Paleosols

They are soils of the past. What constitutes a paleosol has been the subject of
considerable debate. The term has not gained general acceptance by many Quaternary
stratigraphers and pedologists, and the term ‘buried paleosol’ has continued to be used
by most investigators.
In the geosciences, paleosol can have two meanings, the first from geology and
paleontology, and the second from soil science. In soil-science the term refers to any
ancient, buried soil that is anomalous in its context; in geology and paleontology it
specifically refers to soils buried under volcanic rock.

The first meaning, common in geology and paleontology, refers to a former soil
preserved by burial underneath either sediments (alluvium or loess) or volcanic
deposits (volcanic ash), which in the case of older deposits have lithified into rock.
In Quaternary geology, sedimentology, paleoclimatology, and geology in general, it is
the typical and accepted practice to use the term "paleosol" to designate such "fossil
soils" found buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits exposed in all continents
as described by Retallack (2001), Kraus (1999) and others.

In soil science the definition differs only slightly: Paleosols are soils formed long ago
that have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the present-
day climate or vegetation.
Such soils are found within extremely old continental cratons, or in small scattered
locations in outliers of other ancient rock domains.

Two important aspects of paleosols are that they are key stratigraphic markers and can
be used in paleoenvironmental interpretations. As a stratigraphic marker, a buried
paleosol's uppermost boundary provides the contact between geologic deposits of two
different ages. As such, paleosols are often crucial in interpreting Quaternary
stratigraphy. It is important to remember, however, that many buried paleosols are
remnants of once-thicker soils, and in some cases, they have been eroded completely.
Nevertheless, many Quaternary sections contain buried paleosols with sufficient
preservation to make paleoenvironmental interpretations possi
Tephra and Indian Acheulian

Tephra in archaeological contexts can have ambiguous placement between eco-

facts and artifacts.
Because they are well preserved and highly resistive to corrosion and other
natural factors, they can be useful in dating in Archaeology.
Tephra deposited in particular prehistorical period can be dated directly with the
help of dating methods like radiocarbon dating method.

Tephra Dating Methods

The principle use of tephrochronology is to date layers in sedimentary deposits
that contain tephra, whether this is a thick bed of tephra found in a sediment
core or riverbank exposure, or a minute collection of glass shards preserved in a
peat bog or an ice core.
The dating of tephra deposits can be achieved either through direct dating
methods or by indirect dating methods. In the case of direct dating, the ages of
tephras that were deposited in the historic era can be traced through
documentary evidence (historical accounts, journals, diaries, governmental
records).
Tephras that were deposited in prehistoric times can often be directly dated
through the radiometric decay of uranium (yielding fission-track ages) or argon
isotopes (40Ar/39Ar dating).
Indirect methods of tephra dating focus on obtaining dates from deposits that
surround tephra layers, including both organic and inorganic sediments.

Acheulian sites
Studies of sites associated with tephra in Maharashtra and with miliolites at
Madhuban, Gujarat, have yielded new information on the context and age of
Palaeolithic sites in Peninsular India.
The two Early Acheulian sites of Bori and Morgaon from the Deccan Volcanic
Province in Upland Maharashtra, bear some association with an acidic tephra
deposit in a fluvial context.
Acheulian artefacts in association with tephra were first reported in India from
the site of Bori and numerous efforts to date this tephra have since been
undertaken.

Tephra was discovered in association with sandy pebbly gravely Acheulian

horizon by Korisettar (1989). Tephra was observed at a number of localities in
the Kudki valley around Bori.
There are 8 tephra exposures round Bori for a stretch of about 8 km. The
relationship of the gravel to the dated tephra is crucial for the dating of the
Acheulian industry
At Morgaon, the Acheulian artefacts have been recovered from basal fluvial
sediments that contain clasts of laterite. These sediments are capped by two low
energy clay facies that are separated by a high energy gravel lense.
The tephra at Morgaon has been reported from the upper clay facies and has
produced absolute dates ranging from the Matuyama period (> 0.78 ma) to the
Late Pleistocene (41 ka).
Natural Processes
Geological processes are events that occur on a geological timescale ranging between
millions of centuries, hundreds of meters, and thousands of kilometres.
Hazardous Processes:

 Earthquakes
 Eruptions of Volcanoes
 Tsunamis
 Landslides
 Subsidence
 Floods
 Droughts
 Hurricanes
 Tornadoes
 Meteorite Impacts

Minerals
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid
chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific
crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.
Example: Quartz, Calcite
Rocks
Rocks are aggregates of minerals that are held together to form a consolidated mass.
 Igneous Rocks – Granite, Basalt
 Sedimentary Rocks – Clastic/Chemical/Biochemical
 Metamorphic Rocks – Slate, Schist

Geological Processes
A variety of processes act on and within the Earth.

 Melting - responsible for creating magmas that result in volcanism.

 Deformation - responsible for earthquakes, volcanism, landslides, subsidence.
 Isostatic Adjustment due to buoyancy - responsible for earthquakes, landslides,
subsidence.
 Weathering - responsible for landslides, subsidence.
 Erosion - responsible for landslides, subsidence, flooding.
Plate Tectonics
o Much of what occurs near the surface of the Earth is due to interactions of the
lithosphere with the underlying asthenosphere.
o Most of these interactions are caused by plate tectonics.
o Plate Tectonics is a theory developed in the late 1960s, to explain how the outer
layers of the Earth move and deform