Chapter 1

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING

THE CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT IN FLOTATION CIRCUITS
J.k Herbst, K.Y. Lee, and J.E. Gebhardt

Control International, Inc.

4 19 Wakara Way. Suite 101
Salt Lake City. UT 84 108 USA

ABSTRACT
Benefits of proper control of reagent usage in flotation circuits are typically
improved metallurgy and savings in reagent costs. Improved metallurgy can
mean more consistent product quality, i.e.. final concentrate grade, better
recovery of product values from the feed, or higher plant throughput at existing
target recovery, and grade values. Flotation performance is sensitive to a
variety of process disturbances which occur in operating plants, such as
changes in flow rate, percent solids, size distribution. flotability of mineral
species, etc. A way to handle these variations is to fully understand the dynamic
flotation responses to disturbances and to implement a suitable control strategy
to compensate for these disturbances.
Depending on the objectives of the control system, various types of control
strategies are available which employ different levels of refinement to achieve the
desired performance. Typically, variables such a s collector and frother dosages
and reagent addition points can be manipulated to affect the performance of the
circuit. In the case of sulflde mineral flotation, manipulation of the process
electrochemical potential, in flotation and in grinding. offers another degree of
process control. Because of the complex and interactive nature of flotation
process variables, optimized reagent control requires consideration of all,or at
least the most important, interactive variables of the flotation circuit. Model-
based optimizing control provides a framework to handle the complex and
dynamic nature of flotation reagent process control.

INTRODUCTION
The market price of metals in the 1990s dictates that operators must find
ways to reduce production costs; and one way is to search for avenues to reduce
mine and plant operating costs. As the trend of the mineral processing industry
moves toward more automation, there is an opportunity to optimize plant
performance through the application of process control systems. Flotation
4 REAGENTS FOR BETTER METALLURGY

systems have typically been a n enigma to process control engineers because of

the complex nature of the process and the vast number of interactive parameters
which exist in the process. Over the years, various authors have attempted to
quantify the number of flotation variables, ranging from about 100 variables
considered by Rose (1946) to the 32 listed by Sutherland and Wark (1955) who
considered only 22 of which could actually be controlled by the mill metallurgist.
One way to consider flotation variables is to group them in categories
according to their characteristics, as in Table 1.
Table 1. Variables of Importance for a Flotation Process

Dbtwb~ce Meuand Controlled

Vukbla Vukbles Vrrfiblem
hays Recovery
composition Volume Pulp level addition rate Grade
Ore oxIdation flowrates Impeller Collector Tonnage
degree MP speed addition rate throughput
Fluctuating density Conditioning Modifiers Circulating
feed size She the addltion rate loads
Surface distributions Stream (depressant. Feed
modifications Pulp level diversion activation, pH) percent solids
Fluctuattng Froth level Froth Reagents Froth level
feedrates Eh sprinkling rate addition point Feed she
Fluctuating Collector conc Coarse/Rne Electrochemical distribution
feed grades pH split potential (Eh)
Pulp viscosity Power Wash water
and density Bias
Water quality
(pH, hardness)
The inherent difficulty in establfshing a flotation process control system is
providing the means to handle the varying process disturbances whlch can
occur not infrequently and can severely affect the flotation separation. There are
a number of factors whlch can affect the stability of the flotation circuit. For
example, process disturbances may occur because of a change in the feed
material. i.e., a change in mineralogy for ore from a given section of the mine.
changes in the process water conditions. or due to temporary imbalances
resulting from the grinding circuit.
It is practically impossible to separate the effects of certain physical and
chemical variables, e.g.. making changes in the aeration level may affect the
interaction of collector and mineral and may require a n adjustment in collector
addition rate. Therefore, the process control system must distinguish interactive
situations and provide the means to handle process disturbances through the
manipulation of those variables having the greatest effect on the desired result.
Chemical Variables in Flotation
Most flotation control systems to date have treated the chemical variables in
flotation by some form of collector/frother/modifler addition rate control,
typically based on some empirically derfved relationships. The most common
system is feed forward control of reagent dosage based on tonnage processed. In
more sophisticated control systems. optimizing control can be achieved by
feedback control of reagent addition accomplished through use of on-stream
analysis. A summary of concentrators employing classical control systems was
 CONTROLLING ENVIRONMENT IN FLOTATION CIRCUITS 5

