Sensible heat of gas

Latent
heat of
melting Latent heat of boiling
Temperature

373.15 K

Sensible heat of liquid

273.16 K

Sensible heat of soild

334 kJ 419 kJ 2257 kJ

Enthalpy

Figure 1.1
Table 1.1

(bar) ( C)
0.006 0
0.04 29
0.08 41.5
0.2 60.1
0.5 81.4
1.013 100.0

Critical
temperature
Liquid
e
u rv
Pressure

tc
Solid

in
po
ili ng
Bo
Gas

Triple
point
Temperature

Figure 1.2
Table 1.2

(W/(m K))
Copper 200
Mild steel 50
Concrete 1.5
Water 0.62
Cork 0.040
Expanded polystyrene 0.034
Polyurethane foam 0.026
Still air 0.026
Table 1.3

Reynolds Re Velocity of fluid

Density of fluid
Viscosity of fluid
Dimension of surface
Grashof Gr Coefficient of expansion of fluid
Density of fluid
Viscosity of fluid
Force of gravity
Temperature difference
Dimension of surface
Nusselt Nu Thermal conductivity of fluid
Dimension of surface
Heat transfer coefficient
Prandtl Pr Specific heat capacity of fluid
Viscosity of fluid
Thermal conductivity of fluid
 A Co
ol
ed
m
ed
iu
m

Ra
max ch te of
an
ge t em
pe
rat
ure

min

B
In Out
Cooling medium

Figure 1.3
 Condensing
A in
refrigerant A in
R
min
Ai Ai
r r
w out
max
max A out
A out
te r max
Wa max
min w out Water
Evaporating
R w in
refrigerant w in
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.4
 e
rv
cu
Pressure

n
tio
ra
S at u

Temperature

Figure 2.1
 Dry saturated gas Gas at 12.54 bar
– 5 C 3.21 bar
249.9 kJ/kg
Compressor

–5 C 35 C
Heat in Heat out

Fluid in Liquid out

91.4 kJ/kg 35 C
91.4 kJ/kg
Figure 2.2
 High-pressure gas
Low-pressure gas
‘Discharge’
‘Suction’
Compressor

Evaporator Condenser

Expansion
valve

Low-pressure High-pressure liquid

(liquid and flash gas)

Figure 2.3

35 C Condensation
c
308.15 K
Temperature

Expansion Compression

–5 C
268.15 K
Evaporation

Entropy

COP = 1 = 6.7
(308.15/268.15) – 1

Figure 2.4
 40 C
c
313.15 K
Ambient
Temperature

Load
–10 C
e
263.15 K

Entropy
COP = 1 = 5.26
(313.15/263.15) – 1

Figure 2.5
 100

50
40 80
30
60
20
Liquid 40
10 20
Vapour
Pressure

5 0
4 a c d
3 b
–20
2
Liquid + Vapour
1.0 –40

0.5
0.4 –60
0.3
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Enthalpy

Figure 2.6

100

50
40 80
30
1
60 –
20 1
40
10 20
Pressure

5 0
4
3 –
–20 1 1
2

1.0 –40

0.5
0.4 –60
0.3
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Enthalpy

Figure 2.7
Table 2.1

Evaporator Condenser Compression Reversed

ratio Carnot
Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure COP
Ideal reversed –5 C 4.24 35 C 13.68 3.23 6.70
Carnot
Modified reversed –10 C 3.54 40 C 15.34 4.33 5.26
Carnot, T = 5 K
Modified reversed –15 C 2.96 45 C 17.3 5.85 4.30
Carnot, T = 10 K
Pressures are bar absolute for an R.22 circuit.
 1.0

0.9
Volumetric efficiency

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
R.22
clearance 7%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pressure ratio
Figure 2.8
 Low-stage High-stage
compressor compressor

Intercooler
Expansion
valve
Evaporator Condenser

Expansion
valve

(a)

100
50
40 80
30 60
20
40
10 20
Pressure

5 0
4
3
–20
2

1.0 –40

0.5
0.4 –60
0.3
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Enthalpy
(b)

Figure 2.9
 High-temperature
Low-temperature compressor
compressor

Low-temperature condenser

High-temperature
Evaporator evaporator Condenser

Expansion Expansion
valve valve

(a)

100

50
40 80
30
60
20
40
10 20
Pressure

5 0
4
3
–20
2

1.0 –40

0.5
0.4 –60
0.3
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Enthalpy
(b)

Figure 2.10
 High-pressure
refrigerant gas

Low-pressure Generator
refrigerant gas
Pressure
reducing
valve
Weak liquor
Absorber

Strong liquor

Pump
Condenser

Evaporator Expansion
valve
High-pressure refrigerant liquid

(a)

Absorber Generator

Pump
Condenser
Evaporator

Expansion
valve
(b)

Figure 2.11
Table 2.2 Energy per 100 kW cooling capacity at 3 C
evaporation, 42 C condensation

