for
bergia latifolia Roxb.) from southern India (250), the handles of knives and small tools. Honduras
which may be quite similar wood, showed it to rosewood should be equally suitable for this use.
possess high strength properties for its density. Supply. — Honduras rosewood is available only
In the air-dry condition it was 2½ times as hard in British Honduras, where large volumes await
as oak, and 20 percent harder than greenheart. utilization.
It was 25 percent stronger than oak in bending
and in compression along the grain, 20 percent, SAMAN
more resistant, to suddenly applied loads, and Pithecellobium saman
about 20 percent, stiffer. Honduras rosewood is
also noted for its high qualities in these proper- Saman resembles black walnut (Juglans nigra)
ties, making it exceptionally suitable for the uses in technical properties, structure, and general ap-
to which it is put in the United States. It is pearance and is at times substituted for that wood.
somewhat harder and heavier than Brazilian rose- Nomenclature.— Saman is currently designated
wood (Dalbergia nigra Fr. Allem.). by some authors as Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.)
Recent tests at Yale University using material Benth. and by others as Samanea saman (Jacq.)
from one log of Dalbergia sp., possibly D. nigra, Merrill. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
from Brazil showed the wood to be considerably The timber is known as saman in Puerto Rico,
superior to white oak in all strength properties Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, St. Vincent, and
except in tension perpendicular to the grain and parts of Central America. In Mexico it is called
cleavage, in which oak was superior. algarrobo, guango, saman, or rain-tree, and gouan-
Working properties.— Hardness makes this negowl in Haiti. In various other parts of its
timber somewhat difficult to work. It is moder- range, it is also known as campano, sanaguare,
urero, algarrobo del pais, aguango, cenizero, car- based on volume when green and weight when
reto, and zora, in addition to the name saman in ovendry, which compares favorably with the
many localities. The tree is commonly called the density quoted for air-dry wood (94, 65, 256) .
rain-tree (English) or the Spanish equivalent, Seasoning.— In the Philippines this wood was
arbol de la lluvia, perhaps because the leaflets found to shrink and warp considerably and to
close up in cloudy and rainy weather and at night. require very careful drying (94). However, air-
Monkeypod is the common name in Hawaii. dry plank material received at Yale University
Distribution and habitat.— Saman is native in appeared to be free from any excessive checking
southern Mexico, Central America, and northern or warping (249). One-inch lumber developed
South America, south to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. considerable degrade during seasoning under
The tree has been widely planted and naturalized cover in Puerto Rico. Moderate to severe bow
from Mexico southward, throughout the West In- and crook developed along with a small amount of
dies, and in the tropical regions of the Old World. cup and twist. Surface checking was not evident.
It is commonly planted as a street tree in many Shrinkage.— Saman undergoes an exceptionally
areas and is also used for cattle and crop shade. low shrinkage for a wood of its density. Shrink-
Its enormous widespreading crown makes it ideal age tests at Yale University (248), U.S. Forest
for shade in parks, pastures, and barnyards. It is Products Laboratory (68). and Tropical Forest
said to be one of the most beautiful of all neo- Research Center, Puerto Rico, produced values
tropical trees. The tree is completely naturalized similar to Honduras mahogany. These results
in Mexico and Cuba where the pods are highly are listed below (based on shrinkage from green
valued for stock feed. The tree was introduced to ovendry, expressed as a percent of the original
in the Philippines about 1860 and susequently in green dimensions):
many other areas of the Eastern Hemisphere (85, Tangen- Longitu- Vol.-
193). Saman: Radial tial dinal ume
Saman appears to thrive on almost all sites, but Yale University– – – – – – 2.0 3.4 0.13 6.0
U.S. Forest Products
makes its best growth on well-drained fertile soil Laboratory – – – – – – – 4.2 5.8 ---- 8.5
as in Mexico, where it does best on rich alluvial Tropical Research
flood plains (229). In Columbia the largest trees Center– – – – – – – – – – – – 2.4 4.2 .40 6.9
are also found in rich soils along streams. Average – – – – – – – – 2.9 4.4 .26 7.1
Honduras mahogany– – – – – 3.1 4.2 7.6
The tree.— Saman attains heights of 100 to 125 ----
feet and diameters of 3 to 4 feet in the forest, but Though these results are not in full agreement,
when grown in the open develops massive wide- they show a low rate of shrinkage comparable to
spreading crowns and short, thick trunks (94). mahogany, noted for its low and uniform shrink-
It is reported to be a small tree in northeastern age. The Yale tests gave values below those for
Peru (255); a large tree in Colombia (65); a mahogany, while the Forest Products Laboratory
large, low spreading tree with the main trunk test produced higher values in each direction.
rarely over 10 to 15 feet high but having girths up Mechanical properties.— Mechanical tests con-
to 20 feet in Mexico; and a short-boled tree with ducted at Yale University (248) showed un-
an enormous crown in Trinidad (165). seasoned saman to have about average strength
The wood.— The sapwood is generally narrow for a wood of its density. Work values in static
and white to yellow or light cinnamon. It is bending were above average, tensile strength
clearly differentiated from the dark walnut to across the grain and cleavage were below average,
dark chocolate-brown heartwood, which turns a and modulus of elasticity (stiffness) was very
light brown when seasoned. The wood is often low. Upon air-drying, the wood improves
marked with darker streaks resembling Circassian slightly in most strength properties but not as
walnut or butternut in this respect. It may be much as hardwoods of the United States. Work
either straight grained or cross grained and of to maximum load (shock resistance) decreased
medium texture and luster. Young trees are re- considerably upon drying, while both tensile
ported to grow rapidly and produce lighter, strength across the grain and cleavage resistance
softer, and more easily worked wood. Later were reduced slightly.
growth is slower, and the wood is comparatively Saman when green is intermediate to butternut
heavy, tough, rather refractory and of a darker
(Juglans cinerea) and Honduras mahogany
color, sometimes almost black ( 190 ). Seasoned
wood is without distinctive odor or taste. (Swietenia macrophylla) in most strength proper-
Weight. — The specific gravity of air-dry saman ties. In general, green saman equals or exceeds
averages about 0.56, based on the weight and green mahogany in all properties but stiffness,
volume of wood in that condition. Air-dry wood tension across the grain, and cleavage resistance,
weighs about 35 pounds per cubic foot, and green in which it more closely equals the weaker butter-
wood about 51 pounds per cubic foot at 71 percent nut.
moisture content. Density calculations at Yale Air-dried saman is below average on the basis
University on two logs of saman from Venezuela of its density in all strength properties except
showed a specific gravity of 0.48 (0.37 to 0.56), hardness. In this condition it is again inter-
mediate to butternut and mahogany, but it more antillanum Britton) and var. rekoi (Standl.)
closely resembles the weaker butternut and is Standl., and C. lucidum Benth. The timber of
about equal to mahogany in hardness. It is par- both species is similar in appearance and technical
ticularly deficient in modulus of rupture and properties and is marketed under one trade name
modulus (stiffness) of elasticity. Thus it rates without separation. This similarity extends
as a wood of medium hardness and strength. through all the American species of Calophyllum.
Working properties.— Saman is an easy wood One author, after examining the wood of the trop-
to work, due partially to its moderate density. ical American species and finding them all very
Straight-grained material works easily and well. similar in every respect, suggested the use of a
Material with irregular grain works to a fairly single trade name for all species (120). (Mango-
smooth finish in planing, but some care is required steen family, Guttiferae.)
to obtain clean cuts in boring and mortising. The The status of the above species and several
wood takes a beautiful finish. others in the American tropics is still unsettled
Durability.— Saman is usually considered a and further changes in nomenclature may be ex-
durable wood in the American tropics. In pure pected (214). Although santa-maria is the most
culture tests at Yale, it was found durable to a widely used trade name, the timber is also ex-
white-rot. fungus and very durable to a brown- ported as maria and at times as birmah, laurac,
rot fungus. It resists attack by dry-wood termites, degame, and chijole.
rating 76 as compared to 80 for West Indies The timber is also known by many vernacular
mahogany and 59 for Honduras mahogany in names: palo de maría in Puerto Rico; galba in
tests conducted in Puerto Rico (263). No infor- French and British West Indies: kurahara, eda-
mation is available regarding use of the wood in balli, wild calabash in British Guiana; birma in
teredo-infested waters. British Honduras: ocuje in Cuba: baría, santa
Uses.— Saman is seldom recognized as a valu- maria in Dominican Republic: dalemarie in
able commercial timber and is often not utilized Haiti; koerahara, koerli or lorahara in Surinam;
in many areas even where it is planted (135). In jacareuba in Brazil; palo maría in Colombia; leche
many locations the trees are more valuable for de maría, palo maría, cedro cimarrón in Mexico:
shade than for lumber, or they are too large to be barillo, mario, vario in El Salvador; maría in
transported to the sawmill. However. selected Honduras; krassa in Nicaragua; calaba in Pan-
lumber has an attractive grain and is used in Trini- ama; and mario in Guatemala.
dad and Mexico for first-class furniture, and in Distribution and habitat.— Santa-maria prows
Costa Rica for medium-quality furniture and cab- throughout the West Indies from Cuba and Ja-
inetwork. In some areas the wood is used for maica to Trinidad, and on the continent from
dugout canoes, split posts, and construction timber southern Mexico southward through Central
and at times cross sections of the massive trunks America and into northern South America. It is
are used for cart wheels. found on all types of soils, often in association
This wood, because of its low shrinkage rates, with mahogany and Spanish cedar. The trees
workability, resistance to termites and decay, plus seem to do best in wet, humid sites but grow ex-
some attractiveness, should be best fitted for fur- ceedingly well on pure sand and on rocky sand-
niture, frame construction, cabinetmaking, turn- stone soils. In the mixed rain forests of British
ing, millwork, and face veneer. It should be Honduras. it is one of the commonest large trees
particulartly useful for patternmaking because ( 224). In other countries the trees are common
of its medium density and low shrinkage values. on very dry sites, where they are usually one of
In the Philippines, stumps and crotches are used the few good quality timbers present (48). Calo-
for figured veneer. Saman is definitely a wood phyllum brasiliense var. antillanum was found
deserving consideration for the export trade. suitable for reforestation in Puerto Rico on the
Supply.— Trinidad seems to be the only place poorest of eroded shallow, acid soils in several
in the area covered by this report currently hav- difficult environments (129). In Trinidad this
ing an exportable supply. species does well both on n-et sites subject to pro-
longed flooding and on very dry sites, often on
extremely acid soils incapable of supporting any
SANTA-MARIA type of permanent agriculture (53).
Calophyllum brasiliense, Calophyllum lucidum The tree.— Santa-maria trees attain a height of
100 to 150 feet and diameters of 3 to 6 feet, with
Santa-maria is a well-known and highly re- long, straight, clean boles up to 50 to 70 feet and
spected timber in the American tropics, but until occasionally to 90 feet long. They are generally
recently has been of little interest to the export unbuttressed, straight, well-formed canopy trees
trade. with a dense rounded crown. The. trees grow
Nomenclature.— Two species constitute the rapidly when young and are fairly tolerant of
principal source of santa-maria timber in the shade. The bark varies in color, becoming yel-
Caribbean area: Calophyllum brasiliense Camb., lowish green on the older trees, with distinctive
including var. antillanum (Britton) Standl. (C . diamond-shaped fissures that become more pro-
nounced or corrugated with age. Crushed or cut rium with a 90-percent relative humidity (108).
bark produces a yellow gum-resin that has In comparison, Honduras mahogany undergoes a
medicinal value (98, 150, 165). change of 1.0 percent radially and 1.3 percent
The wood.— Heartwood of santa-maria varies tangentially.
in color from pink or yellowish pink to brick red Mechanical properties.— Mechanical tests have
or rich reddish brown, marked with fine darker been made on Calophyllum sp. and C. brasiliense
red striping formed by thin bands of parenchyma. var. rekoi by Greene (120), on C. brasiliense var.
Sapwood is 1½ to 2½ inches wide, lighter in color antillanum at the Forest Products Research Lab-
and distinct but not always clearly differentiated oratory in England (15) and on C. brasiliense var.
from the heartwood. The texture is medium and rekoi at Yale University (250) .
fairly uniform. while the grain is generally inter- According to the tests at the Forest Products
locked but sometimes is straight. Luster is Research Laboratory, air-dry Santa-maria is one
medium, and odor and taste are not distinctive. of the better woods in the 40 pounds per cubic
The wood is very attractive, usually has a ribbon foot and under class. It falls below such dense
figure on the quartersawed surface. The timber woods as greenheart, purpleheart, mora, and
is sometimes mistaken for mahogany, being some- wallaba in general strength properties, but has
what similar in color and often showing good average or better strength for woods of its density
figure, but it is heavier, stronger, and more durable class and exceeds Honduras mahogany in all prop-
in some uses (190, 143, 120 ) . erties tested. In the air-dry condition, santa-
Weight.— The specific gravity of Calophyllum maria compares favorably with white oak of the
brasiliense and its varieties ranges from 0.54 to United States, exceeding it in stiffness (modulus
0.70, averaging about 0.61, based on air-dry weight of elasticity), crushing strength (maximum
and volume. The specific gravity based on green crushing strength parallel to gram), and in both
volume and ovendry weight is reported at 0.52 end and side hardness. It is slightly inferior to
(0.42 to 0.59) by Wangaard (250). The weight white oak in bending strength (modulus of rup-
of air-dry wood ranges from 34 to 44 pounds per ture), shock resistance (work to maximum load),
cubic foot, averaging about 38 pounds. Green shear, and cleavage.
wood weighs about 51 pounds per cubic foot at The values obtained by Edward C. Greene, Jr.
50 percent moisture content (50, 150, 15, 120). and at Yale University are somewhat below the
On the basis of fragmentary reports, C. lucidum Forest Products Research Laboratory values, but
may be somewhat heavier than C. braziliense. show santa-maria comparing favorably with
One report (82) lists it at 50 pounds per cubic white oak in both the green and air-dry condition.
foot. Working properties.— Santa-maria is moder-
Seasoning. — The wood is moderately difficult to ately easy to work, but the thin, soft-tissue paren-
air-season. In seasons slowly with considerable chyma layers may pick up badly, when flat-sawed
warping and splitting and a tendency for knots to tangential) surfaces are planed and when there
split. Moisture is somewhat difficult to remove is interlocked grain (118). This trouble can be
from the center of planks. However, when logs alleviated by using a cutting angle of 20 degrees,
are quartersawed and the material carefully thereby reducing the amount of sanding required
seasoned. preferably by kiln-drying, the material to remove the machining defects. A little extra
is of first-class quality. A low temperature-high care is also needed to prevent tearing at the exit
humidity kiln schedule. such as Schedule 1 of the of the tool in drilling and mortising. When
Forest, Products Research Laboratory in England brown gum streaks are present, they cause rapid
is recommended (222, 52, 265, 102). dulling of the cutting edges; otherwise, the wood
Shrinkage.— Santa-maria (Calophyllum brasi- is compared to English oak in its resistance to
liense var. rekoi) exhibits a low rate of shrinkage cutting (98). Saw type D of the Forest Prod-
for a wood of its density. Shrinkage values from ucts Research Laboratory is recommended. The
green to ovendry of 4.8 percent radially, 7.1 per- wood is reported to hold nails and screws firmly
cent tangentially, and 12.3 percent volumetrically and to glue satisfactorily; it takes stain and paint
compare with values of 5.2, 7.1, and 11.3 percent, very well and polishes satisfactorily.
respectivelly. for black walnut (Juglans nigra). In exploratory machining tests at the U.S. For-
Similar values for C. brasiliense from Puerto Rico est Products Laboratory, Santa-maria was rated
amounted to 6.2, 8.4, and 14.3 percent, respec- above the average of 25 domestic hardwoods in
tively. Longitudinal shrinkage was 0.30 percent. shaping, sanding, and mortising, and below aver-
Shrinkage from green to air-dry would amount to age in boring, planing, and turning. About half
about half the above values (250) . the test specimens were found to have interlocked
The timber is moderately stable in use, com- grain (68).
parable to Douglas-fir, English oak, and Scotch In a special test for furniture production, santa-
pine. Wood in equilibrium with a 60-percent maria was reported to work easily and with no
relative humidity, increases 1.7 percent radially greater tendency to pick up than Benin mahogany
and 2.8 percent. tangentially, and 12/64 and 21/64 inch and with working costs similar to birch, maple,
per foot, respectively, when brought into equilib- Benin mahogany, or pitch pine. Because this
wood lacks good figure, the manufacturer con- SARA