provided by Herbst et al. [ 1992). To develop more advanced strategies will

require a refinement of the understanding of the basic effects of the chemical
variables and how they may be used to enhance flotation results.
Of the chemical varlables, electrochemical parameters have perhaps been the
most under-utilized in advanced control systems. A broad fundamental base of
knowledge of electrochemical interactions in sulfide mineral systems has been
developed over the past 30-40 years (Woods. 1984: Woods and Richardson,
1986, and Chander and Gebhardt, 1989). The influence of electrochemical
variables on flotation of sulfide minerals has been examined in depth in many
laboratorv studies. though the application to aspects of control of industrial
flotation circuits are wilted to aikv cases. ~ a et6 al. (1992) have recently
reviewed aspects of sulfide mineral electrochemistry of importance in plant
appllcations. including how to identlfy, measure, and manipulate
electrochemical parameters. However, the application to the industrial flotation
circuit is only in the initial stages, and much remains to be learned from the first
attempts to institute control actions based on electrochemical measurements.

MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Rellable instrumentation is required in flotation control systems to provide
information on measured variables for use in deciding congol actions, The
development of on-stream anahrsfs bv x-rav fluorescence. x-rav diffraction. and
neutrdn activation techniques 6as p;ovideh a valuable tool in modem conk01
systems. Other tools for providing measured physical varlables include nuclear
density gauges, ultrasonic and magnetic flowmeters. and level-detection and
frother-thickness measuring devices. The most frequently measured chemical
varlable is pH or conductivity. as measured by pH and conductMty probes. The
measured value is frequently tied into a reagent addition control loop to
maintain a desired setpoint. Other devices for measuring chemical vaables
have looked at ways to measure residual collector dosage in solution (Jones and
Woodcock. 1970: Jones. 1991) and electrochemical potential through the use of
metal or mineral probes (Natarajanand Iwasaki. 1973; Labone and Finch.
1988; Zhou and Chander. 1990). Two systems for monitoring chemical
parameters have been described in the literature (Barbery and Ctcile, 1986;
Heimala et al.. 1985). but commercial acceptance has been slow. The U.S.
Bureau of Mines has designed and used a sensor probe in industrial flotation
cells but have not yet integrated measurements in a control system [Neuharth et
al.. 1987).
A system developed by Control International for controlling an electrochemical
parameter and correlating it with ore mineralogy was discussed by Suttill[1990).
As shown in Figure 1. when the level of the electrochemical variable was
deliberately reduced. region A. the effectwas observed in downstream flotation
cells. At region B, the zinc concentrate grade increased while iron in the
concentrate decreased. i.e.. more pyrite was rejected. The plant operators report
that by controlling electrochemical parameters increased zinc recoveries and
grades have been reallzed along with a substantial reduction in reagent costs.
In another system, electrochemical potential and residual xanthate were
measured during pilot plant flotation of a nickel ore (Heimala et al.. 1985). The
determined correlation between nickel recovery and grade and the
electrochemical potential is illustrated in Figure 2. Optimal nickel recovery and
grade occurred at about -5 mV (SCE) . Similar results obtained at the industrial
 REAGENTS FOR BElTER METALLURGY

I p Fe in Feed

Fe in Zn Concr.
E-CON

15:25 16:25
Time (hours)

Figure 1 . Controlling the Electrochemical Parameter at a Lead/ZInc

Concentrator.