sidered the wood suitable for “low” grade fur- Vouacapoua macropetala
niture, as a substitute for maple, birch, pitch pine,
and African mahogany. A small test of santa- Nomenclature. — Vouacapoua macropetala
maria for motor bodywork showed the timber to Sandw. from British Guiana was first described
lack the toughness and elasticity to compare favor- in 1937. The wood is commonly known as sara
able with ash and beech for this purpose (150). or by the Arawak name of sarebebeballi. A
Attempts to use santa-maria for veneer have closely related species, V. americana Aubl., the
not been entirely unsuccessful in Mexico. It is wacapou of the Guianas and Brazil, is also
reported to require a 72-hour boiling period to covered in this work. (Legume family, Le-
be peeled or sliced, develops cracks very readily guminosae.)
during peeling, and is not uniform in color or Distribution and habitat.— Sara is locally com-
grain. Interlocked grain also gives trouble in mon on rocky hillsides within the rain forest of
rotary cutting, and gum streaks cause splitting British Guiana, where it is reported to occur on
when the sheets are dried. The wood is too rough sandy clay soils in the hilly country of the lower
for core stock but produces an attractive rotary Mazaruni, Essequibo, and Demerara Rivers (190,
cut face stock. Quarter-sliced veneer sometimes 82). The species has not been reported from out-
has an attractive greenish stripe and metallic side British Guiana.
luster ( 197 ) . The tree.— Of moderate size, generally 16 to 20
Durability. — Santa-maria is rated as nondur- inches in diameter, the tree grows occasionally up
able in contact with the ground in Trinidad (3 9) , to 24 inches in diameter and 80 to 90 feet high.
but in other areas is considered very durable to The poorly formed boles are normally 50 to 60
moderately durable. The timber was found to feet long. The trees were buttressed to a height
be very durable in graveyard tests in England, of 6 feet and often have adventitious shoots.
where 2- by 2-inch square stakes were still sound The wood.— The wood is dark yellowish brown
after 13 years in the ground ( 206). Considered with moderately coarse texture and fairly straight
one of the best timbers for giving long service, grain. It is reported to be very hard, tough, and
particularly in dugout canoes or dories, it can strong.
stand weathering well when used for exposed Weight. — Sara resembles purpleheart and an-
outdoor uses. gelin in density. The specific gravity of air-dry
Pure culture tests at Yale University rated the wood ranges from 0.87 to 1.00, based on the weight
heartwood of Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi and volume in that condition. Weight per cubic
durable with respect to both white-rot and brown- foot of air-dry wood on this basis ranges from 54
rot fungi. Findlay (84) also rated this species to 62 pounds.
resistant to decay in similar tests (171, 135) . Seasoning.— Sara is reported to require care in
Wolcott (263) rates the wood very susceptible to seasoning like the very similar wacapou, which
dry-wood termites in Puerto Rico. It has no seasons at a moderate rate with moderate warping
appreciable resistance to marine borers (39). and twisting and with some end and surface
Preservation. — The heartwood is very resistant checking and casehardening.
to impregnation with preservatives by both open- Shrinkage.— Although shrinkage data are not
tank and pressure treatments up to 140 pounds available for this species, it presumably under-
per square inch. Under the got-and-cold system, goes shrinkage similar to the closely related
absorption is only 4 pounds per cubic foot with species, Vouacapoua americana, discussed in de-
a penetration of not over one-fourth inch (53). tail under the name of wacapou.
As is often proved, the sapwood is not difficult to Mechanical properties.— There are no reports
impregnate (150). of mechanical tests of this species. However, it
Uses.— Santa-maria, one of the most used woods probably is similar to wacapou, Vouacapoua
in the American tropics, goes into general con- americana, in strength properties, which would
struction, bridgework, railway ties, general wheel- place it in a class above white oak but below green-
wright’s work, dugouts, heavy carts, canoes, heart in most properties (248).
Working properties.— Sara is not difficult to
general shipbuilding, shingles, flooring, interior work, finishes smoothly, and takes a high polish.
construction, and furniture. It is a good general Durability. — The wood is reported moderately
utility wood where a fairly strong and moderately resistant to decay. Wacapou, which is similar,
durable timber is required. The wood produces is resistant to termite attack and also to marine
a fair quality face veneer but is not used exten- borers.
sively for this purpose because of the mechanical Uses.— The British Guiana Forest Department
problems in veneer-cutting operations. recommends sara for flooring, house framing,
Supply. — British Honduras,, British Guiana, posts, sleepers, wheelwright work, and cabinet-
Trinidad, and possibly some of the smaller islands making. The timber lacks sufficient durability to
of the West Indies have santa-maria in exportable make first-class posts or sleepers. However, if
quantities. the wood possesses the same resistance to teredo as
Vouacapoua americana, it would be very useful straight, cylindrical, strongly tapered boles fre-
for marine work in teredo-infested waters. quently 70 to 90 feet long. The bark is fairly
Supply.— British Guiana is prepared to export smooth and whitish brown to grayish brown on
sara in reasonably large quantities. young trees, becoming irregularly fissured in
places on older trees. Cut bark has a slightly
bitter smell. S. glauca generally occurs as an
SIMAROUBA understory tree, seldom reaching more than 80 or
Simarouba amara, Simarouba glauca 90 feet high and 24 inches in diameter. Clear
boles are normally less than 30 feet long (150, 165,
Nomenclature.— About six species of the genus 177, 121, 73).
Simarouba are reported to occur in tropical The wood.— Freshly cut heartwood of si-
America. The principal species furnishing tim- marouba is whitish or cream colored with occas-
ber are Simarouba amara Aubl. and S. glauca tionally a yellow or greenish cast. When dry it
DC., although S. versicolor A. St. Hil., the pau becomes a uniform cream color with occasional
parahyba of the coastal forests of eastern Brazil, oily streaks. There is no distinction between the
is also used for making boxes and for general heartwood and sapwood. The wood is almost
carpentry in that country. S. tulae Urban grows entirely without figure except for a few,, widely
in Puerto Rico. where “it is known as aceitillo spaced narrow vessel lines. The luster is light;
cimarrón. It is at times confused with the West the texture is uniform and medium; the grain is
Indies satinwood, Zanthoxylum flavum, Vahl, straight; and growth layers are indistinct. Al-
which is also known as aceitillo in Puerto Rico though the wood has no characteristic odor, it has
(190). (Ailanthus family, Simaroubaceae.) a bitter quininelike taste (143, 127, 190, 135) .
Simarouba wood is known most widely by its Weight.— Simarouba (Simarouba amara and
generic name simarouba, although the tree is often S. glauca) is a moderately light wood with an
called paradise-tree. Other local names are sima- average specific gravity of 0.38 (0.34 to 0.41)
rupa in British Guiana; soemaroepa in Surinam; based on ovendry weight and green volume deter-
acajou blanc in French Guiana, Martinique, and minations at Yale University (127). The specific
Guadeloupe; marupa, pau parahyba, malacacheta, gravity of air-dry wood, based on air-dry weight
caixeta in Brazil; marouba in Trinidad; bois and volume, is reported by the British Guiana
blanc in St. Lucia and Dominica; maruba in Forest Department at 0.40 (82), by the Surinam
Grenada; boarwood, maruba in St. Vincent; jo- Forest Service at 0.44 (231), in Pfeiffer’s Surinam
cote in Guatemala; bitter damson in Jamaica; bois Timbers at 0.45 to 0.53 (175), and by Kribs (143)
blanc, frêne in Haiti; daguillo in Dominican Re- at 0.40 to 0.50. Averaging these reports gives an
public; gavilán in Cuba; bitterwood in Florida: air-dry specific gravity of 0.44, which is in agree-
gall tree in Barbados: olivo in Costa Rica; and ment with the Yale results. On this basis, air-dry
pasa-ak in Mexico. The names aceituno or acei- wood weighs 27 pounds per cubic foot and green
tuna and negrito are also used in Central America wood about 40 pounds per cubic foot.
and in some of the West Indies. Simarouba Seasoning. — According to reports from Do-
glauca and sometimes S. amara are also often minica (50), St. Lucia (153), and British Hon-
known as negrito in parts of Central and South duras (150), the wood has a tendency to split dur-
America (50, 146, 85, 36), ing seasoning. However, recent investigations at
Distribution and habitat.— Simarouba amara Yale (127) found simarouba easy to air-season.
is found in northern South America from Vene- Boards dried at a rapid rate with only slight end
zuela and the Guianas to Brazil and in Trinidad checking, but precautions were necessary to avoid
and Tobago. S. glauca occurs in Cuba, Jamaica, staining of the sapwood during the air-seasoning
Dominican Republic, and southern Florida, as process. Other sources also report the timber is
well as in Mexico and Central America. This very susceptible to sap-stain fungi. Simarouba
species is generally of lesser commercial impor- is said to air-dry in 2 months in-British Guiana
tance because of its small size and scattered dis- and in 3 months on the island of Dominica (50).
tribution (259, 258, 64). Shrinkage. — Simarouba exhibits low shrinkage
Simarouba amara prefers sandy soils, occurring
values but is somewhat unstable in response to at-
as a rare to occasional tree in the rain and high
savanna forest in Surinam; in British Guiana it mospheric changes. Simarouba amara undergoes
is of frequent occurrence in the seasonal forests a radial shrinkage of 2.3 percent, tangential
and as an occasional tree in the rain forests. It is shrinkage of 5.0 percent, and volumetric shrinkage
generally found on well-drained upland sites in of 8.0 percent from green to air-dry, comparing
the West Indies. S. glauca grows on similar sites favorably with similar values for Honduras
in most of its range (193, 231, 136) . mahogany of 3.5, 4.8, and 7.7 percent, respectively
The tree.— Simaroula amara is a large, unbut- (127). It should be noted, however, that the ratio
tressed, evergreen tree of the upper story, attain- of radial to tangential shrinkage is not as favor-
ing heights of 140 feet and diameters of 20 to 24 able as that of mahogany. Shrinkage from green
inches, occasionally KC inches. The trees have to air-dry would be about half the above values.
The wood readily responds to atmospheric only fair in resistance to weathering and, in gen-
changes, but not excessively. Swelling (move- eral, unsuitable for prolonged outside use. Un-
ment) is reported by Pfeiffer (175) to amount to painted boards do not warp or lose their surface
2.56 percent in volume from ovendry to equilib- smoothness when exposed to the weather but do
rium in a 40-percent relative humidity (heated sustain severe surface and end checking. To pre-
room), 5.65 percent to equilibrium in a 70-percent vent blue stain, lumber should also be protected
humidity (air-dry), and 10.40 percent to equilib- from the weather during shipment, and while in
rium in a 100-percent humidity (maximum mois- use.
ture content). These values are far below those Preservation.— Simarouba absorbs preserva-
for woods of greater density than simarouba and tives very readily and is thereby rated low in re-
somewhat below certain other woods of similar sistance to impregnation.
density. Uses.— The moderate density, ease of working,
Mechanical properties.— Simarouba is not a and relative softness make simarouba a popular
strong wood, but its strength properties are nor- wood for house sheathing, boxes, crates, and all
mal for a wood of its density. It is somewhat types of interior construction. It is also used for
brittle and has a tendency to split along the grain, shelving, drawer lining, cheap furniture, and shoe
hut it is superior in some properties to other woods heels with considerable success. The very similar
of similar weight. In the air-dry condition, it is structure of Simarouba amara and S. glauca indi-
similar in most strength properties to yellow- cates the contradictory results experienced in
poplar of the United States except for being matchmaking in British Guiana and Jamaica re-
slightly inferior in bending strength and in ten- sulted from the varying techniques used and can
sion and cleavage resistance across the grain. It not, be attributed to differences in the two woods.
is superior to yellow-poplar in proportional limit Simarouba has been used in the United States
stresses in static bending and compression parallel for organ pipes, piano keys, and patterns, prin-
to the grain, hardness and shear. Both woods are cipally because of the wood’s low shrinkage and
very similar in side hardness and compression workability.
across the grain (249). Suggested uses for simarouba include veneer
Working properties.— The wood works easily and plywood, cores for furniture, slack cooperage,
and can be machined to a smooth clean surface. paper pulp, baskets, musical instruments, toys,
Working qualities are similar to those of white and many types of household utility articles. In
pine and basswood. It, is reported to saw, plane, general, it is an acceptable wood for many uses
drill, and turn easily and satisfactorily and to take presently filled by white pine, basswood, yellow-
and hold nails easily without splitting (150). poplar, and black gum. It can also replace. and
Sharp tools and fairly high speeds are essential in sometimes surpass, in usefulness the yellow pines
turning. It is easy to paint, stain, or varnish. of the United States and the American tropics
It glues well, but special care is required to main- Simarouba is presently being used for interior
tain the full strength of the wood. Simarouba partitions and battens in the government-spon-
is somewhat prone to split and to be brittle dur- sored housing program in British Guiana. How-
ing working because of its relatively low density ever. the timber’s low resistance to insects and
and moderate strength (265). Simarouba amara decay and relatively poor weathering character-
has suitable machining properties for matchmak- istics limit it. to uses above ground and in un-
ing in Jamaica (230), but S. amara has been re- exposed locations.
ported too brittle and splintery for this use in Supply.— British Guiana, Surinam, and French
British Guiana. Guiana have sufficient volumes of simarouba to
Durability. — Graveyard tests in British Guiana meet the expected export demand. It may also
(82) and Surinam (175) found simarouba low in be available from some of the islands of the
resistance to decay. Similar tests on the island Lesser Antilles in limited quantities.
of St. Lucia also indicate Simarouba is susceptible
to decay (153). However, recent pure culture
tests at Yale University (249) indicated sima- SNAKEWOOD
rouba heartwood was extremely variable in decay Pivatineva guianensis
resistance but averaged moderately durable to a
white-rot fungus and durable to a brown-rot Nomenclature.— Snakewood has been exported
fungus. from the Guianas since the time of their European
The wood has generally been considered rela- settlement and is well known in the American
tively insect resistant because of the characteristic and European market. The principal species sup-
bitter taste of the bark and wood. But Wolcott plying commercial snakewood is Piratinera gui-
(263) found it one of the most susceptible of anensis Aubl., known also as Brosimum guianensis
woods to the dry-wood termites of the West (Aubl.) Huber and B. addetii Poepp. & Endl.
Indies, and it is also considered very susceptible (190). However, several other closely related
to damage by marine borers. Simarouba is rated species are also marketed as snakewood, since the
trade has little interest, in the botanical origin The timber is exported with all the sapwood
of the logs as long as they are sound and possess removed in the form of small logs or sticks
the proper figure. P. panamensis Pittier grows measuring 4 to 10 inches in diameter and generally
from Panama as far north as southern Mexico. about 7 feet long or slightly more. The last rem-
P. lancifera Ducke and P. paraensis (Huber) nants of sapwood are removed just prior to
Ducke are reported from the Guianas. (Mul- shipment to reduce freight costs and to allow
berry family, Moraceae.) inspection of the figure on arrival at destination.
The wood is known in the European market as At one time most wood was shipped to the United
letterwood, in the American trade as snakewood, States on consignment because of the difficulty
and in the French market as bois de lettres. The of establishing a definite price until the buyer
name snakewood is preferred and has been could determine the quality of the logs. The logs
adopted as the British standard name for wood are sold by weight and are reputed to be one of
of this species (36). It is also called leopard the most expensive woods in the trade.
wood in the trade. All these trade names refer The wood.— The sapwood, which the trade
to the wood’s peculiar markings or irregular dark rarely sees, is light, yellow to nearly white, very
spots, which resemble the letters of the alphabet, thick, and often not clearly demarcated from the
the spots of a leopard, or the skins of highly heartwood. The heartwood is a dark red to red-
colored snakes. dish brown with conspicuous irregular black ra-
Other local names for the wood include bourra dial markings (speckles), or with black vertical
courra and tibokushi in British Guiana; letter- stripes sometimes found with the speckles. The
hout, basri letri, letterhoot, koelero in Surinam; distinctiveness of markings is reduced as the color
amourette, bois de lettre gris, lettre moucheté, of the backgrounds is darkened by exposure. The
satine gris, satine rouge, and piratiner in French wood is extremely hard and heavy, fine textured,
Guiana; casique care or guaimaro in Panama; with straight grain and medium luster. It has
palo de oro in Venezuela; and gatia in Trinidad. no distinctive odor or taste.
Distribution and habitat.— The several species The black markings for which this wood is
of Piratinera occur throughout the Amazon re- named are apparently found in all species of
gion of Brazil and extend northward through the Piratinera but, vary in their occurrence and ap-
Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and into pearance. They extend out from the center of the
southern Mexico and the West Indies (289). The tree, varying considerably in size and number
principal species, P. guianensis, grows in British between trees, logs, and even in the same piece.
Guiana, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil, Bo- In tracing the markings along a radius, they are
livia, and Trinidad, and possibly other West In- branched and anastomosed so that the figure
dies islands (165). P. panamensis ranges from changes as each successive layer of wood is re-
southern Mexico to Panama. It is likely that moved. Dark areas are the result of variations in
other species in the Caribbean area are also the color of the gummy deposits that fill all the
marketed as letterwood without distinction as cell cavities, the darkest parts being at the margins
to species. rather than in the center of the patches. Some
Snakewood is not found in abundance at any trees have only black vertical bands that may also
point within its extensive range. The tree is occur at times at irregular intervals in otherwise
found occasionally in the rain and marsh forest speckled wood. Woods workers cannot tell if
of Surinam and occurs as a rare to locally oc- a standing tree has figured or plain (bastard)
casional tree in British Guiana throughout the wood, since these differences are related to indi-
rain and seasonal forest. vidual trees and apparently have no relationship
The tree.-Snakewood, a tree of small dimen- to species, variety, or external appearance (190,
sions, seldom grows more than 80 feet high and 12).
1 to 2 feet in diameter. It is a small-crowned Weight.— The wood is extremely heavy. The
canopy tree without buttresses but usually swollen specific gravity of air-dry wood ranges from 1.01
at the base. The bole is cylindrical and clear of to 1.35, based on volume and weight in that con-
branches for 40 to 50 feet (82). The smooth bark dition. Air-dry wood weighs from 63 to 84
contains a thick, sticky, white latex. pounds per cubic foot (50, 143).
The log.— The tree is slow in forming heart- Seasoning.— No information available.
wood, which is the only part used commercially. Shrinkage.— There are no published data on
A tree of 15-inch diameter may, on occasions, have shrinkage. However, one specimen of snakewood
only 1 to 4 inches of heartwood, while a 20-inch (letterwood) soaked at Yale University for 9
tree will ordinarily have not more than 7 inches months underwent practically no change in spe-
(167). The amount of heartwood is reported to cific gravity but increased in size about 19.6 per-
vary according to location. Certain areas pro- cent and absorbed sufficient water to attain a
duce timber with considerable heartwood, while moisture content of 29.7 percent of the ovendry
in other areas even large trees may not be worth weight. This would indicate that the wood has
felling. relatively large shrinkage values.
Mechanical properties.-Snakewood is a very Surinam, and possibly French Guiana and other
strong, hard wood, but it splits rather easily and Caribbean areas,
is inclined to be splintery (231). Although it is
also difficult to bend without buckling, it possesses STERCULIA
a certain degree of elasticity. In view of the
mechanical properties, the early popularity of this Sterculia puriens, Sterculia caribaea, Sterculia rugosa
wood for walking sticks must have been based on Nomenclature. — The genus Sterculia comprises
beauty rather than utility. about 60 species of trees and shrubs distributed
Working properties.— The wood is worked throughout tropical and subtropical regions in
with considerable difficulty. Because it is hard, both hemispheres. S. pruriens (Aubl.) K.
snakewood is difficult to cut and takes nails poorly Schum., S. caribaea R. Br., and S. rugosa R. Br.
yet finishes smoothly and takes a beautiful polish are the principal species of commercial importance
(265,237). in the Carribbean area covered by this report.
Durability.— Reported to be very resistant to Other species growing in the American tropics
decay (89), the wood is rated considerably above include S. apetala (Jacq.) Karst (S. carthaginen-
Dominican mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni) in sis Cav.), a widely distributed tree of common oc-
resistance to the dry-wood termite of the West currence in the American tropics from southern
Indies; Wolcott (263) rates the wood only slightly Mexico to Peru and Brazil: S. cubensis Urban
less than repellent to termites. Immersion of the reported from Cuba; S. recordiana Standl. from
wood in salt water around Hawaii indicated that Panama; and S. mexicana R. Br. from Mexico and
the heartwood is moderately resistant to marine British Honduras to Costa Rica. (Chocolate
borers (76). But this fact is of more academic family, Sterculiaceae.)
interest than practical use because of the size and The timber of the three Caribbean species
value of the trees and the small proportion of covered here is similar in physical and mechani-
heartwood. The sapwood, like that of all trees, cal properties and is generally superior to some
is not durable to insects or decay. of the other species. They are, therefore, fre-
Uses.— Snakewood was once considered very de- quently marketed under the usual trade name
sirable for walking sticks in the United States, maho without distinction between species or
but its use has declined because of uncertainty of sources of supply. The name sterculia is more
supplies, variable quality of the logs, and rela- appropriate to distinguish this wood from Hibis-
tively high prices. Some snakewood is still made cus elatus, the mahoe of Jamaica.
into canes, but most is used for such items as inlay Other names used locally and in the trade for
work, turnery, fancy handles for cutlery and um- wood of the numerous species of Sterculia are as
brellas, drum sticks, fishing rod butts, violin bows, follows: mahoe in Trinidad; camagüey, guana in
and archers’bows. Larger pieces are occasionally Cuba; anacagüita in Puerto Rico: mahot-cochon
sawed into thin veneers for cabinetwork (82, 50). in French West Indies; mahot cochon, mapou
The wood was once well regarded in England baril, mapou puant in West Indies in general;
and the United States for making the butts of yahu in British Guiana; karst, castaño in Hon-
fishing rods, but was too heavy to be used in the duras; kola in French Guiana; karst in Panama;
tips. Small logs are presently exported from bastard mahogany in Jamaica; castaño in Central
Cuba to Puerto Rico for this use. It, is one America in general; and bofrohoedoe, kobehe, and
of the principal woods used for bows by the kroekroe-amète in Surinam. Other common
Indians in the Guianas, although archers do not names used in Central and South America are
nowadays consider the wood particularly suitable guarataro and mano de danta, camojuru, camoruco
for this use. Snakewood bows admittedly afford a and piñon.
good cast but are too stiff for the average, man. Distribution and habitat.— Sterculia caribaea
The bows also tend to break under severe strain occurs in the West Indies from Jamaica, Guade-
and to tire out in a relatively short time. They loupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and
also snap back with such a sudden kick that arch- Trinidad to Venezuela and British Guiana (165).
ers are unable to use them for any extended period S. pruriens is said to occur in the Guianas and
of time, more or less eliminating their use in tour- northern Brazil (190, 18). S. rugosa is reported
naments or contests. as a timber of importance in British Guiana and
Because of limited supply, small size, and high may occur elsewhere (82).
cost, snakewood is best suited for specialty items The species marketed as maho (sterculia) are
that capitalize on its unusual beauty, hardness, generally not exacting as to site conditions. The
trees grow on most all sites, are tolerant to poor
and density. Its tendency to split as well as its drainage, and thrive on poor sandy soils. Ac-
brashness also excludes it from many specialized cording to Marshall (163), Sterculia caribaea is
uses where great strength is required. one of the most plentiful species in Trinidad.
Supply.-Snakewood is available in limited being widely distributed throughout the colony
quantities on special order from British Guiana, wherever the annual rainfall exceeds 60 inches.
It is a very common dominant and understory tree (50). The method of piling for air-seasoning or
in the Crappo-guatecare and the galba-palm for- the schedule used in kiln-seasoning should be ar-
ests (165, 116) and is present but not plentiful in ranged to retard the drying rate, for degrade
other forest types. should not be severe under moderate drying con-
Sterculia pruriens and S. rugosa are of occa- ditions (106). Kiln Schedule 1 is recommended
sional to frequent occurrence in the heavy forest by the Forest Products Research Laboratory in
in British Guiana, where they are generally dis- England (222).
tributed throughout the near interior and Ru- Shrinkage.— The wood is subject to a relatively
pununi district, becoming more scattered in the high rate of shrinkage in comparison to woods of
eastern district (82). Other species of sterculia similar density. Shrinkage values for Sterculia
growing in Central and South America are gen- pruriens from green to ovendry amounts to 5.7
erally recorded as well distributed on the lowlands percent radially, 9.2 percent tangentially, and 13.6
and hills in the somewhat, drier regions but seldom percent in volume (149). Shrinkage from green
occurring on barren ridgetops. to air-dry (12 percent, moisture content) is re-
The tree.— Sterculia is a large unbuttressed tree ported by Stevens and Pratt (222) at 3.0 percent
with a heavy, rounded crown. The trees are com- radially and 7.5 percent tangentially, or 15/16 and
3
monly 100 feet or more in height and around 24 /8 inch, respectively. These values, determined in
inches in diameter at maturity, although on the separate studies, do not agree on tangential
best sites trees sometimes reach 130 feet in height, shrinkage but agree well in the radial direction, on
and 36 inches in diameter. The boles are cylin- the basis that shrinkage from green to air-dry at
drical, 60 to 70 feet long, and have very low taper. 12 to 15 percent moisture content is generally
The outer bark is smoothish and a whitish-gray about half the value of ovendry. The ratio of
color; the inner bark is reddish (82, 165, 61) . tangential to radial shrinkage is moderate, al-
The wood.— Sterculia is best described as a though both values are relatively large and may
lightweight hardwood of plain appearance. It is account for the difficulties in drying. Shrinkage
a wood of fairly good quality, somewhat lighter in values are not available for the other species in the
color, heavier, harder, finer textured and of better group.
quality than the widespread Sterculia apetala of Sterculia, as might be expected, is also a timber
other regions in the American tropics (190, 82, with large movement values in response to changes
50). The heartwood is soft, light, and whitish or in atmospheric conditions. Air-dry wood brought
grayish with numerous brown ray flecks impart- into equilibrium in a 90-percent relative humidity
ing an overall brownish effect.. and then conditioned to equilibrium in a 70-percent
The sapwood, which is not distinct from the relative humidity undergoes a change of 1.5 per-
heartwood, is reported to be about 2 inches wide cent) radially and 3.5 percent tangentially, or 3/16
and subject to discoloration by sap-staining fungi and 7/16 inch per foot, respectively. The wood
(106). The grain is usually straight and medium reaches a moisture content of 23 percent in the 90-
to coarse in texture. The wood is not especially percent, humidity, which was equalled or exceeded
fibrous as compared to some other members of the by only 4 of the 136 species tested at the Forest
genus and is fairly lustrous. The rays are readily Products Research Laboratory (108). Timbers
visible and are very prominent on a radial surface, in which the sum of the percentage of radial and
where they appear as brown flecks up to one- tangential movement. is more than 4.5 percent are
eighth of an inch wide and covering up to one- considered by the Forest Products Research Lab-
third of the surface. The growth rings are ob- oratory to have large movement, values. Conse-
scure and have no effect on the appearance of a quently, sterculia’s total movement of 5.0 is well
plain surface (7). into the large movement class.
Weight.— The specific gravity of air-dry wood Mechanical properties.— Tests of mechanical
of Sterculia pruriens from British Guiana, based properties have been made on Sterculia pruriens
on weight and volume in that condition, is re- from British Guiana at the University of Michi-
ported at 0.59 by Kynoch and Norton (149) gan (149) and the Forest Products Research Lab-
and the Forest Products Research Laboratory in oratory in London (15); results varied by prop-
England (15). Air-dry wood averages about 37 erties but, were generally comparable. Both tests
pounds per cubic foot, and green wood about 53 indicate sterculia possesses normal strength prop-
pounds per cubic foot at 90 percent moisture con erties in both the green and air-dry condition for
tent. Sterculia in the air-dry condition is slightly a wood of its density. It is somewhat weaker in
heavier than Douglas-fir (34 pounds), and much cleavage (splitting), but somewhat harder than
lighter than Caribbean pine (44 pounds) from the average for other woods of similar density.
Honduras. In general, sterculia is not a timber of great
Seasoning.— Sterculia is a moderately difficult strength and should not, be used where exceptional
wood to season. It air-seasons fairly rapidly but strength is required.
tends to warp and twist. The timber has been Working properties.— The wood works easily
seasoned in 4 months on the island of Dominica with both hand and machine tools and does not
blunt cutting edges readily (153, 190, 165). Al- SURADAN

though the finish tends to be somewhat fibrous,
Hyeronima laxiflora, Hyeronima alchorneoides,
good results are usually obtained with reasonably Hyeronima caribaea, Hyeronima clusioides
sharp cutting edges. Compared to baromalli
(Catostemma commune), this wood is slightly Nomenclature.— Though about 25 species of
easier to cut and finishes to a less fibrous surface. Hyeronima grow in tropical America, H. laxiflora
Saws of the medium hardwood type are recom- (Tul.) Muell.-Arg. and H. alchorneoides Fr. Al-
mended. Spring-set circular ripsaws should have lem. are the only species of widespread import-
54 teeth with 20- to 25-degree pitch as described ance. Two other species, H. caribaea Urban and
under Type E in table 2 in A Handbook of Wood- H. clusioides (Tul.) Griseb., are of limited im-
cutting, by the Forest Products Research Labora- portance in certain parts of the West Indies. A
tory in England (124 ). Sterculia is a very poor few others including H. cubana Muell.-Arg. and
timber for solid bent work. Nails are held firmly H. nipensis Urban grow in Cuba (207). H.
and cause no splitting. A good finish can be ob- jamaicensis Urban is found in Jamaica. The
tained with stains and polishes if a fair amount generic name is spelled Hieronyma also. (Spurge
o f rain filler is used (106 ). family, Euphorbiaceae.)
Durability.— Sterculia is generally considered The timbers of these and other species are best
nonresistant to decay when in contact with the known as suradan, pilón, and tapana. Other
ground (106, 153, 82). Graveyard tests in Brit- common names are surdina, suradanni in British
ish Guiana (50) and Trinidad (39) support these Guiana; anoniwana, okotjo, piento-bolletrie, soro-
general observations; the timber was found very don in Surinam; curtidor in Honduras; zapatero
susceptible to decay in the ground in both loca- in Colombia; margoncalo, marágonçalo, urucu-
tions. Tests in Puerto Rico (263) and Trinidad rana in Brazil; bulley tree, palo-chanco, Scotch
(39) indicate that the timber is also very suscepti- ebo, zapatero in Panama; nancito in Nicaragua;
ble to attack by dry-wood and subterranean ter- cajuela, sagua, rosita in Cuba; cedro macho in
mites. It is also considered to have little resist- Puerto Rico; chac-te-cook in British Honduras;
ance to damage by marine borers. nancito in Costa Rica; aguacatillo, trompillo,
Pinhole borers, which sometimes penetrate well torito, catatú, coral in Venezuela; tapanare in
into the heartwood, are a hazard in both logs and Trinidad and Grenada; horseflesh mahogany in
lumber. Blue stain may also occur if there is a St. Vincent; and bois d’amande in St. Lucia.
delay in extraction or conversion of logs, or dur- Distribution and habitat.— Numerous species
ing the early stages of seasoning, or if lumber is of Hyeronima occur throughout the West Indies
close-piled immediately after conversion without and on the continent from southern Mexico to
treatment with a sap-stain preventative. southern Brazil including the Guianas, Peru, and
Uses.— This timber has no outstanding qualities Colombia. H. laxiflora is reported from the
and is subject to relatively large shrinkage and Guianas, Peru, Colombia, and other parts of the
movement in use. Consequently, it is most suit- Amazon Basin, H. alchorneoides is known from
able for light construction work, interior joinery, British Honduras through Central America to the
concrete forms, boxes and crates, and inside or Guianas and Brazil. H. caribaea is reported from
otherwise protected wall boarding. Cheap coffins the Islands of Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
are sometimes made from the wood. Grenada, and Trinidad, and H. clusioides from
It appears that sterculia would be as satisfac- Puerto Rico (121, 78, 199, 62, 203, 213) .
tory as the imported pine (Pinus) for many uses Hyeronima alchorneoides is of frequent occur-
and is somewhat easier to work. Many millions rence in wet sites and seasonal marshes in Nica-
of board feet of pine lumber are imported annu- ragua. H. laxiflora is an occasional to locally fre-
ally from the United States into the Caribbean quent tree in the secondary forests and a relic in
area. If this wood could be obtained at prices old forests on heavy soils throughout British
below those of the lower grades of pine, it would Guiana. H. caribaea is widely distributed in the
make an acceptable substitute; but it lacks the rain forests of Trinidad, but nowhere is it abun-
quality to compete with the better grade hard- dant. Absent from the semideciduous forest of
woods for furniture and heavy construction. this colony, this species thrives on a variety of
Sterculia (maho) was one of the group of seven soils, including even poor sands when sufficient
most abundant timbers in Trinidad tested for moisture is available, but it does not tolerate poor
papermaking at the Imperial Institute in London; drainage. On St. Lucia the tree is fairly common
it produced the best pulp yield and the best grade in areas of heavy rainfall and is reported to be
of paper. The average fiber length for each of increasing in numbers (154, 165).
the seven species tested was greater than that of The tree.— The species covered in this report are
aspen, which is the most commonly used hardwood large, straight evergreen trees with spreading,
in the manufacture of soda pulp (116). rounded buttresses. The trees may reach 130 feet
Supply.— Sterculia is available in exportable in height and attain diameters of 3 feet or more,
quantities from the Guianas, Trinidad, St. Lucia, but are more commonly 100 feet in height and 20
and possibly other islands of the West Indies. to 24 inches in diameter. Clear stems may be up
to 70 feet long. The bark is light brown, fairly for marked deficiencies in work to maximum load
smooth, hard and brittle, averaging about one- (shock resistance), compression and tension across
fourth of an inch thick on large trees. The under- the grain (crushing strength and hardness), and
bark is a deep red (82). cleavage (splitting). It is a moderately good
The wood.— Wood of the four species covered bending wood except in shock resistance, compar-
are similar in appearance and technical properties ing favorably in this with sweet birch (Betula
and are hereafter discussed as a group unless lenta) of the United States (250).
otherwise stated. The heartwood is a reddish Working properties.— Suradan is reported
brown to chocolate brown or a dark red, being good in all working properties except planing.
somewhat similar to black walnut in appearance. The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory (68) rates
The sapwood is pink and about 1½ inches thick. Hyeronima alchorneoides as having excellent
The grain in interlocked, giving a striped or rib- sanding, boring, and mortising properties; very
bon-grain appearance to the wood. Growth rings good turning properties; good shaping properties;
are marked by changes in color at the margins of and fairly poor planing properties. Except in
each season’s growth, resulting in the appearance planing, the wood machined better than the aver-
of a series of parabolic markings on the tangen- age for 25 domestic hardwoods of the United
tial surface. The wood is moderately coarse in States.
texture, low in luster, and both odorless and taste- Tests at Yale University rated Hyeronima laxi-
less when dry. Fanshawe (82) states the wood flora moderately difficult to work on the basis of
contains stones of calcium oxalate. its poor planing properties. The irregular occur-
Weight.— Although the four species in the sura- rence of shallow chipped grain during planing re-
dan group are reported to be very similar in sults from the characteristic roey grain. Fan-
weight, detailed information is available only for shawe (82) reports that H. laxiflora of British
Hyeronima laxiflora. The specific gravity of this Guiana must be scraped well to acquire a smooth
species, based on ovendry weight and green finish. Lang (153) reports that H. caribaea saws
volume, averages about 0.65 (0.59 to 0.74), which and finishes well in the government shop on St.
is comparable to pignut hickory of the United Lucia. The wood glues well and finishes smoothly
States. The specific gravity of air-dry wood but, because of its rather large pores, requires a
averages about 0.79. Air-dry wood weighs about fair amount of filler to secure a perfect finish
49 pounds per cubic foot and green wood about (132).
74 pounds per cubic foot (165, 162, 153, 250) . Durability.— The species discussed in this re-
Seasoning.— Suradan is rated moderately diffi- port vary from moderately durable to very dur-
cult to air-season, according to tests at Yale able in contact with the ground. Hyeronima
University (250) and on St. Lucia (153). In the laxiflora was found to be very durable when ex-
Yale tests, Hyeronima laxiflora seasoned rapidly posed to pure cultures of white-rot and brown-rot
with a moderate amount of defect occurring in fungi (250). Fanshawe (50) also reports this
the form of crook and surface checking. Slight species as highly durable. Durability tests of H.
casehardening and end checking also occurred, in- alchorneoides in soil at Barro Colorado Island,
dicating the need for slower drying. Tests on St. Canal Zone, and Turrialba, Costa Rica, rated this
Lucia with Hyeronima caribaea indicated care species as moderately resistant to resistant to de-
must be taken to prevent warping, but no other cay in contact with the ground (199).
serious defects were reported. In these tests, 1- In Brazil, however, railway ties of this species
inch lumber air-seasoned to a moisture content are considered very resistant to decay. Substan-
of 22.3 percent in a well ventilated building, while tiating this is a test by the Netherlands Railway
pitch pine seasoned to 15.5 percent moisture con- in Holland where untreated ties from Brazil were
tent and white pine to 16.8 percent moisture con- more durable than treated white oak ties from
tent during the same period. the United States (133). Hyeronima caribaea
Shrinkage. — Hyeronima laxiflora, which is rep- has been reported as moderately durable in soil
resentative of the other specie’s, undergoes mod- tests in Trinidad (39) and in St. Lucia (50).
erately high shrinkage in comparison to many On the basis of these reports, a rating of resistant
other tropical woods of similar density, but it is or durable appears to be appropriate for the com-
comparable to white oak in directional and volu- bined species. H. caribaea is rated resistant to
metric shrinkage. The wood shrinks 5.3 percent attack of subterranean termites by Brooks (39)
radially, 9.4 percent tangentially, and 14.4 percent and both H. clusioides and H. laxiflora are rated
volumetrically from green to ovendry. In com- moderately resistant to the dry-wood or aerial
parison, similar values of 5.3, 9.0, and 15.8, respec- termites by Wolcott (263).
tively, are reported for white oak. Shrinkage According to Edmonson (76), Hyeronima laxi-
from green to air-dry would amount to about flora is one of the most resistant woods to marine
half these values (250, 160). borers in Hawaiian waters, showing only slight
Mechanical properties.— Suradan possesses penetration after 13 months’ exposure. This re-
normal strength properties in both the green and sistance cannot be attributed to silica content for
air-dry condition for a wood of its density except Amos (14) reports finding only 0.01 percent silica
in the wood. In the Hawaiian tests, H. clusioides roble, is known also as white cedar in the Virgin
from Puerto Rico showed only moderate resist- Islands, Dominica, St. Lucia, and Grenada.
ance to marine borers, indicating that different (Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniaceae.)
species of Hyeronima vary in their resistance to Distribution and habitat.— Possibly because of
marine organisms. confusion in identification, only fragmentary in-
Uses.— Because of its resistance to decay and formation is available concerning the species com-
marine borers, good strength, pleasing appearance, prising the white-cedar trade group. Tabebuia
and fairly good working properties, suradan is insignis var. monophylla occurs in the three
well suited for use in marine piling and construc- Guianas and Venezuela; T. stenocalyx is reported
tion, railway ties, furniture, cabinetwork, decora- from British (Guiana, Trinidad, and French
tive veneer, and both light, and heavy construction. Guiana (50).
It, is extensively used for boat construction in Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla is dominant
British Guiana, where it. is considered suitable for in some types of marsh forest and is frequent on
most of the above uses. The timber is employed other sites in British Guiana. In Surinam it oc-
in Trinidad for framework, rafters, and sheathing curs as a rare to occasional tree in the marsh
in building construction. Suradan is considered forest, becoming locally frequent in the swamp
an excellent wood for furniture in St. Lucia, where forests. Information is lacking on the habitat
it is also used for posts and heavy timbers and is and occurrence of the other species (82, 231) .
recommended for paneling and high-quality in- The tree.— Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla
terior work. The government of British Guiana is a moderately tall, slim tree in British Guiana.
has recently specified suradan as acceptable for The trunks have moderately poor form and heavy
interior partitions and battens in the government taper above the fluted buttresses, which range up
housing program. to 12 feet in height. Trees are commonly 90 feet
Supply.— Suradan is available in the Guianas high and about 12 inches in diameter but occa-
and possibly from some of the Lesser Antilles, sionally grow to 16 inches. The trunks are often
particularly St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and from free of branches for 40 to 50 feet (82). T.
Trinidad. British Guiana should be able to sup- stenocalyx is a larger tree, growing up to 150 feet
ply reasonably large quantities of the timber. tall with a low buttressed trunk nearly 3 feet in
diameter.
The wood.— Heartwood of Tabebuia stenocalyx
WHITE TABEBUIA and T. insignis var. monophylla is variously de-
Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, Tabebuia steno- scribed as creamy, yellowish, or grayish brown or
calyx sometimes brownish, often with dark flecks show-
ing on the surface. Sapwood is lighter in color
Within the genus Tabebuia, the so-called white and not, clearly differentiated from the heartwood.
cedars are considered similar enough to be mar- The texture is medium, the grain fairly straight,
keted as a group under a common trade name. and the luster moderately high. It is a mod-
The woods of these and other species are likely erately hard, firm wood without distinctive odor
called white cedar, because of the resemblance of or taste and without the yellow powder (lapa-
the bark to that of Cedrela spp. White cedar in chon) found in T. serratifolia (Vahl) Nicholson
no way resembles the wood of Cedrela growing in and other species in the lapachon group of
the tropics or the cedars of the United States Tabebuia (82, 231, 190).
(199). Other species of Tabebuia are discussed Weight.-The wood is of medium weight with a
under roble and bethabara. specific gravity based on air-dry volume and
Nomenclature.— The species marketed as white weight averaging about 0.68 (0.64 to 0.74). The
cedar are Tabebuia insignis (Miq.) Sandw. var. specific gravity based on green volume and oven-
monophylla Sandw. (T. longipes Baker), and dry weight is reported at 0.55 by Kynoch and
T. stenocalyx Sprague & Stapf. The whitewood Norton (149). Air-dry wood averages around 42
of Jamaica, T. riparia (Raf.) Sandw., formerly pounds and green wood about 65 pounds per cubic
was known as T. leucoxylon (L.) Mart., a name foot (190, 82, 231).
now rejected as a homonym. Seasoning.— No information is available on the
Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla is locally seasoning characteristics of the white-cedar group.
known as zwamp panta, panda, panda hoedoe, However, their similarity to roble or apamate
waroekoelie, alasoabo, johoto, courali, mattoe, and (Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.) suggests that the
warokorie in Surinam; white cedar, warikuri, timber seasons easily with only slight degrade
woraccori, and warakuri in British Guiana; and (71). On this basis, white cedar should kiln-dry
bois blanchet or cédre blanc in French Guiana. easily without any appreciable degrade using Kiln
T. stenocalyx is locally known as white cedar in Schedule 4 of the Forest, Products Research Lab-
British Guiana and wild calabash in Trinidad. oratory in England (222) or Kiln Schedule TD-
T. heterophylla (DC.) Britton, described under 42 of the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison
(147). One-inch lumber of roble (T. hetero- TATABU