- 10
I

POTENTIAL
;
L mV 1
10

Figure 2. Nickel Recoveries and Nickel Grades In Rougher Concentrates at

Various Potentials (Vs. SCE)(from Heimala et al.. 1985)
 CONTROLLING ENVIRONMENT IN FLOTATION CIRCUITS

level have been reported. There is some discussion in the literature on whether
metal or mineral electrodes should be used to measure electrochemical values
(Zhou and Chander. 1990; Trahar, 19841. though the choice of electrode probe
may well depend on the specific application.
Of major concern to a process control system is the reliability and durability
of the electrochemical sensor in the industrial flotation circuit. Richardson et al.
(1993) point out that many problems still exist in applying electrochemical
concepts to real flotation environments because of the presence of heavy metals
and associated hydroddes that occur in industrial circuits. Senior and Trahar
(1991) have attempted to quantify some of these effects for chalcopyrite flotation.
but more comprehensive study of the chemical parameters and their
interactions is required.

STATE-OF-THE-ART -- APPLICATIONS
The basic elements of a process control system consist of 1) instrumentation:
that is, devices capable of measuring key variables and providing information to
a control system and devices by which manipulated variables can be controlled;
2) computer hardware. including computers. PLCs, and final control elements;
and 3) a n appropriate control strategy to specify the control actions required
when certain disturbances are detected. Of primary importance is the
requirement that the operator clearly define the objective(s)of the process
control system. Defining clear metallurgical objectives may be a more difficult
task than it seems on the surface. Then, different strategies can be evaluated to
select the most appropriate control configuration which would meet the specified
objectives. l b o case studies are presented below.
Case Study - Expert System Control
An expert control system was developed for a copper flotation circuit
employing a heuristic model incorporated in the overall process control package.
In this control strategy. froth level in the flrst bank of flotation cells was an
important controlled variable, a s shown in Figure 3. Collector dosage and froth
level were controlled in banks two and three by employing a set of rules which
examined the current cell conditions and instigated actions based on
maintaining the strategic variables within a defined range. An example of the
type of rule used: if the grade and the froth level are high. or if the grade is
normal but the froth level is high. then increase the collector dosage. In this
study, the ability to maintain optimal froth level allowed better control of the
cleaner concentrate grade, shown in Figure 4; and, thus, provided enhanced
performance of the circuit. The demonstrated benefit from the performance of
this system was a n increase in overall recovery of not less than 1 percent,
equivalent to approximately 1.5 million dollars annually. Several other case
studies have been recently described utilizing stabilizing control and expert
systems in flotation control (Edwards and Mular, 1992: McKee, 1992: Pulkkinen
et al. 1993).
 REAGENTS FOR BElTER METALLURGY

580 600 620 640 660 680 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.3 0.33 0.36
Froth Level (mm) Line C1 Cleaner Grade

Figure 3. Figure 4.
A Comparison of Froth Level Under A Comparison of Cleaner Concentrate Grade
Manual and Expert System Control Under Manual and Expert System Control

Case Study - Model-Based Optlrnizing Control

Although classical control theory can provide the basis for designing flotation
control strategies, certain important limitations exist which reduce their
effectiveness. In the usual single input/single output linking. undesirable
interaction can occur between controllers. The nonlinear nature of the
relationships between flotation measurements and responses contributes to the
unstable interactions between controllers. In addition. noisy signals. frequent
invalid information, and drifts in dynamic performance of the circuit, due to
normal wear of equipment. are among other factors responsible for ineffective
classical control strategies. Classical feedback strategies are based on the
assumptions that the Zirection of change for response to some disturbance is
known and that the range of controller gains will encompass all disturbance
situations. This is not necessarily true for flotation circuits where several
combinations of operating conditions might produce the same result in
separation efficiency. Most classical control systems cannot adapt in a timely
and positive manner to process disturbances when actions are based on
measured values which are not in the range of the required time constants. For
example. off-line flotability disturbance measurements in the feed to one copper
flotation circuit lndicate a predominant time constant of 5-10 minutes within a
total circuit retention time of more than one hour. Control actions taken in the
circuit. based on measured assays of final concentrate and tails, occur too late,
and the result is circuit performance at a level lower than expected for optimal
control.
Model-based control schemes provide the ability to make Umely and positive
responses to process disturbances in a way that optimal flotation performance is
 CONTROLLING ENVIRONMENT IN FLOTATION CIRCUITS

expected from the system. The design of a model-based control system is

illustrated in Figure 5 and incorporates the following features:
1) A process model simple enough for on-line calculations yet able to
represent the dynamic characteristics of the process.
2) An estimator which compares process measurements and model
information on the basis of some established objective criterion to select
best estimates of the state of the system and process parameters over
time.
3) An optimizer which uses the current information on the state of the
system and the model to select controller actions resulting in achieving
optimal process performance.
4) A controller which accepts setpoint values and/or control loop gains a s
specifled by the optimizer.