phylla a (DC.) Britton) has been air-seasoned in
Puerto Rico in 3 months with only slight degrade. Diplotropis purpurea
Shrinkage. — Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla Tatabu is one of the strongest and most beauti-
undergoes a shrinkage of 5.8 percent radially, 7.7 ful woods growing in the tropical forests of the
percent tangentially, and 13.7 percent in volume Western Hemisphere. It is superior in many
from green to ovendry. This rate is relatively strength properties to the best woods of the
high but compares favorably with rates for white United States, and, despite being somewhat diffi-
oak of 5.3, 7.3, and 11.5 percent, respectively. cult to work, may eventually become one of the
The ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is very more popular export timbers.
favorable, indicating that relatively little stress Nomenclature.— Presently, tatabu is known as
develops during drying. This tends to reduce Diplotropis purpurea (Rich.) Amsh., formerly
warping, checking, and splitting. Shrinkage having been designated both as D. guianensis
from green to air-dry would be roughly half the (Tul.) Benth. and as Bowdichia guianensis (Tul.)
amount from green to ovendry (248, 50, 149) . Ducke. A variety is D. purpurea var. brasiliensis
Mechanical properties.— Tabebuia insignis (Tul.) Amsh. (D. brasiliensis (Tul.) Benth.).
var. monophylla, which is representative of the Some botanists regard Diplotropis as a synonym
white-cedar group, is a hard, strong, resilient of Bowdichia. However, Record and Hess (190)
wood resembling roble or apamate (T. rosea) in from a study of a limited number of wood speci-
strength characteristics, although somewhat su- mens concluded that these two genera with only
perior in some respects. White cedar is superior a few species are distinct. (Legume family,
to white oak (Quercus alba) in the green condition Leguminosae.)
in all properties tested except compression per- The timber is marketed under the name tatabu
pendicular to the grain, tension, and shear. Upon in British Guiana, coeur dehors in French Guiana,
air-drying, white cedar becomes stronger but not zwarte kabbes in Surinam, and supupira or suc-
in proportion to white oak and other American upira in Brazil (193, 50).
hardwoods of the temperate zone. In this con- Distribution and habitat.— Tatabu occurs in
dition, white cedar is somewhat inferior to white the upland areas of the rain and seasonal forests
oak in most strength properties, but still possesses in the Guianas and in eastern and northern Brazil.
good strength properties for a wood of its den-
It is an occasional tree in British Guiana, rare in
sity (143). Surinam, but fairly common in French Guiana
Working properties.— White-cedar logs are re-
and some areas in Brazil.
ported to spring badly during conversion. Dry The tree.— Tatabu is commonly 90 to 100 feet in
lumber saws, planes, shapes, bores, mortices, and height and 16 to 24 inches in diameter, but trees
sands easily with smooth clean edges in all opera- up to 40 inches are occasionally found. The trunk
tions. It finishes and polishes very smoothly with is usually straight, cylindrical, unbuttressed, and
a glossy finish, resembling yellow birch (Betula
up to 60 to 70 feet in length (82). However, long
alleghaniensis Britton) in some respects (190, 82,
logs are uncommon because of the tree’s crooked
231).
form (136, 151).
Durability. — Graveyard tests in British Guiana The wood.— Tatabu is a very hard, heavy,
(50) showed the wood to be only slightly resistant tough, and strong wood. Freshly cut heartwood
to decay. Although definite information is lack-
ing, it is reasonable to assume that white cedar is generally chocolate brown turning to a lighter
is readily damaged by both termites and marine brown when dry and may occasionally be grayish
brown or brown, often with dark gold-colored
borers, as is roble or apamate (Tubebuia rosea).
stripes or narrow stripes of a lighter brown. The
Uses.— White cedar is well suited for use in tool
sapwood is narrow, clearly demarcated from the
handles and for boat decking and boat parts,
where high resistance to decay is not essential. heartwood and grayish or pinkish gray.
It is used extensively for furniture, flooring, in- Short rows of pores are often visible without
terior house trim, building construction, and gen- a lens, being made conspicuous by the surround-
eral carpentry. In the areas where it grows it ing layers of light-colored parenchyma. The
is also used for paddles and packing cases. On pores are generally open but some contain a white
the basis of its qualities, this timber could be or yellow substance making them appear as col-
substituted for ash in sporting goods, agricultural ored lines on the longitudinal surfaces. Rays are
implements, and possibly for decorative veneer. very fine and inconspicuous on all surfaces.
Supply.— White cedar is available for export Growth rings are usually not visible but on oc-
from British Guiana, and possibly French Guiana casion show very faintly. The grain is straight
and Surinam. Other Caribbean areas covered in to slightly interlocked or sometimes slightly wavy;
this report do not have the timber in sufficient the texture is coarse to very coarse. The luster
volume for export. is high and golden in the proper light, often with
a waxy appearance. No distinctive odor or taste railway ties are reported to outlast creosoted oak
is present (136, 151, 143). ties on the Netherlands Railway at Delft, Holland.
Weight.— The specific gravity based on green Ties of this species were all sound after 17 years,
volume and weight when ovendry averages about while the oak ties were severely split (133). How-
0.78 (0.70 to 0.97). The specific gravity of air- ever, this is not entirely a test of durability
dry wood, based on weight and volume in that con- against rot, as the splitting may have been a
dition, averages about 0.93. Green wood weighs mechanical failure of the oak rather than the re-
about 78 pounds per cubic foot and dry wood sult of decay. Wolcott (263) rates this species
about, 58 pounds per cubic foot (248, 50, 149). nearly equal to West Indies mahogany, consider-
Seasoning.— Tatabu dries rapidly but is gener- ably above Honduras mahogany, and somewhat
ally considered rather difficult to season. Under below greenheart in resistance to dry-wood ter-
the usual air-dry procedures some checking, cup- mites.
ping, twist, crook, and end splitting are likely to Exposure tests of the timber in Hawaiian waters
occur. Considerable checking and cupping also showed tatabu to have little resistance to marine
occur in kiln-drying unless a slow drying schedule borers (76). It was also quickly damaged by
is used. In air-drying it should be piled with marine borers in a similar test in the Atlantic
relatively small spacing between boards and with Ocean at Wrightsville, N.C., where it ranked 30th
thin stickers to reduce the initial drying rate in resistance to marine borers of 37 species tested
(248). (58). Amos (14) reports the silica content of the
Shrinkage.— Tatabu shrinks but little during wood as negligible.
seasoning. Shrinkage values from green to oven- Uses.— Hughes, in Forest Resources of British
dry of 4.6 percent radially, 7.0 percent tangen- Guiana (136), refers to tatabu as follows:
tially, and 11.8 percent volumetrically are not The qualities and properties of this wood have not been
excessive for wood of tatabu’s density (248 149). fully appreciated in the past. Extra work spent on its
It compares closely with black walnut in shrink- manufacture is amply repaid by the results achieved.
age and is considerably better than white oak or This wood will definitely find a niche among our more
greenheart in this characteristic. Shrinkage beautiful woods in the future when it may be possible to
exploit the forests to a greater extent than in the past.
from green to air-dry would be about half these
values. The wood is fairly stable in use, respond- The timber is used in British Guiana for heavy
ing only moderately to atmospheric changes (108). construction, boatbuilding, house framing, floor-
Mechanical properties.— In the green condi- ing, furniture, and turnery. Tatabu’s high dura-
tion, tatabu is superior in most strength properties bility in the ground makes it well fitted for uses
to all woods indigenous to the United States. In where a durable strong wood is required. Ducke
the unseasoned condition, it also exceeds most (73) reports the wood is used extensively for civil
tropical species of similar high density (231). and naval construction and crossties in Brazil.
Green tatabu is superior to green hickory and The timber’s recognized beauty should promote its
white oak in all mechanical properties, except extensive use for furniture, cabinetwork, marine
shock resistance in which hickory is superior, and construction in nonteredo waters, and other sim-
except tension across the grain and cleavage in ilar uses in the countries of origin and on the
which oak is superior. export market (132). Its very good strength
In the air-dry condition, tatabu is equal or properties also suggest its use for tool handles and
superior to hickory in all properties except shock agricultural tools and vehicles. Tatabu has been
resistance as measured by work to maximum load, selected as one of the species suitable for timbers,
compression across the grain, and shear. It is scantlings, and other structural members, as well
superior to air-dried white oak in all properties as for flooring and siding in the government-spon-
except compression and tension across the grain sored housing program in British Guiana.
and cleavage resistance (149, 248, 175). On this Supply.— The wood is in sufficient supply in the
basis tatabu would not serve as well as hickory for Guianas to fill export markets as they develop.
handles in striking tools.
Working properties.— The wood is moderately TAURONIRO
difficult to work. It saws rather easily, but is
somewhat difficult to plane because of its fre- Humiria balsamifera
quently roey grain, which when present requires
considerable sanding. The wood turns well, has Nomenclature.— Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.)
high screw-holding power, and takes wax or polish J. St. Hil. is the best known of four or more
satisfactorily if a filler is first applied (231, 123) . species of Humiria occurring in the American
Durability.— Fanshawe (82) and Pfeiffer (175) tropics. Other species of importance are H. flori-
bunda Mart. including var. subsessilis Urban and
in British Guiana and Surinam, respectively, rate H. cassiquiari Suesseng & Bergdolt. In British
tatabu as moderately resistant to decay. However, Guiana the timber of H. balsamifera is known as
tests at Yale University (248) indicate the wood tauroniro and tabaniro, or by the English names
is very durable in resistance to both white-rot and of bastard bully and bastard bullet tree because of
brown-rot fungus. Sucupira (Diplotropis sp.) its similarity to bulletwood (Manilkara sp.).
Vernacular names applied to one or more species considerably above the average for both tropical
in different localities are as follows: basra-bol- and temperate zone hardwoods of similar density.
letrie, bastard bolletrie, meri, blackaberie and ta- Shrinkage amounts to 7.2 percent radially, 9.7
wanango in Surinam; bois rouge, bois à flambeau, percent tangentially, and 15.7 percent volumetri-
bois d’encens, triane, boume houmirí, caramura, cally from green to ovendry as compared to 5.3,
homiry, omiry in French Guiana; turamira, cou- 9.0, and 15.8 percent, respectively, for white oak
ranira in Brazil; niña in Venezuela; and oloroso (242, 250). Shrinkage from green to air-dry
in Colombia. (Humiria family, Humiriaceae.) would amount to about half these values. The
Distribution and habitat.— Humitia balsami- ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage is very
fera occurs in the Guianas, Colombia, Venezuela, favorable; under mild drying conditions the wood
and the Brazilian Amazon. In British Guiana it should season without developing internal and
is a principal dominant. species in the marsh forest surface stresses.
and of occasional to frequent occurrence in the Mechanical properties.— Unseasoned timber is
seasonal and wallaba (dry evergreen) forests of about as strong as other woods of comparable
the near interior and the Rupununi district (8 2) . density, except that it falls slightly below the
It generally does best on light sandy soils. On average in crushing strength, cleavage, and tough-
other sites and soils the tree is often shrubby and ness. In this condition it is clearly superior to
of little commercial value. In Surinam the tree white oak in static bending except in work to
occurs on the low or savanna forest on either clay maximum load (shock resistance). It is also su-
or sandy soils at elevations of about 70 feet (250, perior to oak in stiffness, hardness, shear, and
231, 190). crushing strength. It falls below oak in cleavage
The tree.— On favorable sites in British Guiana, resistance and shock resistance and is about equal
tauroniro becomes a heavy, round-crowned canopy to that species in bearing strength.
tree without buttresses. It is commonly 20 to 28 In the air-dry condition, tauroniro is only
inches, and occasionally up to 48 inches in diam- slightly superior to oak in resistance to shear but
eter and 90 to 120 feet tall with a long, cylindrical is 20 to 40 percent stronger in all other properties
bole clear of branches for 60 to 70 feet. except bearing strength in which it is only three-
The wood.— The wood has the general appear- quarters as strong as that species (250).
ance and properties of balata (Manilkara sp.) but Working properties.— The wood is moderately
is coarser in texture and considered inferior to that difficult to work. Straight-grained material saws
species. The sapwood is about 1½ to 2 inches and planes smoothly, but wood with interlocked
wide, light brown, and poorly demarcated from a grain is susceptible to considerable chipped grain
light brown to reddish-brown heartwood. The in planing. Inclined to be splintery, the wood
rain varies from straight to interlocked, the does not turn well but can be bored satisfactorily.
latter producing a light striping on the tangential Durability.— Tauroniro and other species of
surface. Growth rings are indistinct. The wood Humiria have the reputation of being highly du-
is of medium luster and texture and when seasoned rable in the American tropics, Pure culture tests
is without odor or taste. at Yale University rated the wood very durable
Weight.— The specific gravity of tauroniro is to a white-rot fungus and durable to moderately
reported at 0.66 based on ovendry weight and durable to a brown-rot fungus. Tauroniro from
green volume. Specific gravity of air-dry wood British Guiana was found to have little resistance
averages about 0.80, based on the weight and to teredo in Hawaiian waters (76). Wolcott
volume of wood in that condition. The wood (263) found the wood resistant to damage by the
averages 50 pounds per cubic foot when air-dry dry-wood termite of the West Indies, rating
and 67 pounds when green according to tests at slightly above Honduras mahogany in this
Yale University (250). This is somewhat below respect.
bulletwood’s average air-dry weight of 64 pounds. Uses.— The timber is used for heavy construc-
Fanshawe (82) reports somewhat higher average tion in place of balata (Manilkara bidentata) in
weight of 53 to 57 pounds per cubic foot for air- British Guiana and is considered suitable for fresh
dry tauroniro from British Guiana. water piling, bridge timbers, house framing, and
Seasoning.— The timber, which is moderately heavy joinery in that country. The rich color of
difficult to season, will air-dry at a rapid rate, ac- the wood and its modest but attractive figure
companied by slight surface and end checking, suggest its use for face veneer and furniture. It
some warping moderate crook, and slight twist. is considered superior to Demerara greenheart for
Some casehardening also occurs in rapid drying wheel spokes and has been recommended for sugar
but, along with other defects, can be reduced if the barrels, agricultural implements and vehicles, and
timber is seasoned at a moderate rate. flooring. It is one of ten woods acceptable for
Shrinkage.— Tauroniro undergoes greater siding and flooring and structural timbers in the
shrinkage than many tropical American hard- government housing program of British Guiana.
woods but compares favorably with equally dense In general, it is useful wherever a wood of high
United States hardwoods. Its radial shrinkage is strength properties is required (227).
Supply.— British Guiana and possibly French The tree.— Teak is a very large deciduous tree in
Guiana and Surinam can supply tauroniro in ex- its native habitat. The bark is up to three-fourths
portable quantities. of an inch thick, grayish brown, flaky, and some-
what shallowly fissured. Trees growing 100 feet
high and 3 feet in diameter are not unusual, and
TEAK occasional trees reach a height of 150 feet and a
Tectona grandis diameter of 5 feet or more. Trees of this size are
usually 100 to 200 years old (135, 46, 165). In
Teak is one of the world’s best known and most favorable locations teak has a clean cylindrical
highly valued timbers. It is native to south- bole, which is sometimes fluted at the base or often
eastern Asia and Malaya and is planted ex- buttressed in old trees (165). The tree varies
tensively in many other tropical regions, includ- greatly in size according to climatic and soil con-
ing the Philippines, West Africa, continental ditions with much shorter and more fluted stems
tropical America, and the West Indies. Commer- and greater branching in the drier and hotter
cial supplies of the timber come largely from the regions. Trees cut for the export market are
tropical forests of Burma; small amounts also usually 2 to 2½ feet, in diameter and clear of
originate from India and Java. Teak is also in- branches for 30 to 35 feet above the stumps.
digenous to Indo-China but is seldom exported In dry forests the growth rate is slow; 5 to 8
from there. Timber from the different sources years are required to grow 1 inch in diameter.
is usually sold as Moulmein teak, Rangoon teak, In moist forests and cultivated plantations under
and so forth, according to its port of export or very favorable conditions, teak may grow as
place of origin. Though not indigenous to Java, much as 1 inch or more in 2 years, and the trees
teak was originally planted near temples and may attain diameters of 30 inches or more in 60
shrines and now forms pure forests over extensive years (46). Saw-log-size trees have been pro-
areas. This is in contrast to its usual occurrence duced in Honduras in 20 years under extremely
in mixed forests in its native habitat (118, 135, favorable conditions. Plantations in other tropi-
237, 105). cal areas have shown similar results (71), but in
Nomenclature.— Teak, Tectona grandis L. f., general, plantation-grown trees require up to
harvested from plantation-grown trees in the twice this period to reach economic maturity.
Caribbean area. has been marketed in relatively In Burma and Siam the trees are always girdled
small volumes as plantation-grown teak or simply in the forest to allow the timber to dry out before
as teak. The timber is somewhat unique in not felling. Logs from green trees will not. float, but
having numerous other common names as do most those from trees girdled 2 to 3 years prior to cut-
other tropical timbers. However, other timbers ting can be rafted or floated down rivers. This
are often erroneously called teak. The Spanish is important as virtually all Burma, teak is ex-
name is teca, and the French is teck. (Verbena tracted by water.
family, Verbenaceae.) The wood.— Teak is a moderately hard, oily
Distribution and habitat.— Teak is planted ex- timber of medium weight. The heartwood of
tensively in British Guiana, Puerto Rico, Cuba, plantation-grown teak is olive green when freshly
Haiti, Jamaica, and other West Indies islands cut, becoming golden brown and eventually al-
and countries in the Caribbean region but is best most black upon exposure and seasoning. The
known from Trinidad, Honduras, and British 1- to 2-inch wide yellowish to white-colored sap-
Honduras. It has been grown most successfully wood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood.
in Trinidad and other areas on deep, well-drained Growth rings are distinct and, except for oc-
soils with a rainfall of 50 to 120 inches, but it also casional false rings, are of annual occurrence.
does well on a variety of soils and geographical Teak is considered a typically ring porous wood
formations provided that there is good subsoil in India but shows much variation in the width
drainage. Plantations are thriving in Trinidad of the pore zone. Terminal growth varies from
on areas formerly occupied by semideciduous for- a band of 2 or 3 layers of large pores to a few
ests and rain forests. scattered large pores touching the initial paren-
Teak is also apparently well established on lands chyma layer but not forming a definite band. The
carrying second-growth brush, on former cocoa growth layers are distinguished on side-grain sur-
estate lands, and on other areas of heavy clay soil faces by narrow brown lines darker than the rest
with good drainage (165, 162, 38). However, of the heartwood. Plantation grown teak is
Castens’(58) experience in Burma indicates teak usually straight grained and of uniform fine tex-
should only be planted in the alluvial valley soil ture. The wood has an oily feel and a strong
and on areas of deep loamy sand and loam on the fragrant odor when freshly cut. Seasoned wood
lower ridges. He further concludes that teak retains its oily feel but possesses only a faint fra-
planted on clay soils in Burma is not expected to grance and has no detectable taste (71, 46, 143,
do well, and that trees planted on narrow ridges 135, 56).
and moderate to steep slopes will almost surely Weight.— Plantation-grown teak from Hon-
die some time after reaching 25 years of age. duras is reported by Dickinson (71) to be some-
what lower in density than Burma-grown teak, Teak is highly regarded for its stability in re-
with an average specific gravity of 0.56 (0.52 to sponse to atmospheric changes, undergoing a
0.62) based on ovendry weight and green volume. radial movement of 0.8 percent and tangential
The specific gravity of air-dry wood averaged movement. of 1.3 percent from equilibrium in a
0.64, based on weight and volume in that condi- 60-percent relative humidity to equilibrium in a
tion. Air-dry wood weighed 40 pounds per cubic 90-percent humidity. This amounts to a move-
foot and green wood 60 pounds per cubic foot. ment (swelling) of 3/32 and 5/32 inch per foot, re-
A comparison of forest-grown Burma and In- spectively (108). Plantation-grown teak is com-
donesian teak with plantation-grown teak from parable to forest-grown wood in its high resistance
Trinidad by the Central Secretariat of the Carib- to water absorption (71, 236, 198).
bean Commission (50), using data by Smathers Mechanical properties.— Teak has good
(205) and Pfeiffer (175) , gave Trinidad-grown strength properties. Green wood is reported by
teak an air-dry specific gravity value of 0.695 as the Forest Products Research Laboratory (105)
compared to 0.679 for the forest-grown teak. to equal white oak in hardness and resistance to
Weight of air-dry (12 percent moisture content) impact loads, and to exceed that wood by 30 to
wood from Trinidad was listed at 43.4 pounds per 40 percent in stiffness and bending strength.
cubic foot as compared to 42.3 pounds for wood When air-dry, teak becomes 10 to 20 percent in-
from Burma. These studies and others have dis- ferior to oak in hardness and resistance to impact
pelled the belief that plantation-grown teak is loads, but becomes only 10 to 20 percent stronger
always lower in density than forest-grown wood. in bending and stiffness. Under heavy use it has
Teak is similar in weight to sugar maple of the a tendency to break down by short brittle splinter-
United States (44 pounds air-dry) and is some- ing on edge-grain surfaces and for the surface of
what lighter than white oak (48 pounds air-dry) flat-sawed material to disintegrate rapidly.
(160). Tests of the mechanical properties of air-dry
Seasoning.— Teak is easily air-seasoned or kiln- plantation-grown teak from Trinidad showed it
dried with a minimum of degrade. In tests at equal or superior to forest-grown Burma teak in
Tale University, plantation-grown stock from static bending, compression parallel to the grain,
Honduras air-seasoned rapidly with no apprecia- tension parallel to the grain, and hardness and
ble defect. The Forest, Products Research Labo- toughness properties. In similar tests of air-dry
ratory in England reports that teak air-seasons or Honduras-grown teak, it was slightly superior to
kiln-seasons well but slowly with little tendency to Burma-grown teak in compression across the
check, split, or warp, and that lumber from grain, shear, cleavage, and toughness; slightly
girdled trees dries with the same results as other lower in stiffness. crushing strength. and tension
material. However, material from green logs re- across the grain; and similar in the other proper-
quires more initial protection against rapid dry- ties. Studies by the Indian Forest Research In-
ing than that from girdled trees, There is liable stitute at Dehra Dun, India, also showed no
to be considerable variation in the drying rate of essential difference in strength properties between
individual boards, because differences between the planation-grown and forest-grown material (202,
initial and final moisture contents are occasionally 205, 175, 71, 249).
great. Working properties.— Plantation-grown teak
The timber is very liable to change color during is easily worked with both hand and machine tools
kiln-seasoning, but the uniform coloring is re- (71, 46). Its dulling effect on cutting edges can
stored within’ a reasonable time after drying be overcome by using special carbide or other
(105). Kiln Schedule 6 of the Forest Products high-quality steel. Reduced spindle speeds are
Research Laboratory (222) has been recom- recommended when using ordinary, good-quality,
mended, although more severe kiln schedules have high-speed steel knives or cutters. A very smooth
been tried with good results (140). finish is obtained when tools are kept sharp, but
Shrinkage.— Teak is well known for its excep- some care is required to prevent roughness on end
tionally low shrinkage and excellent stability in grain due to the brittle nature of the wood.
Teak takes nails and screws fairly well (123)
use (241), being quite similar to mahogany and
and glues moderately well despite its oily nature
white pine in these characteristics. Forest-grown (240). Its bending properties vary from poor to
Burma teak shrinks 2.3 percent radially, 4.2 per- good. In general, it is a moderately good bend-
cent tangentially, and 6.8 percent volumetrically ing wood but is liable to buckle on the concave
from green to ovendry (236). Plantation-grown face if bent, to small radii of curvatures. It can
teak from Honduras has comparable shrinkage be varnished and polished with good results.
rates, according to studies at Yale University Durability.— Teak is recognized throughout the
(71), in which the teak shrank 2.1 percent radi- world as a timber of excellent durability to decay,
ally. 4.6 percent tangentially, and 5.1 percent vol- termites, and marine borers (237, 71, 12, 46, 241) .
umetrically from green to ovendry. Shrinkage But controlled tests of untreated., lo-year-old,
from green to air-dry would amount to about half plantation-grown teak in Trinidad indicated that
these values. the wood is only moderately durable to fungus
attack (rot) and definitely susceptible to attack Supply.— The supply of plantation-grown teak
by subterranean termites (39). However, pure is not large-only Trinidad is in a position to offer
culture tests with 20-year-old, plantation-grown even a small volume for export. Other areas may
teak from Honduras showed the wood to be some- soon have exportable surpluses when plantations
what variable but generally very durable to dam- reach merchantable size.
age by both a white-rot and brown-rot fungus
(71). The sapwood is not durable.
Wolcott (263) rates the heartwood of East TONKA
Indian teak resistant to damage by the dry-wood Dipteryx odorata
termite of the West Indies, the same as West
Indies mahogany, but found the sapwood had About four species of the tonka-bean tree in
little resistance to termite damage. The sapwood the genus Dipteryx (formerly Coumarouna) sup-
is also susceptible to attack by powder-post beetles ply the scented tonka beans of commerce, which
and other insects (105). The heartwood is are valued for coumarin, a fragrant chemical.
generally considered to be highly resistant but Coumarin is used principally for flavoring snuff
not immune to marine borer attack. Amos’report and in manufacture of perfume and, to some ex-
that teak contains up to 1.4 percent silica by weight tent, in confectionary. For many years, the ex-
would indicate a considerable resistance to marine port of tonka beans has been an important industry
organisms (14). Yet, teak was found to have no in Brazil and Venezuela.
appreciable resistance to marine borers in recent Nomenclature.— Tonka is the preferred trade
exposure tests at Wrightsville, N.C., where the name for wood of the common species, Dipteryx
timber was rated 23d in resistance to marine borers odorata (Aubl.) Willd. (Coumarouna odorata
of 37 woods tested (58). Aubl.). The name tonka wood is also frequently
Plantation-grown teak possesses excellent used in the trade. It is locally known as tonka or
weathering characteristics. Unpainted wood is koemaroe in Surinam; tonka, tonka bean, or
almost entirely free from warp and checking when kumaru in British Guiana; tonka in Trinidad;
exposed to the weather (55). gaïac de cayenne in French Guiana; cumary or
Preservation.— Teak is considered very difficult cumarú in Brazil; and sarrapia and cumarú in
to impregnate with preservatives; only the vessels Venezuela and Colombia. The name tonquin is
absorb preservative in pressure treatments. Al- also sometimes used in Spanish-speaking coun-
though the heartwood is extremely resistant to tries. (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
preservatives, it is a common practice in Trinidad Distribution and habitat.— The tonka tree
to treat plantation-grown teak posts by the open- grows in the Guianas, Venezuela., Colombia, and
tank process. This treatment is reported to add the Amazon region of Brazil, It is also cultivated
considerable life to the thick sapwood in small for its fruit (tonka beans) in Trinidad. The tree
posts. is of frequent occurrence in Brazil, Venezuela, and
Uses.— Plantation-grown teak is suitable for the French Guiana (73); rare in the rain and high
same uses as forest-grown material, including ship- savanna forests of Surinam (231); rare in the
building (particularly decking), flooring, high- rain and seasonal forest areas of British Guiana,
class joinery, interior trim, durable outdoor struc- though of general distribution (82). The tree
tural work, door and window frames, carvings, thrives on many types of soil but reaches its best
furniture, doors, interior paneling, and fancy development on well-drained gravelly or sandy
turned items. Figured wood is cut into both sites. Heavy waterlogged soil and impervious
laminated and solid veneer. The timber’s low clay are unsuitable for its growth. It will stand
shrinkage, as well as its stability and durability, a certain amount of drought but is reported to re-
make teak well adapted for use in tanks and vats. quire a minimum annual rainfall of 50 to 60
It is used in laboratories and chemical plants for inches (117).
benches and other fixtures because of its high The tree.— This species is a rather large, unbut-
resistance to acids. Because of its resistance to tressed overstory tree with a small rounded crown.
moisture, teak is frequently used for kitchens and The trees are most frequently 18 to 30 inches in
bathroom fittings. diameter and 80 to 120 feet in height, although
One of the principal uses for imported wood on the best sites they sometimes reach 40-inch
is in decking for ships and in general boatbuilding diameters and 160-foot heights. Their clean cylin-
of all kinds. Many other woods have been tried, drical boles are generally 60 to 80 feet long. Un-
but no substitute has been found for teak decking der cultivation and in second-growth forests, the
on naval vessels. tree is generally small to medium in size (72, 82) .
Thinnings from plantation-grown teak in Trini- The wood.— Tonka is an exceptionally attrac-
dad are split and used in wire fencing, squared and tive timber. The fresh heartwood is a reddish-
sold for house framing, or sawed into lumber for brown or purplish-brown color with attractive
furniture, boats, and other uses. Considerable light yellowish-brown or purplish streaks. It
plantation material is also used, both treated and seasons to a variegated reddish and yellowish
untreated, for posts and small poles. brown but after exposure to light gradually be-
comes a uniform yellowish brown or light brown. finishes to a smooth surface (231). It glues poorly
The sapwood is distinct from the heartwood, (240), as do many other woods of very high den-
brownish yellow or yellowish brown and about sity but takes a high polish (82).
1 to 2 inches thick. The wood is characterized by Durability.— This species is very resistant to
rather prominent vessel lines and by a consistent decay in contact with the ground (132, 82, 231) .
narrow stripe on radial surfaces caused by the Untreated railway ties are reported to last, 10 to 22
closely interlocked grain. A waxy or oily feel is years in well-drained sites in Belem, Brazil, where
also a characteristic of this wood. The texture is they were considered superior to ties of creosoted
fine, luster medium, and grain irregular to often oak (133). The high density of the wood may
interlocked. The wood has no distinctive taste provide considerable resistance to damage by ter-
but a faint vanillalike or rancid odor. It is an mites and marine borers, but no specific informa-
extremely hard and heavy wood, similar to lig- tion is available on this. When unpainted wood is
numvitae in this respect (127, 143, 82, 231) . exposed to the elements (55), tonka weathers well
Weight.— The specific gravity of tonka averages as to surface smoothness and freedom from warp
0.89 (0.79 to 0.97), based on green volume and and checking.
ovendry weight. The specific gravity of air-dry Uses.— Tonka is used extensively for cogs and
wood averages about 1.08. Weight per cubic foot shafts, heavy construction, turnery, fishing rods,
averages about 81 pounds green and 67 pounds paving blocks, barge and dock fenders, and floor-
air-dry (231, 127). ing. The wood is particularly well adapted for use
Seasoning.— The wood is relatively easy to sea- in tool handles, agricultural implements, sporting
son considering its density. Material has been goods, and other uses utilizing its high bending
air-dried under cover at Yale University in less strength and good shock resistance qualities. The
than 120 days with some surface checking occur- somewhat oily nature of the wood and its hard-
ring: seasoning at a moderate to slow rate would ness allow its use for bearings, cogs, shafts, and
likely reduce the occurrence of this defect. other uses in place of lignumvitae, where friction
Shrinkage.— The shrinkage rates of tonka are wear is a problem. It makes excellent wood for
unusually low for a wood of its high density. railway crossties and posts, for it is durable and
It compares favorably in this respect with woods does not split when exposed to the elements.
of much lower density. A radial shrinkage of This wood should also do exceptionally well as
5.0 percent, tangential shrinkage of 7.6 percent, boat keels and frames, ice sheathing, industrial
and volumetric shrinkage of 12.0 percent, are be- flooring, and specialty items requiring a strong
low those of white oak. Tonka’s longitudinal durable wood. Small quantities have been shipped
shrinkage of 0.13 percent is also very moderate into the United States for high-grade face veneer
(127). Because of the high density of tonka, this (132).
wood undergoes relatively large movement in re- Supply.— Tonka is available from British and
sponse to changes in atmospheric conditions and French Guiana, Surinam, and possibly Trinidad.
is thereby relatively unstable in use. However,
it resists water absorption and does not react
quickly to changes in the atmosphere, being in WACAPOU
this respect superior to teak but somewhat infer- Vouacapoua americana
ior to lignumvitae.
Mechanical properties.-Tonka is a very Nomenclature. — Timber of Vouacapoua ameri-
strong, tough wood. Green wood closely resem- cana Aubl. is generally known as wacapou, épi de
bles Demerara greenheart in all mechanical prop- bleu, and bois angelin in French Guiana, bruin-
erties, but it is slightly inferior to that, species hart or wakapoe in Surinam, and acapú and some-
in all properties except tension across the grain times wacapou in Brazil. It is also known in the
and side hardness. It is much more dense than trade by the English names of brownheart and
white oak, but it is also much stronger, except in partridgewood and has been exported to Europe
cleavage and work to maximum load (shock re- under the name of acapú or Amazon wood.
sistance) (127), in which white oak is nearly its (Legume family, Leguminosae.)
equal. Distribution and habitat.— Wacapou is com-
Air-dry tonka is much stronger than green wood mon in French Guiana and Surinam. It is a very
in nearly all properties except for an appreciable important commercial timber tree in its Brazilian
reduction in cleavage resistance and tensile range (132), attaining its best development in the
strength across the grain. However, in this con- State of Para, Brazil, but apparently does not
dition it is clearly superior to white oak in all extend westward into the State of Amazonas
properties but cleavage resistance. (190). According to Bertin (23) this species pro-
Working properties.-Tonka is difficult to duces the best timber of French Guiana but is of
work because of its high density and hardness. It infrequent occurrence. In Surinam the tree occurs
is hard to saw and bore, but if sawed or bored often in the rain forests and tends to grow in
clean edges and holes result. When severely inter- groups. According to the Surinam Forest Service
locked grain is not present, the wood planes and (231), large-size trees are becoming somewhat
scarce in the presently accessible forests of that (175) and on wood from French Guiana by the
country. In general, the trees grow only in the up- Centre Technique Forestier Tropical in France
land rain forests where they occupy the higher (50).
lands close to the rivers. In the most recent tests at Yale, green wacapou
Two other closely related species are known. was found to be equal or superior to other tropical
Vouacapoua pallidior Ducke occurs in Brazil, woods of similar high density in all mechanical
where it is also called acapú. The other species, properties except hardness, shear, cleavage resist-
V. macropetala Sandw., known as sara in British ance, and tension across the grain. It is inferior
Guiana, is covered separately in this work. The to greenheart, which is also considerably heavier,
wood of both species is similar except in color, in all mechanical properties except work to propor-
that of V. pallidior being dull chestnut brown with tional limit and shock resistance.
some narrow streaks of dark brown and line pencil- When air-dry, the wood is about average for its
striping of light-colored vessel lines. density in most static-bending and compression
The tree.— The trees are tall, slender, and un- parallel to the grain properties. It is above
buttressed, with a clear bole 50 to 75 feet long, and average in elastic resilience but below average in
usually not more than 24 inches in diameter but shock resistance, hardness, shear, and cleavage re-
at. times reaching 36 inches. sistance, and particularly low in compression and
The wood.— Wacapon is a hard, heavy dense tension across the grain. It is also generally in-
wood. The heartwood is dark olive to dark ferior to the heavier greenheart when air-dry,
chocolate and is clearly demarcated from the ¾ - except in elastic resilience and shearing strength
to 1¼ -inch-wide, cream-colored sapwood (248). in which both woods are about equal.
Numerous fine lines of parenchyma, which are Wacapou is much superior to white oak
initially lighter brown in color but which even- (Quercus alba) in bending and compression paral-
tually turn nearly black, make the wood unusually lel to the grain, shock resistance, and side hardness.
attractive. Pfeiffer (175) refers to this wood as It is surpassed by oak in compression and tension
one of the finest growing in Surinam. The grain across the grain, in cleavage resistance, and very
is straight to slightly roey: texture is uniformly slightly in shearing strength.
coarse; the luster is low. No distinctive odor or Working properties.— The wood is considered,
taste is present in seasoned wood (143, 73). despite its high density, only moderately difficult
Weight.— The specific gravity of air-dry wood to work and is generally said to have good working
based on the weight and volume of wood in that qualities. Smooth surfaces are obtained in saw-
condition is listed from 0.87 to 1.07 in reports from ing and planing, but the coarse grain causes some
Surinam, French Guiana, and Brazil. On the rough and torn grain in boring and mortising
basis of these reports, wacapou apparently (231).
averages about, 0.95 in specific gravity, based on Durability.— Wacapou is reputed to be highly
air-dry volume and weight, and weighs about 59 resistant to decay and insect attack. It was found
pounds per cubic foot, air-dry and 75 pounds per to be very durable upon exposure to both a white-
cubic foot when green. Surinam wood averaged rot and a brown-rot fungus in pure culture tests
0.79 (0.73 to 0.85) in specific gravity based on (248). Untreated wacapou ties have remained
ovendry weight and green volume in tests at Yale sound for 6 to 8 years in poorly drained soil in
University (248). Brazil, and for 18 to 20 years in well-drained soils.
Seasoning.— The wood is considered moder- In South Africa untreated ties were good for 8
ately difficult to air-season, which it does at a to 9 years in wet locations and 18 years in dry
moderate rate with slight warping in the form of locations (133).
cup and twist. Slight end and surface checking Heartwood of wacapou is rated by Wolcott
and casehardening are also liable to occur. (263) as resistant to the dry-wood termite of the
Shrinkage.— The dimensional and volumetric West Indies. It is comparable in this respect to
shrinkages exhibited by wacapou are low in com- West Indies mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) and
parison to the high density of the wood. Its greatly superior to Honduras mahogany (S.
shrinkage values from green to ovendry of 4.9 macrophylla) .
percent, radially, 6.9 percent, tangentially, and 13.0 According to Edmondson (76), wacpou has
percent in volume are less than comparable values little resistance to marine borer attack in
for white oak, and about the same as those for Hawaiian waters. However, two series of tests
black locust except in volumetric shrinkage, where at Wrightsville, N.C., showed the wood to have
black locust is considerably below wacapou. a high resistance to teredo. In the first test there
Shrinkage from green to air-dry would be about was no evidence of attack in 16 months, whereas
half the above values. Wacapou is a relatively greenheart was moderately damaged in the same
stable wood undergoing only moderate changes in period; and greenheart was destroyed in 30
volume in response to atmospheric changes. months, while wacapou showed only moderate
Mechanical properties.— Tests of mechanical damage in 33 months. In the second test, only
properties have been made on wacapou from slight marine borer activity was noted on wacapou
Surinam by Yale University (248) and Pfeiffer after a year of exposure (58).
Wacapou is currently rated the fifth most teredo- Distribution and habitat.— The species dis-
resistant wood of 37 tested at Wrightsville, with cussed in this report are centered in the Guianas
Licania macrophylla, Parinari rodolphii, P. cam- but extend into Venezuela and the Amazon region
pestris, and Eschweilera subglandulosa bettering of northern Brazil. The wallabas generally occur
wacapou in the order listed (58). Silica content in pure stands or as dominants in the wallaba
of wacapou is 0.002 percent and ash content 0.51, type, an edaphic climax on acid, white sandy soils,
eliminating the possibility that silica content is and locally are frequent, in rain forests. The wal-
an important factor in the wood’s teredo resist- laba type covers large areas of country, mostly
ance (247). flat plateaus and flat, tops of ridges and hills,
Uses.— Wacapou, one of the most highly re- sometimes extending for many miles (81). The
garded woods of Brazil. Surinam, and French wallabas also occur as riparian or swamp trees
Guiana, has been exported only in small quantities in other areas and in the mora forests of the far
to the United States. It is used in the Guianas interior of British Guiana. They are also found
for furniture, cabinetmaking, flooring, wheel- on one of the driest, soils in that country and may
wright’s work, beams, general construction, rail- be present in almost any forest type. The white
way crossties, and posts. Horn (132) states that sandy soils have no agricultural value but are
it is used in the amazon Valley for flooring, capable of supporting wallaba stands averaging
cabinetwork, interior trim, piling, rising and gun- 600 cubic feet of merchantable trees per acre.
wales of boats, crossties, and general construction. Under good conditions, a wallaba forest can be
The timber’s natural resistance to marine borer recut 30 years after the initial harvest, indicating
attack and termite damage and its relatively high that these otherwise poor sites afford good grow-
price make it best adapted for all types of marine ing conditions for the wallabas. Caribbean pine
and civil construction, as well as for high-class or pitch pine (Pinus caribaea) is presently planted
furniture, interior trim, and parquet flooring and with some success on the white wallaba sands in
cabinetwork. Surinam and British Guiana.
Supply.— Wacapou is available in limited quan- The tree.— The four species marketed as wal-
tities but, can be secured for export from French laba are very similar in appearance and wood
Guiana and Surinam in the Caribbean area. structure. Fanshawe (81) describes the trees of
Eperua falcata and E. grandiflora as follows:
Semideciduous canopy trees reach 32 inches diameter
WALLABA breast height and 100 feet high, usually 16 to 24 inches
Eperua falcata, Eperua grandiflora, Eperua jenmanii, diameter breast height and 80 to 90 feet high, bole 40
Eperua schomburgkiana to 60 feet, basally swollen or with low buttresses; stem
form good, cylindrical with little taper; branches erect,
slender; crown light, rounded or oval.
Wallaba is one of the most abundant good-
quality timbers in the Guianas. where it is used The trees make rather rapid growth but develop
extensively for many purposes. Despite its high heart rots at a fairly early age. Many trees are
resin content, which causes some difficulty in defective, resulting in an average cull of 15 to 20
machining, the wood may soon become an estab- percent in merchantable stands. Round logs 16
lished timber on the world market. Wallaba to 28 inches in diameter and 20 to 25 feet long
utility poles and heavy timbers are presently are obtainable. Transmission poles are available
gaining in popularity on the export market. up to 60 feet long with butt diameters of 8 to 12
Nomenclature.— Species commonly marketed inches after being fashioned.
under the trade name wallaba are Eperua falcata The wood.— Typical logs have 1 to 2 inches of
Aubl., E. grandiflora (Aubl.) Benth., E. jenmanii dirty white or gray colored, resin-streaked sap-
Oliver, and E. schomburgkiana Benth. Legume wood that is sharply defined from the full red or
family, Leguminosae.) reddish-purple heartwood. The surface of the
Eperua falcata is commonly known as soft wood is streaked in concentric rings with gummy
exudations. Concentric zones of denser wood
wallaba, water wallaba, yoboko and ituri wallaba marked by gummy exudations also occur in the
in British Guiana, generally walaba ituri walaba, heartwood at irregular intervals. Growth rings
or bijlhout in Surinam, and wapa or ituri wallaba are distinct, marked by parenchyma. Pores are
in French Guiana. The other species are most distinct to the naked eye, evenly distributed, and
commonly known as ituri wallaba in the Guianas. occasionally contain gum. Rays are very dis-
The timber is called palo machete or uapa tabaco tinctive on the radial surface. Intercellular
in Venezuela and aipe or apa in Brazil. Other canals are filled with gum associated with the ter-
common names by countries are as follows: bie-ie- minal parenchyma.
hoehoe, bili-hoedoe (biri hoedoe), hariraro wa- The wood has uniformly straight grain and
laba, pallewie (parrewe), roode walaba, tamoene, medium to coarse texture. It is hard, heavy, stiff,
toto amate (waapa), and wouapa in Surinam; and strong but not difficult to cut. The wood is
awapa, bois de sabre, eperu, wapa blanc, wapa not lustrous, but quartersawed lumber shows a
gris, and wapa huileaux in French Guiana. pleasing fleck as a result of resinous deposits (27).
It is tasteless and is either odorless or has a slight During conversion of logs the saw teeth are also
odor described as rancid, sour, or like creosote by often clogged with gum. This has been satisfac-
different observers (143). torily overcome by using saws with 3½ -inch pitch
Weight. — The four species in this group are con- and generous gullet. space, or by applying a mix-
sidered to have very similar density. However, ture of kerosene and water or a steady stream of
detailed information is available only for Eperua water to the blade during sawing. Radial splits
falcata. Specific gravity, based on green volume and cup shakes may also occasionally occur dur-
and ovendry weight, is reported at. 0.78 for this ing conversion.
species. Air-dry wood averages 0.93 in specific A recent study of wallaba at the Forest Prod-
gravity and weighs 58 pounds per cubic foot. ucts Research Laboratory in England (77) illus-
Green wood weighs 76 pounds per cubic foot strated one system by which the timber can be
(149). successfully worked to control the detrimental ef-
Seasoning.— Wallaba dries slowly with a fects of the resinous exudations. Logs from
marked tendency to warp and split. An initial British Guiana were converted into lumber using
period of air-seasoning prior to kiln-drying is re- a saw with 3½ -inch pitch and large gullet space,
quired to avoid heavy degrade. Otherwise severe plus the application of kerosene and water. After
distortion, checking, and honeycombing will oc- an initial period of air-drying the lumber was
cur. Kiln Schedule 3 of the Forest Products Re- kiln-dried. It was next planed on a Woods 501-
search Laboratory in England has been used suc- B four-cutter planer using high-speed steel cutters
cessfully (222). with cutter angle of 25 degrees backed to 15 de-
Shrinkage.— The following tabulation lists grees. A feed speed of 75 feet per minute was
shrinkage values determined by three independ- used. Machine finish was good without grain
ent tests. It illustrates that, wallaba, although pickup, and little gum was left on the cutters.
heavier than white oak, shrinks much less in ra- which stood up well to the run.
dial, tangential, and volumetric proportions. Immediately after planing the wood was treated
with filler and wax polish. This finish essentially
Shrinkage (green to ovendry) stopped all further exudation of resin and gave
the author reason to conclude that the high gum
content has little, if any, detrimental effect on the
appearance of the wood after polishing. No dif-
ficulty was experienced in crosscutting or end
grooving the wood, which gave a good clean and
accurate finish. Abrasion tests showed the wood
to be equal to hard maple, Rhodesian teak, and
East African olive.
The wood polishes reasonably well after filling.
stains readily with both oil and spirit stains, and
turns well. It usually splits straight and clean but
does not take nails satisfactorily.
Durability.— The heartwood of wallaba is gen-
erally considered resistant to insects and very
Mechanical properties.— The wood’s hardness, resistant to decay. The sapwood is not durable
bending strength, and stiffness under gradually and is heavily attacked by pinhole borers and ter-
applied. loads and its compressive strength along mites soon after logging. The General Post Office
the gram are in proportion to its density. How- in British Guiana reports the average life of un-
ever, its resistance to shock loads and splitting treated transmission poles to be 20 years; some
are somewhat below the average for tropical hard- poles are sound after 30 years. In British Guiana
woods of similar density. According to tests in untreated heartwood stakes of Eperua falcata, 1
the United States (149) and in England (15, by 4 inches by 2 feet driven 8 inches in the ground,
105), wallaba in comparison to white oak in the were highly resistant to decay, lasting 8 to 9 years
green state is 40 percent heavier, 40 percent in the ground. Wolcott (263) rates wallaba as
harder, and 75 percent stronger and stiffer in bend- resistant to the dry-wood termites of the West
ing under gradually applied loads. Air-dried Indies, comparing wallaba with Honduras mahog-
wallaba is clearly superior to white oak in all any in this respect.. Edmondson (76) found E.
properties except tension perpendicular to the falcata to have low resistance to marine borers in
grain and shear. It is superior to pitch pine from Hawaiian waters.
Honduras in all properties except impact bending Uses.— Wallaba is exceptionally well suited for
and toughness but is considerably below that, wood use as transmission poles, flagpoles, and posts. Its
in toughness and slightly lower in impact bending. good strength and durability qualify the timber
Working properties.— Wallaba is hard but for railway ties, shoring, bridge timbers, and mine
works easily with machine and hand tools except timbers. In building construction it is used for
that gum collects on the cutting edges of the tools. foundations, sills, joists, framing, roofing, siding,
and veranda posts. It is also used in British WAMARA

Guiana for vat staves, shingles, and paling. The
Swartzia leiocalycina, Swartzia benthamiana
high resin content of the wood makes it an excel-
lent flooring material in chemical factories, mills, Nomenclature.— The genus Swartzia contains
and warehouses, and it is currently exported to more than 90 species of shrubs and trees native
Martinique as sawed beams. The wood has a mostly to tropical America but also found. in
relatively high caloric value as fuelwood or char- tropical Africa. The timber of two very similar
coal, ovendry heartwood having a caloric value species, Swartzia leiocalycina Benth. and S.
of 9,260 B.t.u. and sapwood 8,980 B.t.u. as com- benthamiana Miq., of British Guiana and French
pared to 12,000 B.t.u. for coal. Charcoal made Guiana is marketed under the trade names of
from Eperua falcata has a caloric value of 13,200 wamara in British Guiana and montouchi in
to 13,800 B.t.u. (7,300 calories) per pound (114). French Guiana. The wood of S. benthamiana is
Rather extensive tests on the pulping character- also known locally in British Guiana as itikiboro-
istics of wallaba at the Imperial Institute in balli. Other species of Swartzia are described
London proved with certain reservations the prac- under Parakusan. (Legume family, Legumino-
ticability of making paper from this wood. Wal- sae.)
laba (Eperua falcata) when treated by the soda Distribution and habitat.— Both species grow
process gave a good yield of pulp, which was of in British Guiana but only Swartzia benthamiana
good quality but not easily bleached. It furnished is reported in commercial quantities in French.
paper of satisfactory strength and character, Guiana, although the other may also grow there
suitable for book or writing paper but not kraft in limited quantities. Both species may also occur
paper for it lacked strength for this class of paper elsewhere in the American tropics.
and the beating costs would be unusually high. Swartzia benthamiana is found as an occasional
The wood is not considered suitable for the sul- tree in the wallaba and rain forest of British
phite process because of its high resin content Guiana and is of general distribution in the near
(83, 115). interior. S. leiocalycina grows throughout the
Samples of hardboard of good quality hare been country except in the northwest district. It occurs
made from semichemical pulps in conjunction with as a frequent to dominant species in the seasonal
the extraction of resin. A process patented by forest and as an occasional to frequent tree in the
Fleck and Schuler (264) in England isolates rain forest.
wallaba resin, which is reacted with aldehydes The tree.— Both species providing wamara
in situ to form thermoplastic or thermosetting timber are small-crowned canopy trees usually
resins, giving a cheap molding powder. This with low buttresses. Mature trees are generally
promises the development of a wet-forming or dry- 16 to 20 inches, sometimes up to 28 inches, in
forming process for making fiberboard from diameter and 90 to 110 feet high. Boles are clear
wallaba. of branches for 50 to 70 feet above the low but-
In 1951 wallaba was second to greenheart in tresses and may often be flat or somewhat flanged
exports from British Guiana. Wallaba trans- in shape. In general, Swartaia leiocalycina is
mission poles are being shipped in increasing slightly larger than S. benthamiana.
numbers to the West Indies islands and the United The wood.— The sapwood of wamara, accord-
Kingdom, and limited quantities are exported to ing to Ducke (73), is very wide and only the larg-
the United States. est trees contain heartwood. Nearly white in
Supply.— Wallaba is one of the more common.
color, it is reputed to be one of the most beautiful
and accessible woods in the Guianas. Large areas woods of the Amazon Valley. The heartwood
of merchantable timber are located along navi- varies from a chocolate brown to a pale reddish
gable rivers and near docking and other shipping purple or purplish brown, occasionally marked by
facilities. Most information on available supplies dark olive or purplish-brown colored stripes. The
comes from British Guiana, where the volume of texture is very fine and the grain is generally
merchantable timber in the accessible forests is straight but may be variable. It is extremely
estimated at 17,000,000 tons or 850,000,000 cubic
heavy, hard, compact, and resilient, and usually
feet. has good luster. The pores are small but are made
In one 214,500-acre tract in British Guiana,
readily visible by the soft pale-colored paren-
wallaba averages more than 1,800 board feet per
chyma tissue surrounding them. Very fine ripple
acre over an area of 10,345 acres. It is predomi-
marks are visible but not conspicuous on surfaced
nant on 81,500 acres of the total, averaging more slash-sawed boards. Odor or taste is not distinc-
than 3,400 board feet per acre in sound trees 16 tive in dry wood (82, 190, 10).
inches and over. Many stands contain 500 to 600 Weight.— Wamara is a very dense, heavy wood.
cubic feet of wallaba per acre in merchantable Swartzia leiocalycina is reported to have an air-
trees. The wallaba forest type when cut for fire- dry specific gravity of 1.06, based on volume and
wood down to 4 inches in dimeter averages from weight in that condition, and to weigh 66 pounds
a low of 1,000 to a high of 3,600 cubic feet per per cubic foot (16). Green wood weighs 75
acre (121). pounds per cubic foot. S. benthamiana is some-
what lighter, with a specific gravity of 0.80 to 0.96, and needs preboring for the use of nails or screws
averaging 0.88 based on air-dry volume and (10, 132, 142).
weight. It weighs 50 to 60 pounds per cubic foot Durability.— The heartwood is generally re-
(82, 10). ported to be very resistant to decay. For example,
Seasoning.— Information on seasoning is lack- in graveyard tests in British Guiana (50), the
ing for this wood except for Horn’s reference heartwood of Swartzia leiocalycina lasted an aver-
(132) that Swartzia tomentosa DC. of Brazil age of 8 to 9 years in both wet and dry locations.
(probably the same as S. benthamiana) checks The sapwood, which makes up the bulk of the
considerably in drying. Bannia, S. bannia lumber produced, is not durable. The wood is
Sandw., a somewhat heavier species of British rated resistant to damage by the dry-wood ter-
Guiana and Surinam is also moderately difficult to mite but less resistant than West Indies mahogany
air-dry (250). It is reasonable to assume that and slightly more resistant than Honduras ma-
wamara has similar seasoning characteristics. hogany (263). S. leiocalycina was found to have
Shrinkage. — Information on directional shrink- little resistance to marine-borer damage in Ha-
age is lacking for this timber. The French Tropi- waiian waters (76). The silica content of the
cal Forest Technical Center reports shrinkage of wood is reported as only 0.01 percent of the oven-
Swartzia benthamiana in volume from green to dry weight (14).
ovendry (expressed as a percent of the green Uses.— Wamara heartwood is one of the most
volume) amounts to 13.3 percent (50). This is a attractive woods on the export market. The dark
moderately high value, about double the shrinkage heartwood is used for inlay, walking sticks, bag-
that would occur from green to air-dry. Volumet- pipes, parquet flooring, and bows, and is recom-
ric shrinkage of West Indies mahogany (Swie- mended as a substitute for ebony for it polishes
tenia mahagoni) was determined in two different to a high luster. The whitish sapwood is used in
tests by the same Center to be 7.8 and 9.0 from some localities for implement frames and spokes
green to ovendry. Shrinkage is equal to that for of wheels; the heartwood for posts, articles of
white ash and below that for white oak. turnery, furniture, cabinetwork, and heavy and
Pfeiffer (175) found Swartzia spp. from Suri- durable construction. The sapwood has been rec-
nam to have a high movement value in response ommended as a substitute for hickory (Carya)
to changes in atmospheric conditions. Material for those purposes requiring very strong, tough,
tested increased in volume between ovendry and and resilient material (193).
equilibrium with relative humidities of 40, 70, and The wood is used for structural timber, scant-
100 percent by 8.4, 11.3, and 20.2 percent, respec- lings, and so forth in the government housing
tively! based on the original ovendry volume. program in British Guiana. It should be well
This is considerably above the average for most fitted for many other uses requiring a heavy, hard
woods tested but can be partially attributed to the wood having high bending and compression
high density (1.25) of the wood used in the tests. strength, abrasion resistance, and durability.
The extreme density of the wood used by Pfeiffer Supply.— British Guiana and French Guiana
suggests bannia (S. bannia) was tested. have exportable quantities of wamara.
Mechanical properties.— Mechanical tests of
Swartzia benthamiana by the French Tropical
Forest. Center (50) indicate wamara possesses very YEMERI
high strength properties. Compared to woods of Vochysia hondurensis
similar density, it is above average in stiffness and
maximum bending stresses but somewhat below Nomenclature.— Yemeri is the preferred trade
in resistance to splitting. As compared to kopie name in British Honduras for timber of Vochysia
(Goupia glabra) and purple heart (Peltogyne hondurensis Sprague, a species of southern Mexico
venosa), it is intermediate in hardness on the and Central America. The timber is known also
radial surface and resistance to impact bending. as emeri, emory, and yemoke in British Honduras
It is superior to these species in maximum bend- and San Juan in Honduras, and as palo de chancho
ing stress parallel to the grain and stiffness, but in Costa Rica. South American species of Vo-
inferior to both species in resistance to splitting. chysia are treated under the trade name kwarie.
(Vochysia family, Vochysiaceae.)
However, its overall strength properties are very Distribution and habitat.— Vochysia hondu-
high, fitting it for most, uses where good strength rensis is one of the few species of the genus oc-
is needed. curring outside of South America. It is dis-
Working properties.— Wamara is variously re- tributed in the tropical zone from southern
ported as very difficult to moderately difficult to Mexico and British Honduras to Costa Rica (215,
work with either hand or machine tools, for it is 265, 150). V. guatemalensis Donn. Smith occurs
a hard, high-density wood. But there is general at higher elevations in the subtropical zone in
agreement that the wood finishes smoothly, turns southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
very satisfactorily (as do many other very dense Yemeri is found throughout British Honduras
woods), and polishes well. It takes nails badly both on silt soils along river banks and on sandy
soils. It attains its best development on the coastal search Laboratory Kiln Schedule 1 (222) and U.S.
plain where it grows in almost pure stands. It Forest. Products Kiln Schedule TD–42 (238) are
occurs extensively in the “buamil,” or second recommended, the latter for 4/4 stock.
growth, on abandoned farmlands on soils of the Shrinkage.— Reported shrinkage values for
poorer type but will not grow on very swampy yemeri do not always agree. Hess (127) reports
land and is rare on limestone and marl sites (224) . shrinkage from green to ovendry at 2.0 percent
In Honduras, it occurs in the intermediate forest radially, 9.0 percent, tangentially, and 9.8 percent
on medium- to well-drained clayey soil (223) . in volume. This compares well with a radial
The tree.— Yemeri trees are medium to large shrinkage of 2.8 percent and tangential shrinkage
unbuttressed, canopy trees. Diameters of 2 to 3 of 6.5 percent reported by U.S. Forest Products
feet and heights of 90 to 130 feet are common, Laboratory (68).
and trees are reported to occasionally grow to The Forest Products Research Laboratory in
6 feet in diameter and 190 feet high. The boles are England (222) reports the radial and tangential
straight, clear, cylindrical, and usually 50 to 60 shrinkage at 2.0 and 6.0 percent, respectively, from
feet long. The outer bark is smooth, gray, and green to air-dry (12 percent moisture content),
rather papery in texture (127). which is usually about half the shrinkage from
The wood.— Yemeri is similar in some respects green to ovendry. This amounts to about ¼ inch
to Spanish cedar (Cedrela), especially in color. per foot in the radial direction and ¾ inch per
Freshly cut. heartwood varies from a light brown foot in the tangential direction.
to pinkish yellow turning a dull uniform pink or British Honduras (150) reports shrinkage
pinkish brown when dry, sometimes with a dis- values of 1/8 inch and 9/16 inch per foot in the radial
tinct, golden cast. The heartwood is distinct but and tangential directions, respectively, from green
not always sharply demarcated from the whitish to air-dry (14 percent moisture content). This
3½ - to 5½ -inch-wide band of gray or buff would amount to about 1.0 percent in the radial
sapwood. plane and about 4.7 percent in the tangential plane.
Vertical traumatic gum ducts, filled with All these values indicate a moderate rate of
orange-brown gum, may occur sporadically and shrinkage but show a high ratio of tangential to
are sometimes large enough to be considered an radial shrinkage, possibly the principal cause for
objectionable defect. The luster is medium to the distortion that occurs during seasoning. The
high. It, is a typically straight-grained wood, low radial shrinkage indicates the advantages of
but interlocked grain may occur in layers 1 to 2 using quartersawed stock where stability is
inches thick. These layers of interlocked grain desirable.
produce an unpretentious stripe figure on quarter- Mechanical properties.— The average strength
sawed surfaces. Texture of the wood is coarse to properties of yemeri in both the green and air-dry
medium and of a rather fibrous nature. No dis- condition are equal to and, in several properties,
tinctive odor or taste is present in seasoned wood greater than those of most woods of similar low
(241, 150, 103, 217). density.
Weight.— The wood is reported to vary some- Green yemeri is considerably harder than most
what in density, apparently from local growing woods of similar weight and is somewhat superior
conditions. The specific gravity averages about in stiffness and toughness. It is quite similar to
0.37 (0.29 to 0.45) based on ovendry weight and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) in most
green volume. The specific gravity of air-dry properties and decidely superior in hardness.
wood based on weight and volume in that condi- In general, it is inferior to white oak, which is
tion ranges from around 0.42 to 0.47. Air-dry also of much higher density.
wood weighs about 26 to 29 pounds per cubic Upon seasoning, yemeri increases in most prop-
foot and green wood about 67 pounds per cubic erties, retaining its close similarity to yellow-
foot (127, 103, 50). poplar and Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) in most
Seasoning.— Yemeri is moderately difficult to strength properties, but is 40 to 50 percent harder
air-season and kiln-dry. It air-seasons at a rapid than either species and 40 percent superior to
rate with moderate twist and slight checking, Scotch pine in resistance to splitting (150, 127,
crook, bow, and cup. Collapse is also liable to 103).
occur in stock 1¼ inches or more in thickness Working properties.-Although it is easily
(249). The wood can be kiln-seasoned fairly worked by either hand or machine tools, yemeri
rapidly with very little tendency to check or split has relatively poor machining qualities. The
but with a marked tendency to distort, particularly timber is fibrous, coarse in texture, hard, and
in the form of twist and cup. Some collapse may fairly tough. It resembles a coarse grade of ma-
occur in thicker stock. Reconditioning kiln- hogany in machining properties but, unlike
distorted stock is only partially effective. In order mahogany, has a tendency to blunt cutting edges.
to minimize warping, a sticker spacing of not) Sawing along the grain is done without difficulty,
more than 18 inches is recommended with all but wooly surfaces are common on end grain in
stickers in vertical alinement and the top of the crosscutting. A fairly wide tooth-pitch is nec-
pile weighted down (148). Forest Products Re- essary for best results. Raised grain is a common
defect in planing, molding, and similar operations canoes. It is occasionally used for house siding
as well as rough end grain. Sharp cutters will in British Honduras and is reported to be superior
considerably alleviate the problem of raised grain, to imported second-growth pine from the United
and sanding will provide a satisfactory finish on States for this purpose. It is considered promis-
the roughened end grain. ing for use in boxes and crates, inexpensive furn-
The wood is not suited for turnery because of ture, and for numerous articles requiring a painted
its open texture; the finish is rough, and poor finish. Because it resembles Spanish cedar (Ce-
detail results from the tendency for feather edges drela spp.), yemeri may be suitable for general
to break off (241). The open texture also neces- utility plywood, core stock, and possibly high-
sitates a considerable amount of filling before grade face panels in furniture. However, the suc-
polishing. Yemeri takes glue, paint, and nails cessful use of this timber will depend largely on
well and polishes to a good finish, although wood the care given in conversion and seasoning.
with water stains should not be used as they cause Supply.— Yemeri is available in quantity from
considerable grain raising. It is fair wood for British Honduras.
steam bending.
The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory found
yemeri to be considerably below the average for YOKEWOOD
15 tropical American species tested in planing, Catalpa longissima
boring, and turning, and slightly below the aver-
age in shaping, sanding, and mortising. How- Nomenclature.— Yokewood is one of the im-
ever, it was found to be a better wood to shape, portant timbers of Jamaica and Haiti. The tree
sand, and mortise than the average of 25 hard- and timber of Catalpa longissima (Jacq.) Sims
woods of the United States (68). are known also as French oak, mast wood, Jamaica
Durability.— The different species of Vochysia oak, Haitian oak, chêne Haitien, bois chêne,
are known to vary in their resistance to decay, radegonide, chêne d’Amérique, chêne noir, and
and yemeri is no exception. The heartwood is pois doux marron. A synonym is Macrocatalpa
rated durable to very durable to a white-rot fungus longissima (Jacq.) Britton. (Trumpet-creeper
and moderately durable to nondurable to a brown- family, Bignoniaceae.)
rot fungus. Two classes of timber are recognized The three small-leaved evergreen species of
after felling in British Honduras: “white” and Catalpa in the West Indies are placed by some
“red.” The “white” yemeri is considered to be authors in the segregate genus Macrocatalpa.
nondurable and the “red” yemeri to be slightly Two other species, C. speciosa Warder and C.
less durable than santa-maria (moderate dura- bignonioides Walt., are native in southeastern
bility). United States and are grown as ornamentals.
Six- by 7½ - or 8-inch yemeri railway ties with The first was widely cultivated in plantations at
5 to 6 inches of heartwood were reported to last one time.
3½ to 4 years in the hinterland of British Hon- Distribution and habitat.— Yokewood is com-
duras without treatment, and 4 to 5 years when mon in Jamaica and Haiti and occurs also in
given a brush application of preservative. In Dominican Republic and Cuba. It has been in-
the less humid coastal area, they lasted 4½ to 5 troduced also in Guadeloupe and Grenada of the
years untreated and 5 to 6 years when treated (86). Lesser Antilles. In Jamaica the tree grows in the
Graveyard tests in England found yemeri from dry coastal plains of the south and southeast sides
British Honduras to be variable in decay resist- of the island and along sandy river banks but is
ance; heartwood lasted 3.9, 11.0, and 12.0 years rarely found above 1,000 feet in elevation. Yoke-
on three different sites (206) . wood has also been planted with considerable
Specific tests have not been conducted with success in Jamaica on rocky and degraded sites at
yemeri, but other species of Vochysia are re- low elevations (below 1,500 feet) in arid areas re-
ported by Wolcott, (263) to vary from resistant ceiving less than 40 inches of rainfall. The tree
to susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite reproduces exceptionally well on the gravelly
of the West Indies and according to Edmondson detrital flood fans along the St. Thomas River.
(76) have little resistance to marine-borer attack This natural regeneration is used to reforest other
in Hawaiian waters. Unpainted yemeri weathers
well, showing only moderate surface roughness areas and has a high degree of tolerance to un-
and slight, surface checking upon exposure (249, favorable site conditions. Planted trees tend to
224). be bushy when young, but later a dominant, leader
Preservation.— Both the heartwood and sap- takes over, developing into long straight stems at
wood are readily impregnated with preservatives; maturity (48, 229).
the vessels and not the fibers take up most of the The tree.— Yokewood is a large tree growing to
preservative (150). 80 feet, in height and 3 feet in diameter.
Uses.-Yemeri is used for general carpentry, The wood.— The heartwood is grayish to light
exterior siding, interior construction, and dugout brown in color in contrast to the distinctly lighter
sapwood. The texture is medium to coarse, the Durability.— The Forest Department of Ja-
luster fairly high, and the grain generally maica reports that the timber is considered dur-
straight. Seasoned wood has an odor suggesting able in contact with the weather but does not in-
kerosene but no distinctive taste (229, 190). clude the timber in the list of woods durable in
Weight.— The weight of air-dry wood is given contact with the ground (229). Other sources
at 37 to 50 pounds per cubic foot by Stehlé (218) report the wood as durable or very durable (50,
and at 70 pounds (probably green wood) by 218). Wolcott (263) rates yokewood only moder-
Swabey (229). The specific gravity of air-dry ately resistant to the dry-wood termite of the
wood will average from 0.60 to 0.80 on the basis of West Indies.
the weight given by Stehlé. Uses.— Yokewood is one of the most useful na-
Seasoning.— No data are available. tive timbers in Jamaica for boatbuilding and in
Shrinkage. — No data are available. general construction for sills, shingles, framing,
Mechanical properties.— Detailed tests of boarding, and flooring. It is also made into the
strength properties have not been made on yoke- bodies of carts and wagons, In Haiti the timber
wood. It is reported by Stehlé (218) to be is used principally for furniture and house con-
medium hard, tightly knit, and elastic. struction.
Working properties.— No other information is Supply.— The supply is presently limited in Ja-
available on the working qualities of yokewood maica and Haiti with only small volumes avail-
other than it saws easily (229). able for export.
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APPENDIX
T A B L E 1 0 .— Strength properties of Caribbean
[Air-dry strength properties
Specific Static bending