Figure 5. Schematic Diagram of Model-Based Control

Models of the flotation process are of two types: empirical models with derived
input/output relationships from stimulus/response experlrnents and
phenomenological models which can be derived from the equations for
conservation of mass. momentum. and energy. Modem control theory provides
the mathematical means to handle the complex multi-variable problem of the
flotation control system. Modem computing capability provides the means to
solutions which allow timely use of parameter estimations and state-of-the-
system information in the overall system control strategy.
Zaragoza and Herbst I19881 have demonstrated the use of a model-based
control scheme in evaluating four control strategies for a copper flotatioc cucuit.
Through the use of an on-line predictive model, unmeasured variables, such a s
flotability of the ore, can be estimated early in the circuit allowing control
actions to be taken in the cleaner and scavenger cells. The control strategy
employed a shpUfied form of the phenomenological model, described by Bascur
and Herbst (19821. invohrlng the interaction of three phases: solid. liquid, and
gas. TWOdistinct volumes within the flotation cell are considered: the pulp
volume in which intimate particle/bubble contact occurs and the froth volume
in which some degree of mineral separation occurs. A population balance model
approach along with consideration of the hydraulic characteristics of the three-
phase system form the basis for the flotation model. TWOshpUfying steps were
applied. The particle number density for each transient state (free in the pulp,
10 REAGENTS FOR BElTER METALLURGY

attached to bubbles in the pulp, free in the froth, and attached to bubbles in the
froth) was transformed to a set mass density of particles in different sue classes
and in different mineralogical composition classes. Attachment and detachment
processes in the pulp and the froth were assumed to be at equilibrium. Then,
steady-state equations yield the equilibrium relationship between the mass of
particles free and attached in the pulp volume. Equations relating frother
concentration to bubble sue and froth stability, as well as collector additions to
bubble attachment and detachment rates, play an important part in the overall
supe~sory control strategy.

The benefits of an optimizing model-based system were shown to be superior

to model-based PI control, typical PI control, and level-only control. The mean
copper recoveIy for the optimizing model-based control system compared to the
model-based PI system, as shown in Figure 6. was improved, although the
variance around the mean was similar. It was determined that optimizing
control yielded an improvement in copper recovery of more than 1 percent over
the other control schemes. The economic benefit is shown in Figure 7 where the
relative profit per year is illustrated for the optimizing and model-based PI
control schemes.

Figure 6. Figure 7.
Histograms of Copper Recovery for Histograms of Yearly Profit for
Two Types of Model-Based Control Optimizing and Model-Based PI

SUMMARY

Vision of Future Flotation Control Systems

To maximize resource utilization and minimize costs, flotation control systems

will need to include measurement and manipulation of chemical parameters to
optimize system performance. The development of reliable sensors for
measuring the relevant chemical parameters is needed to allow incorporation of
the chemical parameters in the process model. The difficulty of estimating the
effect on the process can be handled by advanced techniques for real time.
recursive parameter estimation available in model-based control strategies. In
 CONTROLLING ENVIRONMENT IN FLOTATION CIRCUITS

this way, the interactive effects of several changing flotation variables can be
estimated and manipulated to yield control actions resulting in optimal process
performance.
The incomoration of modem estimators. such a s the Kalman filter, provides a
way to dis&guish the relative merits of a large amount of informationavailable
from instrument sensors. Particularlv for measured electrochemical variables.
the estimator is expected to be u s e f d a s a tool to sort and select relevant
process information through the flotation model and apply the appropriate
optimizing actions. This will be accomplished by incorporating the chemical
parameters in the model-based optimizing control strategy.

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12 REAGENTS FOR BElTER METALLURGY

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