gravity:
Mois- Weight Green
Species Source ture per volume Fiber
content cubic and stress at Modulus Modulus
foot 1 ovendry propor- of of
weight tional rupture elasticity
limit
(1) (2) (3) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1,000
Angelique Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Dicorynia guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - 78. 7 67 0. 60 7, 650 11, 410 1, 840
Baboen
Virola surinamensis 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 93. 8 51 . 42 3, 580 5, 600 1, 640
Bagasse
Bagassa guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 58. 0 67 . 68 10, 340 14, 510 2, 300
Balata
Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
2a
Manilkara bidentata - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 47. 6 78 . 85 11, 120 17, 310 2, 700
Puerto Rico- - - - - - - -
Banak
Virola koschnyi 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Central America- - - - - 75. 0 48 . 44 - - - - - - - - 6, 200 1, 470
Baromalli
Catostemma fragrans 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 154. 5 70 . 50 5, 200 8, 100 1, 610
Catostemma sp.2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 62. 6 61 . 60 6, 860 10, 670 2, 300
Bethabara
Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - -
Tabebuia serratifolia 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31. 2 75 . 92 14, 220 22, 560 2, 920
Bustic
Dipholis salicifolia 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States - - - - - - - 44. 0 77 . 86 5, 800 12, 400 1, 860
Cedar, Central American
Cedrela sp.5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua - - - - - - - - - - 73. 0 37 . 34 3, 360 5, 220 870
Courbaril
Honduras- - - - - - - - - -
2a Puerto Rico- - - - - - -
Hymenaea courbaril - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - - 60. 8 71 . 71 7, 910 12, 940 1, 840
Panama- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Hymenaea davisii 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - 64. 8 70 . 67 8, 230 12, 440 2, 080
Crabwood
Carapa guianensis 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72. 4 60 . 56 7, 190 11, 110 1, 560
Carapa guianensis 6- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 58. 0 51 . 52 - - - - - - - - 9, 900 1, 960
Determa
2a Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Ocotea rubra - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 83. 2 61 . 52 5, 420 7, 820 1, 460
British Guiana- - - - - -
3
Ocotea rubra - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41. 0 *49 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8, 100 1, 120
Gommier
Dacryodes excelsa 7- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Puerto Rico- - - - - - - - 56-65 38 - - - - - - - - 6, 480 9, 330 1, 200
Greenheart, Demerara
Ocotea rodiaei 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 42. 7 78 . 88 13, 250 19, 550 2, 970
Ocotea rodiaei 6- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 41. 0 *76 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 19, 300 2, 970
Gronfoeloe
Qualea albiflora 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 150. 9 79 . 49 5, 660 8, 640 1, 630
Qualea rosea 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 82. 5 60 . 53 6, 190 10, 510 2, 030
Gumbo-limbo
Bursera simaruba 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 99. 0 38 . 30 2, 000 3, 300 560
Hura
Venezuela- - - - - - - - - -
2a
Hura crepitans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Panama- - - - - - - - - - - - 67. 2 40 . 38 3, 930 6, 310 1, 040
Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Kopie
Goupia glabra 2b Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 65. 7 73 . 70 8, 180 11, 480 1, 810
timbers in the green condition
are given in table 11]
Static bending—
Continued Compression parallel to grain Hardness Compres-
sion per- Tension
pendicular perpen- Cleav- Tough-
Work to Work to Fiber to grain: dicular Shear age, ness,
propor- maxi- stress at Maximum Modulus Stress at to per inch per spec-
tional mum propor- crushing of End Side propor- grain of width imen
limit load tional strength elasticity tional
limit limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In.-lb. In.-lb.
per per 1,000
cu. in. cu. in. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. Lb. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. In.-lb.
1. 78 12. 0 4, 810 5, 590 2, 180 1, 100 1, 100 1, 000 700 1, 340 340 151. 2
. 46 4. 1 1, 740 2, 390 1, 900 430 320 200 260 720 180 60. 6
2. 84 11. 3 6, 060 7, 900 2, 510 1, 620 1, 670 1, 200 650 1, 670 370 195. 5
2. 51 13. 6 7, 030 8, 690 3, 060 2, 160 2, 230 2, 480 990 1, 900 480 264. 8
- - - - - - - - - 5. 3 - - - - - - - - - 3, 050 - - - - - - - - - 590 440 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 660 245 - - - - - - - -
. 94 6. 7 2, 710 3, 840 1, 800 570 520 280 610 810 260 - - - - - - - -

1. 14 7. 3 3, 330 4, 280 2, 680 590 630 360 210 750 180 165. 7
4. 55 27. 6 8, 890 10, 350 3, 110 2,630 3,060 2, 300 1, 340 2, 120 620 403. 8
1. 00 17. 1 3, 750 5, 330 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 700 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 7. 4 - - - - - - - - - 2, 760 - - - - - - - - - 380 350 310 - - - - - - - - 720 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 87 14. 6 4, 260 5, 800 1, 960 1, 780 1, 970 1, 640 1, 220 1, 770 540 230. 5
1. 62 8. 5 4, 260 5, 540 2, 450 1, 480 1, 610 1, 120 890 1, 680 410 187. 8
1. 92 11. 4 3, 980 4, 930 1, 170 1, 150 1, 060 960 500 1, 320 350 129. 9
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5, 120 - - - - - - - - - 1, 020 830 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 320 - - - - - - - -
1. 18 4. 8 3, 040 3, 760 1, 740 450 520 550 620 860 280 75. 0
- - - - - - - - - 6. 1 - - - - - - - - - 4, 560 - - - - - - - - - 620 610 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 900 275 - - - - - - - -
2. 00 10. 9 3, 260 4, 530 1, 700 840 690 730 - - - - - - - - 1, 120 270 - - - - - - - -
3. 31 13. 4 7, 580 10, 160 3, 580 2, 260 2, 320 2, 040 1, 070 1, 730 610 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 35. 3 - - - - - - - - - 10, 500 --------- 2, 160 2, 110 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 320 500 - - - - - - - -
1. 18 6. 8 3, 640 4, 840 1, 950 600 510 630 590 1, 070 300 98. 8
1. 07 9. 3 3, 800 5, 200 2, 300 1, 030 930 560 480 1, 250 320 155. 9
. 45 3. 5 930 1, 510 - - - - - - - - - 290 230 290 380 590 170 - - - - - - - -
. 89 5. 9 1, 960 2, 790 1, 170 520 440 420 430 830 220 70. 3
2. 08 7. 6 4, 880 6, 170 2, 140 1, 400 1, 380 1, 050 980 1, 550 430 131. 9
T A B L E 1 0 .— Strength properties of Caribbean

gravity:
Mois- Weight Green
Source ture per volume Fiber
content cubic and tress at Modulus Modulus
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1,000
Kurokai Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Protium decandrum 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 72. 0 50 0. 53 - - - - - - - - 10, 450 1, 560
Protium schomburgkianum 4 - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 99. 0 56 . 48 5, 800 9, 300 1, 510
Kwarie
Vochysia guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 119. 4 59 . 43 4, 600 6, 730 1, 380
Vochysia guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 230. 4 74 . 36 3, 820 6, 050 1, 230
Mahogany, Honduras
Forest-grown
Swietenia macrophylla 4 - - - - - - - - - - Mexico- - - - - - - - - - - - - 92. 2 54 . 45 5, 000 8, 900 1, 480
Swietenia macrophylla 4- - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua- - - - - - - - - - 110. 3 59 . 45 5, 200 8, 700 1, 440
Swietenia macrophylla 4- - - - - - - - - - Peru.-------------- 106. 8 58 . 51 5, 800 9, 800 1, 470
Swietenia macrophylla 9- - - - - - - - - - Central America- - - - - 58. 0 44 . 45 6, 120 9, 240 1, 290
Swietenia macrophylla 2b- - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56. 8 44 . 45 6, 070 8, 960 1, 280
Plantation-grown
Swietenia macrophylla 2a - - - - - - - - - Honduras- - - - - - - - - - 50. 7 40 . 42 5, 080 8, 350 1, 140
Mahogany, West Indies
Swietenia mahagoni 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dom. Republic- - - - - - 95. 2 68 . 56 6, 300 9, 700 1, 170
Swietenia mahagoni 9- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cuba- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 48. 0 59 . 57 4, 560 8, 250 1, 070
Manbarklak
Eschweilera subglandulosa 2b - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 42. 9 78 . 87 10, 010 17, 110 2, 700
Manni
Symphonia globulifera 3- - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 97. 0 *55 - - - - - - - - -------- 11, 900 2, 020
Symphonia globulifera 2c Surinam 7, 140 11, 180 1, 960
- - - - - - - - - - - 85. 4 67 . 58
British Guiana
Marish 2b
Licania buxifolia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 37. 3 75 . 88 10, 570 17, 070 2, 930
Licania macrophylla 2b Brazil 9, 560 14, 380 2, 320
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- 49. 8 71 . 76
Surinam
Mora
Mora excelsa 2c British Guiana- - - - - - 9, 040 12, 630 2, 330
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60. 0 78 . 78
3
Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Mora excelsa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 59. 0 *71 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12, 900 2, 290
Nargusta
2a
British Honduras- - - -
Terminalia amazonia - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 67. 3 67 . 64 7, 710 12, 130 2, 010
6
Panama- - - - - - - - - - - -
Terminalia amazonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trinidad- - - - - - - - - - - 51. 0 66 . 70 - - - - - - - - 14, 200 2, 200
3
Terminalia amazonia - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 67. 0 *60 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13, 000 2, 010
Pine, Caribbean
Pinus caribaea 10- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua- - - - - - - - - - . 61 5, 080 8, 550 1, 600
Pinus caribaea 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 41. 0 57 . 65 - - - - - - - - 9, 000 1, 610
Pinus caribaea 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 35. 4 57 . 68 6, 090 11, 190 1, 880
Podocarp
Podocarpus coriaceus 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 44. 0 *41 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8, 700 1, 250
Purpleheart
Peltogyne pubescens 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 62. 0 75 . 74 - - - - - - - - 14, 400 2, 170
Peltogyne pubescens 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 42. 1 81 . 92 12, 700 21, 100 4, 260
Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora 4 - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64. 3 77 . 75 11, 400 16, 200 2, 610
timbers in the green condition— Continued
Static bending— Compression parallel to grain

Continued Hardness Compres-
sion per- Tension
propor- maxi- tress at Maximum Modulus Stress at to per inch per spec-
limit limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In.-lb. In.-lb.
per per 1,000
- - - - - - - - - 10. 6 5, 080 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 970 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 340 345 - - - - - - - -
1. 23 9. 2 3, 210 4, 370 1, 740 800 430 310 550 1, 070 310 - - - - - - - -
. 91 5. 2 1, 900 2, 780 1, 650 590 620 400 440 750 220 121. 6
. 68 5. 8 2, 300 2, 890 1, 490 900 810 390 420 770 190 95. 6
. 99 8. 2 3, 300 4, 540 1, 610 750 850 780 780 1, 070 370 - - - - - - - -

1. 05 8. 6 3, 200 4, 520 1, 530 870 800 620 760 1, 080 320 - - - - - - - -
1. 36 8. 8 3, 830 4, 990 1, 580 1, 130 1, 120 750 790 1, 280 370 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 10. 2 - - - - - - - - 4, 540 - - - - - - - - 750 650 710 - - - - - - - - 1, 310 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 70 9. 0 3, 830 4, 340 1, 370 770 790 670 630 1, 140 320 82. 4
1. 14 7. 3 2, 730 3, 500 1, 040 1, 160 1, 090 1, 090 750 1, 500 280 84. 3
1. 19 10. 6 3, 750 4, 810 1, 250 1, 300 1, 310 1, 010 1, 080 1, 620 450 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 8. 6 - - - - - - - - 4, 170 - - - - - - - - 990 980 980 -- - - - - - - 1, 540 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 14 17. 4 5, 350 7, 340 2, 710 2, 120 2, 280 1, 350 1, 020 1, 630 420 365. 9
- - - - - - - - - 12. 3 - - - - - - - - 5, 810 - - - - - - - - 1, 290 1, 210 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 310 450 - - - - - - - -

1. 60 11. 2 4, 130 5, 160 2, 320 900 940 620 610 1, 140 320 157. 0
2. 27 13. 4 6, 190 7, 580 3, 230 2, 050 2, 250 1, 430 750 1, 620 360 213. 3
2. 23 10. 2 5, 580 6, 720 2, 460 1, 720 1, 720 940 840 1, 320 380 207. 6
2. 04 13. 5 4, 800 6, 400 2, 660 1, 340 1, 450 1, 040 570 1, 400 380 228. 5
- - - - - - - - - 10. 2 - - - - - - - - 6, 900 - - - - - - - - 1, 610 1, 690 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 610 470 - - - - - - - -
1. 70 12. 2 4, 440 5, 530 2, 230 1, 360 1, 320 1, 060 850 1, 440 400 187. 1
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7, 330 - - - - - - - - 1, 610 1, 580 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 750 490 - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - 14. 6 - - - - - - - - 6, 430 - - - - - - - - 1, 430 1, 350 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 600 480 - - - - - - - -
. 92 8. 0 3, 230 4, 130 - - - - - - - - 700 780 830 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - 10. 8 - - - - - - - - 4, 600 - - - - - - - - 670 720 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 180 240 - - - - - - - -
1. 11 10. 7 3, 560 4, 900 2, 230 840 980 700 340 1, 170 240 250. 7
- - - - - - - - - 10. 0 - - - - - - - - 4, 320 - - - - - - - - 800 650 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 080 265 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 12. 4 - - - - - - - - 7, 890 - - - - - - - - 2, 040 2, 060 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 910 520 - - - - - - - -

2. 27 16. 4 9, 250 10, 970 3, 790 3, 000 3, 290 3, 010 - - - - - - - - 1, 830 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 67 17. 0 7, 070 9, 020 2, 790 2, 040 2, 090 2, 120 920 1, 640 525 - - - - - - - -
TABLE 10.— Strength properties of Caribbean

gravity:
Mois- Weight Green
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (8)
1,000
Roble Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Tabebuia rosea 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Venezuela- - - - - - - - - - 107. 8 58 0. 45 6, 000 9, 600 1, 620
Panama- - - - - - - - - - - -
British Honduras- - - - 68. 2 55 . 52 6, 600 10, 770 1, 450
Honduras- - - - - - - - - -
Rosewood
Dalbergia sp.2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 80 7, 970 14, 140 1, 840
Saman
Pithecellobium saman 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - Venezuela- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 48 4, 880 8, 100 910
Santa-maria
Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi 2c- - British Honduras- - - - 62. 0 52 . 52 5, 560 10, 490 1, 590
British Honduras- - -
Calophyllum spp.11 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 6, 310 9, 910 1, 535
Panama- - - - - - - - - - - -
Calophyllum brasiliense 3 - - - - - - - - - - - Central America- - - - - 62. 0 54 . 55 - - - - - - - - 10, 500 1, 570
Simarouba
Simarouba amara 2a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 69. 2 40 . 38 3, 900 6, 310 1, 140
Sterculia
Sterculia pruriens 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 93. 9 53 . 44 5, 800 9, 000 1, 890
Suradan
Hyeronima laxiflora 2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 82. 6 74 . 65 6, 510 10, 680 1, 880
Tabebuia,. white
Tabebuza insignis var. monophylla 4 - - British Guiana- - - - - - 89. 8 65 . 55 9, 700 13, 700 2, 300
Tatabu
Surinam-
Diplotropis purpurea 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61. 2 78 . 78 12, 380 17, 400 2, 680
Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Tauroniro
Humiria balsamifera 2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 62. 7 67 . 66 7, 820 11, 720 2, 060
Teak
Plantation-grown
Tectona grandis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Honduras- - - - - - - - - - 72. 3 60 . 56 6, 160 9, 940 1, 350
Forest-grown
Tectona grandis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Burma- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 57 7, 410 11, 330 1, 480
Tectona grandis 12 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Burma- - - - - - - - - - - - - 52. 0 57 . 60 7, 090 11, 440 1, 670
Tonka
Dipteryx odorata 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49. 2 81 . 91 12, 530 19, 290 2, 690
Wacapou
Vouacapoua americana 2b- - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 47. 9 73 . 79 12, 450 15, 850 2, 620
Wallaba
Eperua falcata 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 57. 2 76 . 78 12, 500 16, 000 2, 550
Eperua spp. 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 58. 0 73 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14, 300 2, 330
Wamara
Swartzia leiocalycina 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 38. 0 75 . 87 - - - - - - - - 20, 380 2, 650
Yemeri
Vochysia hondurensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua- - - - - - - - - - 226. 4 67 . 33 3, 500 5, 580 1, 040
Vochysia hondurensis 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 165. 0 *36 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6, 000 1, 070
Static bending— Compression parallel to grain Hardness Compres-

Continued Tension
sion per-
limit limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In.-lb. In.-lb.
per per 1,000
1. 24 7. 2 4, 410 5, 030 1, 650 910 670 610 670 1, 100 320 - - - - - - - -
1. 66 11. 7 4, 040 4, 910 1, 510 1, 030 910 790 790 1, 250 380 147. 0
2. 05 13. 2 3, 490 5, 510 1, 980 2, 210 2, 440 1, 830 920 2, 360 430 150. 7
1. 51 10. 4 2, 720 3, 760 1, 000 800 750 600 470 1, 100 260 99. 4
1. 10 12. 7 3, 040 4, 560 1, 700 1, 010 890 570 580 1, 260 330 180. 4
1. 46 ---------- 4, 850 5, 160 1, 507 990 860 640 560 1, 060 320 - - - - - - - -
- --- --- --- 10. 0 ---------- 5, 290 - ------- -- 1, 170 1, 040 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 310 390 - - - - - - - -
. 76 4. 5 2, 340 2, 970 1, 240 510 390 380 560 790 230 65. 8
1. 13 6. 6 2, 590 4, 350 2, 120 600 640 370 440 860 230 - - - - - - - -
1. 30 8. 3 3, 300 4, 960 2, 100 1, 280 1, 220 760 740 1, 200 380 186. 6
2. 34 12. 0 5, 870 6, 200 2, 610 1, 390 1, 230 600 650 1, 160 - - - - - - - -
3. 30 13. 0 5, 860 8, 020 2, 940 1, 880 1, 980 1, 290 700 1, 800 420 201. 1
1. 69 10. 0 4, 060 5, 810 2, 470 1, 240 1, 320 870 880 1, 460 380 145. 9
1. 59 10. 9 3, 960 4, 780 1, 350 1, 140 1, 290 1, 290 940 1, 730 390 116. 2
2. 08 10. 7 4, 160 5, 110 1, 580 890 920 1, 030 960 1, 490 420 84. 4
1. 70 9. 3 4, 080 5, 870 1, 940 920 1, 040 1, 060 - - - - - - - - 1, 110 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. 27 12. 3 7, 420 9, 020 2, 700 2, 000 2, 200 2, 280 1, 160 1, 990 480 265. 3
3. 44 14. 5 7, 280 9, 170 2, 750 1, 580 1, 610 1, 860 860 1, 510 380 202. 6
3. 39 14. 4 5, 990 8, 270 2, 860 1, 770 1, 980 1, 520 950 1, 550 330 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -- 9. 8 - --- --- --- 8, 070 - --------- 1, 590 1, 540 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 365 - - - - - - - -
- -- -- -- -- - 21. 6 - - - - - - - - - - 10, 140 - ---- ---- - - ----- ---- 2, 560 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 140 555 - - - - - - - -
. 67 4. 6 2, 050 2, 610 1, 170 510 410 420 440 700 230 73. 5
- --------- 4. 5 - --------- 3, 090 - - - - - - - - -- 630 540 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 710 280 - - - - - - - -
T A B L E 1 0 . — Strength properties of Caribbean
[Air dry strength properties

gravity:
Mois- Weight Green
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
SELECTED TIMBERS FOR

COMPARATIVE PURPOSES
1,000
Ash, white Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Fraxinus americana 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 42. 0 48 0. 55 5, 100 9, 600 1, 460
Beech, European
Fagus sylvatica 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom- - - - 88. 0 *52 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8, 900 1, 520
Hickory, shagbark
Carya ovata 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 60. 0 64 . 64 5, 900 11, 000 1, 570
Douglas-fir (coast type)
Pseudotsuga menziesii 12- - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 36. 0 39 . 45 4, 500 7, 600 1, 570
Oak
Quercus spp.3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom- - - - 89. 0 *52 - - - - - - - - 8, 100 1, 290
Oak, white
Quercus alba 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 68. 0 62 . 60 4, 700 8, 300 1, 250
Pine, Scotch
Pinus sylvestris 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom - - - - 79. 0 *41 - - - - - - - - 6, 000 1, 240
Pine, slash
Pinus elliottii 12- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 66. 0 58 . 56 5, 100 8, 900 1, 580
1
Weight per cubic foot at moisture content listed in America. Mich. Univ. School Forestry and Conserv. Bul.
column 3 except where designated (*), in which case weight 7. 5 1938.
is based on 50 percent moisture content. Markwardt, L. J., and Wilson, T. R. C. Strength and
2
Tropical Woods. Nos. 98 (2a), 99 (2b), 103 (2c). related properties of woods grown in the United States.
3
Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 479. 1935.
6
[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sci. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res. [Gt. Brit.] Department of Scientific and Industrial
Bul. 28. 1953. Research. A handbook of Empire timbers. Rev. ed.
4
Kynoch, William, and Norton, Newell, A. Mechani- Forest Prod. Res. Lab. 1945.
cal properties of certain tropical woods, chiefly from South
timbers in the green condition — Continued

Continued sion per- Tension
limit limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In-lb. In-lb.
per per 1,000
1. 04 16. 6 3, 190 3, 990 - - - - - - - - 1, 010 960 810 590 1, 380 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 13. 2 - - - - - - - - 3, 860 - - - - - - - - 1, 080 960 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 210 490 - - - - - - - -
1. 28 23. 7 3, 430 4, 580 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 040 - - - - - - - - 1, 520 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
75 7. 6 3, 130 3, 860 - - - - - - - - 570 500 440 300 930 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - 11. 1 - - - - - - - - 3, 850 - - - - - - - - 1, 120 1, 050 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 170 430 - - - - - - - -
1. 08 11. 6 3, 090 3, 560 - - - - - - - - 1, 120 1, 060 830 770 1, 250 420 144. 9
- - - - - - - - - 5. 6 - - - - - - - - 3, 020 - - - - - - - - 450 440 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 750 215 - - - - - - - -
1. 02 9. 5 3, 040 4, 340 - - - - - - - - 600 630 680 400 1, 000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7
Wellwood, R. W. The physical-mechanical properties Laboratory. U.S. Forest Serv. Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt.
of certain West Indies timbers. I. Caribbean Forester 7 R1139. [Processed.] 1937.
10
(2): 151-173. 1946. Fahnestock, G. R., and Garratt, George A. Nica-
8
Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber. raguan pine (Pinus caribaea Mor.). Tropical Woods 55:
The 2-cm. standard for tests of small clear specimens, 1-16 1938.
11
[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sci. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res. Bul. Greene, Edward C., Jr. Santa Maria, a neotropical
34. 1955. timber of the genus Calophyllum. Tropical Woods 30:
9
Heck, George E. Average strength and related prop- 9-16. 1932.
12
erties of five foreign woods tested at the Forest Products U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory.
Wood handbook. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 72. 1955.
T ABLE 11.— Strength properties of Caribbean
Static bending
specific
gravity:
Moisture Weight Oven-
Species Source content per cubic dry vol- Fiber
foot ume and tress at Modulus Modulus
weight propor- of rup- of elas-
tional ture ticity
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1,000
Angelique Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Dicorynia guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 8 45 0. 72 11, 610 17, 390 2, 190
Baboen
Virola surinamensis 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 4 32 . 51 6, 900 10, 950 2, 040
Bagasse
Bagassa guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 50 . 76 13, 900 20, 050 2, 580
Balata Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
2a
Manilkara bidentata - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 13. 2 66 1. 02 15, 030 27, 280 3, 450
Puerto Rico- - - - - - - - -
Balsa
Central America
12. 0 12 -------- - - - - - - - - 2, 800 470
12. 0 17 -------- - - - - - - - - 5, 300 710
Vilola koschnyi 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Central America- - - - - 12. 0 33 . 51 - - - - - - - - 10, 800 1, 720
Baromalli
Catostemma commune 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 37 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 11, 200 1, 820
Catostemma sp. 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 9. 5 - - - - - - - - . 74 10, 750 15, 450 2, 880
Bethabara
Tabebuia serratifolia 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 3 69 1. 06 16, 600 25, 360 3, 140
Bustic
Dipholis salicifolia 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 12. 0 62 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cedar, Central American
Cedrela sp. 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua- - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 25 . 38 5, 940 7, 860 1, 010
Courbaril Honduras- - - - - - - - - - -
Hymenaea courbaril 2a Puerto Rico- - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 6 53 . 81 11, 900 19, 400 2, 160
Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Panama- - - - - - - - - - - -
Hymenaea davisii 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 1 - - - - - - - - . 79 10, 720 19, 290 2, 950
Crabwood
Carapa guianensis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13. 5 41 . 61 9, 650 15, 620 1, 850
Carapa guianensis 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 39 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 14, 600 2, 120
Determa
Ocotea rubra 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 41
12. 8 . 58 7, 640 10, 470 1, 820
6
British Guiana- - - - - -
Ocotea rubra - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7, 980 13, 070 2, 010
Gommier
Dacryodes excelsa 7- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Puerto Rico- - - - - - - - - 14. 1 - - - - - - - - . 61 8, 600 13, 030 1, 530
Gronfoeloe
Qualea albiflora 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 14. 8 37 . 56 10, 090 14, 020 1, 960
Greenheart, Demerara- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 8 39 . 58 9, 720 14, 610 2, 200
Ocotea rodiaei 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 14. 8 *66 1. 06 16, 200 *25, 500 *3, 700
Ocotea rodiaei 3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 62 30, 500
- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 3, 400
Ocotea rodiaei 9- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 62 26, 580
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 970
Gumbo-limbo
Bursera simaruba 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 12. 0 21 . 32 3, 300 4, 800 740
Hura ‘Venezuela- - - - - - - - - -
2a
Hura crepitans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Panama- - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 9 28 . 41 5, 380 8, 710 1, 170
.Surinam- - - - - - - - - - - -
Kopie
Goupia glabra 2b ‘Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15, 300 2, 150
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Surinam- - - - - 12. 2 52 . 80 10, 380
- - - - - - -
1
timbers in the air-dry condition
Static bending– Compression parallel to grain Hardness Compres-

Continued sion per-
pendicular Tension Cleav-
to grain: perpen- age, per Tough-
Work to Work to Fiber Stress at dicular Shear inch of ness, per
propor- maxi- stress at Maximum Modululus propor- to grain width specimen
tional mum propor- crushing of elas- End Side tional
limit load tional strength ticity limit
limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In .-lb. In.-lb.
per cu. per cu. 1,000
in. in. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. Lb. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. In.-lb.
3. 32 15. 2 6, 810 8, 770 2, 490 1, 700 1, 290 1, 280 *560 1, 660 360
1. 40 10. 0 3, 330 5, 140 2, 130 560 510 270 360 980 200
4. 18 14. 4 9, 670 11, 560 2, 850 2, 140 1, 730 1, 690 740 1, 940 *290
3. 76 28. 5 8, 050 11, 640 3, 360 2, 650 3, 190 *2, 320 1, 100 2, 500 *330
1, 680
3, 730
8. 1 5, 720 950 640 1, 300 245
8. 4 6, 730 860 710 870 240

2. 27 6, 260 8, 340 2, 960 830 830 510 280 900 180
4. 98 *22. 0 9, 000 13, 010 3, 260 3, 180 3, 680 2, 300 *500 *2, 060 *380
4, 950 9, 540
5. 6 4, 450 580 500 710
3. 72 17. 6 6, 500 9, 510 2, 240 2, 520 2, 350 1, 880 *960 2, 470 *470
2. 30 19. 3 6, 430 9, 400 3, 170 2, 070 1, 760 1, 230 *860 2, 130 *390
2. 85 13. 4 5, 810 7, 900 2, 030 1, 670 1, 220 *850 550 1, 680 *280
8, 590 1, 550 1, 130 440
2. 00 6. 4 4, 420 5, 800 1, 810 590 660 640 *440 980 *220

8, 940 *550 *610 *215
2. 70 9. 7 4, 890 7, 150 2, 100 1, 350 900 1, 290 1, 910 390

3. 07 8. 0 7, 050 8, 670 2, 320 1, 430 900 700 *330 1, 400 *250
2. 41 12. 5 5, 940 7, 570 2, 650 1, 370 1, 050 860 *430 1, 800 *250
*4. 02 *22. 0 10, 000 *12, 920 *4, 160 *2, 140 *2, 630 *1, 970 *1,020 *1, 830
14, 940 2, 650 2, 830 485
21. 6 13, 350 2, 400
. 85 3. 0 1, 720 3, 080 370 270 560 360 800 200
1. 34 6. 7 3, 300 4, 800 1, 290 790 550 630 *350 1, 080 320
2. 80 9. 5 5, 200 8, 350 2, 460 1, 740 1, 700 1, 210 *570 1, 600 *380

TABLE 11.–Strength properties of Caribbean
Static bending
Specific
gravity
foot ume and stress at Modulus Modulus
tional ture ticity
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1,000
Kurokai Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i:
Protium decandrum 9- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 12. 0 40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15,980 1,870
Protium schomburgkianum - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - -
8 12. 2 *33 0. 50 6, 600 11,800 *1, 650
Kwarie
Vochysia guianensis - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2a 15. 0 - - - - - - - - . 48 6, 930 10, 330 1, 570
Vochysia guianensis 2a - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 10. 6 - - - - - - - - . 42 6, 540 9,050 1, 440
Lignumvitae
Guaiacum officinale 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Central America - - - - - 12. 0 76 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Mahogany, Honduras
Forest-grown
Swietenia macrophylla 8 - - - - - - - - - - Mexico - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10. 5 *31 . 50 *8, 600 12, 400 *1, 560
Swietenia macrophylla 8 - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua- - - - - - - - - - 10. 7 *33 . 50 *7, 700 12,000 *1, 510
Swietenia macrophylla 8 - - - - - - - - - - Peru - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 37 . 58 7, 600 12, 400 1,540
Swietenia macrophylla 10 - - - - - - - - - Central America - - - - - 12. 0 32 . 50 8,810 11, 140 1, 430
Swietenia macrophylla 4 - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 31 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11, 500 1, 370
Swietenia macrophylla 2a - - - - - - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 9 33 .49 8, 360 11, 590 1, 420
Plantation-grown
Swietenia macrophylla 2a - - - - - - - - - Honduras - - - - - - - - - - 13. 4 31 . 46 7, 620 10,310 1, 150
Mahogany, West Indies
Swietenia mahagoni 10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cuba - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 41 . 61 7,100 9,600 1,200
Manbarklak
Eschweilera subglandulosa 2b - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 7 67 1. 04 14,000 26,470 3, 140
Manni
Symphonia globulifera 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 43 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18, 000 2,200
’Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 1 44 . 68 10, 920 16,860 2,460
Symphonia globulifera 2c - - - - - - - - - - - .British Guiana - - - - - -
Symphonia globulifera 11 - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 7 44 . 66 11,200 18,450 2, 640
Marish
Licania buxifolia 2b - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 12. 5 68 1. 07 19, 440 27, 660 3, 340
Licania macrophylla 2b - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil-Surinam - - - - - - 11. 5 58 . 90 13, 550 20, 650 2, 530
Mora
Mora gonggrijpii 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 64 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25, 500 3, 180
British Guiana - - - - - - 11. 6 62 . 97 13,040 22,100 2, 960
Mora excelsa 2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - -
Mora excelsa 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 12. 0 62 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23, 100 2, 970
Nargusta
British Honduras - - - -
Terminalia amazonia - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - -
2a 12. 9 -------- . 73 11, 310 17, 750 2, 300
Panama - - - - - - - - - - - -
Terminalia amazonia 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trinidad - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 54 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18,800 2, 470
Terminalia amazonia 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 49 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18,200 2,270
Pine, Caribbean
Pinus caribaea 12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 49 - - - - - - - - 9, 450 15,880 2, 130
Pinus caribaea 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 48 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14, 700 1, 950
Pinus caribaea 2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras- - - - 13. 1 51 . 78 9, 850 16, 690 2, 240
Podocarp
Podocarpus coriaceus 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 31 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11,800 1,380
Purpleheart
Peltogyne pubescens 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 12. 0 54 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20,200 2,580
Peltogyne pubescens 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 13. 9 *68 1. 05 16, 300 25,100 3, 640
Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora 8 - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13. 1 *54 . 75 13, 300 20,100 2, 550
Rosewood
Dalbergia sp. 2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11. 5 - - - - - - - - . 88 11, 850 18,970 1, 880
l
timbers in the air-dry condition — Continued

Continued sion per-
propor- maxi- stress at Maximun Modulus propor- to grain width specimen
limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In.-lb. In.-lb.
in. in. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. Lb. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. In.-lb.
-------- 17. 6 - - - - - - - - 8, 860 -------- -------- 1, 160 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 130 330
1. 46 *13. 1 *5, 400 *6, 960 *1, 950 *1, 000 *720 *630 *450 *1, 410 - - - - - - - -
1. 73 7. 3 4, 950 6, 230 1, 690 *500 740 620 *360 1, 220 240
1. 67 *5. 2 5, 790 7, 160 1, 790 *710 *460 530 *280 *680 *140
- - - - - - - --------- - - - - - - - 11, 400 - - - - - - - - 3, 600 4, 500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 450
*2. 38 *9. 4 *4, 880 *7, 180 *1, 560 *1, 140 *770 *1, 000 *700 *1, 290 *340
2. 20 *9. 2 *5, 170 *1, 350 *1, 500 *1, 080 *810 *870 *720 *1, 270 *370
2. 13 8. 8 5, 170 7, 130 1, 610 1, 180 930 900 640 1, 300 340
---------- 6. 8 - - - - - - - - 6, 430 880 760 1, 210 - - - - - - - - 1, 050 - - - - - - - -
---------- 9. 9 - - - - - - - - 6, 170 - - - - - - - - 980 700 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 630 315
2. 77 *7. 8 5, 170 6, 470 1, 500 960 970 900 *610 1, 250 *300
2. 52 7. 5 4, 210 5, 680 1, 200 *1, 000 *980 1, 250 *620 1, 510 280
---------- 6. 2 - - - - - - - - 6, 240 - - - - - - - - 1, 350 1, 330 1, 170 -------- 1, 480 - - - - - - - -

3. 72 33. 3 6, 000 11, 210 3, 150 2, 750 3, 480 2, 480 *540 2, 070 *260
---------- 16. 8 - - - - - - - - 9, 280 -------- 1, 650 1, 290 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 590 390
2. 72 *16. 5 4, 840 8, 820 2, 860 1, 280 1, 120 800 *350 1, 420 *220
2. 69 14. 1 7, 850 10, 040 2, 490 1, 680 1, 320 1, 530 650 1, 770 400
6. 49 14. 2 10, 050 13, 390 3, 360 -------- 3, 570 2, 230 *250 1, 750 *220
4. 09 15. 4 8, 160 11, 010 2, 680 2, 640 2, 560 1, 590 *400 1, 850 *240
---------- 24. 7 - - - - - - - - 13, 660 3, 170 2, 950 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 650 550

3. 22 18. 5 6, 320 11, 840 3, 840 2, 210 2, 300 1, 280 660 1, 900 380
---------- 21. 4 - - - - - - - - 12, 240 - - - - - - - - 2, 610 2, 460 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 560 555
3. 16 16. 4 6, 950 9, 540 2, 520 1, 990 1, 610 1, 230 *670 1, 950 *270
- - - - - - - - - - ---------- ---------- 10, 600 - - - - - - - - 2, 550 2, 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 280 260

---------- 17. 8 - - - - - - - - 9, 990 - - - - - - - - - 2, 220 1, 740 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 090 310
2. 35 12. 0 5, 980 8, 390 - - - - - - - - 1, 180 1, 230 1, 680 - - - - - - - - 1, 750 --------
---------- 15. 0 -------- 7, 830 - - - - - - - - 1, 140 1, 120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 830 315
2. 43 17. 3 4, 960 8, 540 3, 010 1, 180 1, 240 1, 210 470 2, 090 340
9. 3 -------- 6, 980 - - - - - - - - 1, 280 710 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 690 250
---------- 16. 6 -------- 10, 960 - - - - - - - - 2, 750 2, 510 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 420 590

4. 07 24. 9 9, 970 13, 270 4, 540 3, 350 3, 640 2, 370 880 2, 070 - - - - - - - -
3. 97 18. 6 8, 790 10, 770 2, 730 2, 460 2, 140 1, 780 670 2, 150 350
4. 24 - - - - - - - - - - 6, 370 9, 600 2, 200 2, 970 2, 720 1, 990 *620 *2, 110 *330
TABLE 11.— Strength properties of Caribbean
Static bending
Specific
gravity :
foot ume and stress at Modulus Modulus
tional ture ticity
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1,000
Roble Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Tabebuia roseas 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Venezuela - - - - - - - - - - 14. 6 *35 0. 50 *7, 300 *12, 500 *1, 750
2a
Panama - - - - - - - - - - - -
Tabebuia rosea ------------------ British Honduras- - - - 13. 5 37 . 57 9, 480 13, 780 1, 600
Honduras - - - - - - - - - - -
Saman
Pithecellobium saman 2 b - - - - - - - - - - - - Venezuela - - - - - - - - - - 12. 4 35 . 51 6, 080 8, 860 1, 100
Santa-maria
Calophyllum brasaliense var. rekoi 2c- - British Honduras - - - - 13. 1 39 . 60 9, 000 14, 640 1, 830
Calophyllum spp.2c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 36 . 55 8, 740 12, 650 1, 695
Panama - - - - - - - - - - - -
Calophyllum brasiliense 4- - - - - - - - - - - - Central America - - - - 12. 0 40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14, 900 1, 830
Simarouba
Simarouba amara 2a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 2 27 . 40 6, 280 8, 930 1, 240
Sterculia
Sterculia pruriens 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 13. 2 *37 . 50 *6, 100 *9, 700 *1, 930
Sterculia pruriens 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 12. 0 33 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11, 900 1, 720
Suradan
Hyeronima laxiflora 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 9. 7 49 . 75 11, 110 18, 200 2, 270
Tabebuia, white
Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 8- - British Guiana - - - - - - 14. 3 *42 . 63 10, 600 14, 900 *2, 260
Tatabu
Diplotropis purpurea 2b- - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 58 . 89 13, 660 20, 560 2, 870
Brazil- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Tauroniro
2c
Humiria balsamifera - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 14. 2 50 . 78 11, 050 18, 770 2, 510
Teak
Plantation-grown
Tectona grandis 2a - - - - - - - - - - - - - Honduras - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 6 40 . 59 8, 430 13, 310 1, 390
Tectona grandis 13 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Trinidad - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 43 . 62 - - - - - - - - 15, 860 1, 576
Forest-grown
Tectona grandis 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - Burma - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10. 4 -------- . 61 8, 160 13, 240 1, 490
Tectona grandis 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Burma - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 43 . 64 - - - - - - - - 14, 300 1, 850
Tonka
Dipteryx odorata 2a- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brazil - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 0 67 1. 04 19, 130 27, 270 3, 030
Wacapou
Vouacapoua americana 2b- - - - - - - - - - - Surinam - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. 7 59 . 91 13, 720 21, 640 *2, 530
Wallaba
Eperua falcata 8- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana- - - - - - 13. 1 *58 . 88 *13, 700 22, 000 *2, 880
Eperua spp. 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - - 12. 0 56 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19, 200 2, 270
Wamara
Swartzia leiocalycina 9- - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Guiana - - - - - 12. 0 66 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30, 960 3, 430
Yemeri
Vochysia hondurensis 2c- - - - - - - - - - - - Nicaragua - - - - - - - - - - 11. 9 28 . 37 4, 930 7, 900 1, 160
Vochysia hondurensis 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - British Honduras - - - - 12. 0 29 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9, 600 1, 270

Ash, white
Fraxinus americana 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States- - - - - - - 12. 0 42 . 64 8, 900 15, 400 1, 770
Beech, European
Fagus sylvatica 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom - - - - 12. 0 43 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16, 200 1, 950
Hickory, shagbark
Carya ovata 5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States - - - - - - - 12. 0 50 . 78 10, 700 20, 200 2, 160
Oak, European
Quercus spp.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom - - - - 12. 0 43 ------ ------ 13, 300 1, 560
1

Continued sion per-
propor- maxi- stress a Maximum Modulus propor- to grain width specimen
limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In.-lb. In.-lb.
in. in. P.s.i. P.s.i. Psi. Lb. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. Lb. In.-lb.
*1. 70 *9. 4 *4, 630 *6, 010 *2, 230 *1, 040 *700 *1, 000 - - - - - - - - 810 --------
3. 18 12. 5 5, 890 7, 340 1, 740 1, 310 *960 940 *560 1, 450 270 --------
1. 97 *7. 8 3, 920 5, 070 1, 110 900 850 830 *460 1, 280 *240 --------
2. 50 16. 1 4, 860 6, 910 2, 010 1, 410 1, 150 890 *520 *2, 080 330 --------
2. 20 - - - - - - - - 5, 060 6, 670 1, 619 1, 370 870 1, 210 330 1, 480 340 --------
-------- 12. 4 - - - - - - - - 8, 410 -------- 1, 680 1, 250 ---------- -------- 1, 900 410 --------
1. 78 5. 8 3, 690 4, 840 1, 360 690 440 600 *390 1, 160 250 --------
*1. 09 *8. 0 *6, 230 *8, 230 *3, 020 *910 *770 *590 *450 *1, 080 -------- --------
-------- 10. 6 - - - - - - - - 6, 860 -------- 1, 020 790 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 090 250 - - - - - - - -
3. 14 12. 0 4, 510 9, 620 2, 630 2, 140 1, 700 1, 160 *670 1, 720 *280 --------
*2. 77 *11. 4 *6, 670 *8, 240 *2, 690 1, 350 1, 160 *980 *520 *1, 380 *290 --------
3. 66 *14. 8 9, 100 12, 140 *2, 920 2, 030 2, 140 *1, 200 *500 1, 960 *300 --------
2. 66 19. 6 5, 480 8, 950 2, 990 1, 870 1, 610 980 1, 000 2, 140 600 --------
2. 92 *10. 3 5, 300 6, 770 1, 510 1, 140 1, 110 1, 340 *770 *1, 600 470 - - - - - - - -
-------- 14. 2 -------- 8, 600 -------- 339 347 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. 51 *9. 3 5, 180 6, 710 *1, 500 950 1, 080 1, 190 980 *1,380 *340 - - - - - - - -
-------- -------- 8, 320 ---------- 1, 070 1, 130 -------- ----------- 1, 350 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. 74 26. 1 11, 720 13, 720 3, 190 2, 490 3, 540 2, 740 *710 2, 100 *420 --------
4. 23 17. 0 9, 590 11, 480 *2, 740 1, 600 1, 730 *1, 220 *550 1, 890 *335 --------
*3. 60 *20. 1 *7, 130 *10, 230 *2, 870 *1, 660 *1, 760 *1, 240 *560 *1, 590 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-------- 17. 7 -------- 10, 800 - - - - - - - - 2, 260 2, 040 ---------- -------- -------- 440 - - - - - - - -
32. 0 -------- 15, 980 -------- -------- 4, 260 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3, 580 950 --------
1. 20 5. 8 3, 350 4, 140 *1, 160 670 *400 450 *410 1, 030 *190
-------- 9. 5 - - - - - - - - 4, 860 -------- 930 700 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 120 300
2. 60 17. 6 5, 790 7, 410 -------- 1, 720 1, 320 1, 410 940 1, 950 -------- --------
-------- 17. 4 -------- 7, 870 -------- 1, 820 1, 440 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 030 525 - - - - - - - -

3. 01 25. 8 -------- 9, 210 -------- -------- -------- 2, 170 -------- 2, 430 -------- --------
-------- 9. 4 -------- 7, 210 ------- 1, 460 1, 230 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 760 430 --------
T A B L E 1 1 . — Strength properties of Caribbean
Static bending
Specific
Mois- Weight gravity:
Species Source ture per Ovendry Fiber
content cubic volume stress at Modulus Modulus
foot and propor- of of
limit
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

1,000
Oak, white Percent Lbs. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.
Quercus alba 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States - - - - - - - 12. 0 48 0. 71 8, 200 15, 200 1, 780
Douglas-fir
Pseudotsuga menziesii 14- - - - - - - - - - - - United States - - - - - - - 12. 0 34 -------- 7, 800 12, 200 1, 950
Pine, Scotch
Pinus sylvestris 4- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United Kingdom - - - - 12. 0 32 - - - - - - - - -------- 12, 000 1, 590
Pine, slash
Pinus elliottii 14- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - United States - - - - - - - 12. 0 43 . 61 9, 800 15, 900 2, 060
1
All values determined or adjusted to 12 percent mois- related properties of woods grown in the United States.
ture content except where designated (*) where moisture U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 479. 1935.
6
content in column 3 applies. Hohenkirk, L. S. Report on tests of woods from British
2
Tropical Woods. Nos. 98 (2a), 99 (2b), 103 (2c). Guiana by the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada.
3
[Gt. Brit.] Department of Scientific and Industrial Jour. Board Agr. Brit. Guiana. Georgetown. 1920.
7
Research A handbook of Empire timbers. Rev. ed. Wellwood, R. W. The physical-mechanical properties
Forest Prod. Res. Lab. 1945. of certain West Indies timbers. I. Caribbean Forester 7
4
Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber. (2): 151-173. 1946.
8
[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sci. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res. Kynoch, William, and Norton, Newell A. Mechanical
Bul. 28. 1953. properties of certain tropical woods, chiefly from South
5
Markwardt, L. J., and Wilson, T. R. C. Strength and
1

Continued sion per- Tension
limit load strength elasticity tional
limit limit
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
In-lb. In.-lb.
per per 1,000
2. 27 14. 8 4, 760 7, 440 -------- 1, 520 1, 360 1, 320 800 2, 000 450 - - - - - - - -
1. 77 9. 8 5, 850 7, 430 -------- 900 710 870 340 1, 160 -------- --------
-------- 11. 2 - - - - - - - - 6, 640 -------- 800 680 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1, 400 295 - - - - - - - -
2. 76 12. 6 6, 280 9, 100 - - - - - - - - 1, 080 1, 010 1, 390 570 1, 730 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11
America. Mich. Univ. School Forestry and Conserv. Garratt, George A. The wood of Symphonia globulif-
Bul. 7. 1938. era. Tropical Woods 45: 1-15. 1936.
9 12
Armstrong, F. H. The strength properties of timber. Fahnestock, G. R., and Garratt, George A. Nica-
The 2-cm. standard for tests of small clear specimens. raguan pine (Pinus caribaea Mor.). Tropical Woods 55:
[Gt. Brit.] Dept. Sci. and Ind. Res. Forest Prod. Res. 1-16.
13
Bul. 34. 1955. Smathers, R. A comparative study of some of the
10
Heck, George E. Average strength and related prop- more important mechanical properties of Trinidad and
erties of five foreign woods tested at the Forest Products Burma grown teak. [Gt. Brit.] Imp. Forestry Inst.
Laboratory. U.S. Forest Serv., Forest Prod. Lab. Rpt. Paper 27. 1951.
14
R1139 [Processed]. 1937. U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory.
Wood handbook. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 72. 1955.
T A B L E 1 2 . — Maximum allowable stresses for

(For use in designing
Allowable compressive Allowable compressive

Mini- stress parallel to grain stress perpendicular to grain
mum
allow-
able Special Air-dry Special Air-dry
Botanical name Trade name specific con- con- For use con- con- For use
gravity struc- struc- in hy- struc- struc- in hy-
for air- tions in tions draulics tions in tions draulics
dried small- inside and small- inside and
timber sized and founda- sized and founda-
timber outside tions timber outside tions
building buildings
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.

Andira coriacea - - - - - - - - - - - Angelin- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 80 2, 300 1, 800 1, 450 650 475 380
Carapa guianensis- - - - - - - - Crabwood- - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 60 2, 000 1, 550 950 310 230 130
Cedrela odorata- - - - - - - - - - - Cedar, Central Am- - - - 0. 35 1, 100 850 575 230 170 110
Dicorynia paraensis- - - - - - - Angelique- - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 65 2, 200 1, 700 1, 250 575 425 280
Diplotropis purpurea- - - - - - Tatabu- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 75 4, 000 3, 100 2, 800 500 375 340
Dipteryx odorata- - - - - - - - - - Tonka- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 00 4, 000 3, 100 2, 500 1, 500 1, 100 900
Eperua falcata- - - - - - - - - - - - Wallaba- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 80 2, 600 2, 100 1, 350 700 525 340
Eschweilera longipes- - - - - - - Manbarklak- - - - - - - - - - 1. 00 3, 000 2, 300 1, 400 1, 250 950 525
Goupia glabra- - - - - - - - - - - - Kopie- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 75 2, 600 2, 000 1, 300 700 525 330
Hura crepitans- - - - - - - - - - - Hura- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 40 1, 050 825 350 260 190 65
Hymenaea courbaril- - - - - - - Courbaril- - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 85 3, 400 2, 600 2, 100 1, 150 850 650
Manilkara bidentata- - - - - - - Balata- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 00 4, 000 3, 100 2, 100 1, 200 900 575
Mora excelsa- - - - - - - - - - - - - Mora— red variety- - - - - 0. 95 2, 800 2, 200 1, 350 850 650 360
Mora excelsa- - - - - - - - - - - - - Mora— white variety- - - 0. 90 2, 600 2, 000 1, 350 700 525 300
Ocotea rodiaei- - - - - - - - - - - - Greenheart, Demerara - 1. 00 4, 000 3, 100 2, 400 1, 000 750 575
Ocotea rubra- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Determa- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 55 1, 850 1, 400 850 300 230 120
Ocotea spp- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kereti silverballi- - - - - - - 0. 47 2, 000 1, 550 1, 100 310 230 160
Peltogyne pubescens- - - - - - - Purpleheart- - - - - - - - - - - 0. 70 2, 600 2, 000 1, 300 925 675 380
Platonia insignis- - - - - - - - - - Pakuri- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 70 2, 100 1, 650 1, 300 575 425 320
Qualea rosea- - - - - - - - - - - - - Gronfoeloe- - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 55 2, 000 1, 550 1, 000 400 300 180
Quercus spp- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Oak- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 60 1, 500 1, 150 700 400 300 115
Simarouba amara- - - - - - - - - Simarouba- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 37 1, 100 850 575 230 170 110
Swartzia spp- - - - - - - - - - - - - Parakusan, Wamara- - - 1. 05 5, 100 4, 000 2, 800 1, 550 1, 150 775
Symphonia globulifera- - - - - Manni- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 60 2, 400 1, 900 1, 050 360 260 130
Tabebuia serratifolia- - - - - - - Bethabara- - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 00 4, 400 3, 400 2, 800 1, 150 850 700
Tectona grandis- - - - - - - - - - - Teak (Indonesian)- - - - - 0. 60 1, 850 1, 400 1, 150 425 320 220
Vochysia and Qualea spp- - Kwarie & Yemeri- - - - - - 0. 50 1, 550 1, 200 750 240 180 100
Vouacapoua americana- - - - Wacapou- - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 85 3, 400 2, 600 2, 000 925 675 500
1
This table has been taken from pages 192-193, v. 2, of Certain botanical names have been changed to conform
J. Ph. Pfeiffer’s “De Houtsoorten van Suriname” (Suri- with later corrections in the nomenclature of Surinam
nam Timbers), published in Amsterdam, Holland, in 1927. Timbers. Conversion from kg/cm 2 to psi. was done by
tropical timbers under different circumstances

1
timber structures)
Allowable bending stress Modulus of elasticity Allowable shearing stress

Allowable
tension
stress
Special perpen-
Air-dry construc- Special Air-dry dicular to
Special construc- For use in tions and For use in construc- construc- For use in grain
constructions tions inside hydraulics air-dry con- hydraulics tions in tions in- hydraulics under all
in small-sized and outside and foun- structions and foun- small- side and and foun- circum-
timber buildings dations inside and dations sized outside dations stances
outside timber buildings
buildings
(10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)
P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i. P.s.i.

3, 500 2, 600 2, 200 1, 493, 000 1, 209, 000 400 340 340 7
2, 500 1, 850 1, 150 1, 422, 000 1, 209, 000 260 210 180 20
1, 650 1, 250 850 711, 000 569, 000 150 110 85 17
3, 100 2, 300 1, 800 1, 493, 000 1, 209, 000 280 240 210 16
4, 000 3, 000 2, 800 2, 062, 000 1, 706, 000 380 330 340 20
4, 300 3, 200 2, 700 2, 204, 000 1, 849, 000 500 450 370 33
2, 000 1, 500 1, 000 1, 280, 000 1, 067, 000 360 300 260 11
3, 300 2, 500 1, 500 2, 133, 000 1, 777, 000 550 475 380 23
3, 500 2, 600 1, 700 1, 635, 000 1, 351, 000 400 340 300 16
1, 650 1, 250 500 640, 000 427, 000 150 110 71 18
5, 200 3, 900 3, 100 1, 706, 000 1, 422, 000 450 390 360 11
4, 500 3, 400 2, 300 2, 062, 000 1, 706, 000 625 525 470 26
3, 300 2, 500 1, 500 1, 706, 000 1, 422, 000 450 380 310 33
3, 000 2, 300 1, 650 1, 777, 000 1, 493, 000 600 500 430 33
3, 800 2, 800 2, 200 2, 275, 000 1, 920, 000 280 230 210 10
2, 200 1, 700 1, 000 1, 138, 000 1, 067, 000 140 130 100 20
2, 000 1, 500 1, 050 1, 067, 000 853, 000 170 140 120 24
3, 700 2, 800 1, 850 1, 351, 000 1, 138, 000 450 370 330 26
2, 500 1, 900 1, 500 1. 564, 000 1, 280, 000 310 260 260 9
2, 500 1, 900 1, 200 1, 138, 000 1, 067, 000 330 280 140 26
2, 000 1, 500 850 1, 209, 000 995, 000 170 140 100 33
1, 150 875 575 782, 000 640, 000 150 110 85 17
6, 300 4, 800 3, 300 2, 773, 000 2, 275, 000 650 525 470 11
2, 500 1, 850 1, 000 1, 351, 000 1, 138, 000 190 160 110 9
4, 700 3, 600 3, 100 2, 275, 000 1, 920, 000 550 450 370 17
2, 400 1, 800 1, 400 1, 138, 000 995, 000 240 200 140 14
1, 900 1, 450 850 853, 000 711, 000 200 170 140 21
3, 700 2, 800 2, 100 1, 706, 000 1, 422, 000 300 240 230 20
the Secretariat, Caribbean Commission. After con- 10 units; 400–1,000 rounded off to 25 units; and above
version, the latter figures were rounded off as follows: 1,000 rounded off to 100 units. Figures for elasticity
0–100 rounded off to the unit; 100–400 rounded off to modulus (p.s.i.) were rounded off to the nearest thousand.
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS
The preferred trade names and scientific names of timbers discussed in detail in the text are indicated by
boldface type.
159
160 COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS 161
INDEX TO THE TIMBERS
163
COMMERCIAL TIMBERS OF THE CARIBBEAN
166
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 426 - 331

Commercial Timbers of the Caribbean

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Commercial Timbers of the Caribbean

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Present and Potential

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service;

Agriculture Handbook No. 207

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

The author is indebted to Dr. B. Francis Kukachka, U.S. Forest Product’s

TABLE 1.— Present and potential commercial timbers of the Caribbean

Specific gravity based Weight per cubic

Specific gravity based Weight per cubic

Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name

Most information on kiln-seasoning of Carib- shrinkage. Shrinkage to 10 percent and 20 per-

T ABLE 4.— Shrinkage properties of Caribbean timbers

Trade name Scientific name

Percent Percent Percent Percent

TABLE 5.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their working properties

Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name

TABLE 6.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to decay

Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name

TABLE 7.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to termite attack

Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name

PERMEABILITY Thus, the resistance of a wood to impregnation

TABLE 8.— Classification of Caribbean timbers as to their resistance to marine borers

Trade name Scientific name Trade name Scientific name

Angelique Gronfoeloe Purpleheart Tatabu

BENT PARTS OR ITEMS

Balata Determa Manni Tatabu

BOAT AND SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Frames and Timbers

Angelin Determa Pine, Caribbean Tauroniro

Angelique Courbaril Nargusta Saman

Angelique Nargusta Roble Teak

Finish and Trim

Cedar, Central American Crabwood Mahogany, West Indies Rosewood

BOXES AND CRATES

Baboen Gommier Kwarie Roble

See footnote at end of table.

Angelin Determa Manniballi Simarouba

Exterior Siding, Sheathing, and Other Exposed Uses

Angelique Gumbo-limbo Pine, Caribbean Suradan

Baboen Dukali Kopie Santa-maria

HEAVY CONSTRUCTION (general)

Angelin Courbaril Manbarklak Tatabu

Baboen Banak Manni

Angelique Broadleaf Manni Tauroniro

Angelin Crabwood Mahoe Saman

Baromalli Kereti silverballi Manniballi Simarouba

Angelique Gronfoeloe Mora Tabebuia, white

INTERIOR TRIM AND FINISH

Angelique Determa Kurokai Purpleheart

Bethabara Podocarp Rosewood, Honduras Wamara

MARINE PILING AND CONSTRUCTION (UNDERWATER)

Angelique Determa Manbarklak Suradan

See footnotes at end of table.

MARINE AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION (ABOVE WATER)

Angelique Courbaril Manni Tauroniro

Angelique Dukali Magnolia Roble

Balata Mahogany, Honduras Rosewood, Honduras Wamara

Cedar, C.A. Mahogany, Honduras Podocarp Simarouba

POSTS AND SHORT POLES

Angelin Courbaril Manni Suradan

Broadleaf Gommier Santa-maria Yokewood

SPORTING AND ATHLETIC ITEMS

Bagasse Bethabara Parakusan Snakewood

2. 00 6. 4 4, 420 5, 800 1, 810 590 660 640 440 980 220