Load 100.0 100.0

Pump/compressor (electricity) 0.1 30.0
Low-grade heat 165 –

Heat rejected 265.1 130.0

 Air
Cooling air
inlet
out

Expander

Cold air
Heat to process
Compressor exchanger

Cooling
Fan air in

Figure 2.12

Cooled
Heat surface
sink
–
P type

15 V
d.c.

N type
+

Figure 2.13
Table 3.1 Typical uses of refrigerants before 1987

Domestic refrigerators and freezers R12

Small retail and supermarkets R12, R22, R502
Air-conditioning R11, R114, R12, R22
Industrial R717, R22, R502, R13B1
Transport R12, R502
Table 3.2 Comparison of new refrigerants

( C) C
HCFC (short term)
R22 R502, R12 0.05 1700 63 – 41
HFCFC/HFC service-blends (transitional alternatives)
R401A R12 0.03 1080 80 – 33
R401B R12 0.035 1190 77 – 35
R409A R12 0.05 1440 75 – 34
HFC–Chlorine free (long-term alternative)
R134A R12, R22 0 1300 80 – 26
HFC–Chlorine free–blends–(long-term alternatives)
R404A R502 0 3750 55 – 47
R407A R502 0 1920 56 – 46
R407B R502 0 2560 53 – 48
R407C R22 0 1610 58 – 44
ISCEON 59 R22 0 2120 68 – 43
R410A R22, R13B1 0 1890 43 – 51
R411B R12, R22, 0.045 1602 65 – 42
R502
Halogen free (long-term alternatives)
R717 ammonia R22, R502 0 0 60 – 33
R600a isobutane R114 0 3 114 – 12
R290 propane R12, R22, 0 3 70 – 42
R502
R1270 propylene R12, R22, 0 3 61 – 48
R502
Table 3.3 Environmental impact of some of the latest refrigerants

(CO2 = 1.0)
R22 HCFC 0.05 1700
R134a HFC 0 1300
R404a HFC 0 3750
R407c HFC 0 1610
R410a HFC 0 1890
R411b HCFC 0.045 1602
R717 ammonia 0 0
R290 propane 0 3
R600a isobutane 0 3
R1270 propylene 0 3

TEWI = TOTAL EQUIVALENT WARMING IMPACT

TEWI = (GWP L n) + (GWP m [1 – recovery] + (n Eannual )

Leakage Recovery losses Energy consumption

direct global warming potential indirect global

warming potential

GWP = Global warming potential [CO2-related]

L = Leakage rate per year [kg]
n = System operating time [Years]
m = Refrigerant charge [kg]
recovery = Recycling factor
Eannual = Energy consumption per year [kWh]
= CO2-Emission per kWh (Energy-Mix)

Figure 3.1
 Comparison
with 10% higher
energy consumption
300
Example +10%

Medium temperature R134a +10%

E E
to –10 C N
tc +40 C 200 N E
E

103
m 10 kg // 25 kg E E N
N R
1 kg // 2,5 kg
L[10%] R E
E G
Qo 13,5 kW G R
R Y

TEWI
E 5 kW 5000 h/a Y G RL = Impact of
100 G
0,6 kg CO2/kWh Y recovery
0,75 Y RL RL losses
n 15 years RL RL
GWP 1300 (CO2 = 1) time LL LL LL = Impact of
horizon 100 years LL LL leakage
10 kg 25 kg 10 kg 25 kg losses
Refrigerant charge [m]

Figure 3.2 Comparison of TEWI figures (example)

 Isotherms
tcm B B1
C1
C tg

ne
Pressure

Li
le
bb

Dew line
Bu
D1 tcm
D
tg A A1

tg Temperature glide
tcm Mean condensing temperature
tom Mean evaporating temperature
Enthalpy

Figure 3.3
Table 3.4 Choice of compressor lubricant

Traditional oils
Mineral * ** X *V *
Alkyl benzene * * ** *V **
Poly-apha-olefin ** X X *V **
New lubricants
Polyol-ester ** M V *MV * *V X
Poly-glycol X X ** M ** M ** M
Hydro-treated X X X X *
mineral oil
Key
* Good suitability
** Application with limitations
X Not suitable
M Especially critical with moisture
V Possible correction of basic viscosity
 Suction Discharge
inlet outlet

(a) (b)

Figure 4.1
 Clearance
volume

Discharge
c
Pressure
Re-expansion

C
om
pr
es
s
io
n

e
Inlet

0 Volume

Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4 1 38
Figure 4.5

Discharge valves
Valve plate

Gasket
Suction valves

Compressor body

Figure 4.6
 Discharge
Light damping valve
spring
Suction
valve

Suction
port

Figure 4.7
 Cylinder head
Discharge valve

Hollow
valve
plate

Ring plate
suction valve

Cylinder

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
 (a)
Internal line break
overload protector
Motor fan blades

Winding Suction muffler

Rotor Discharge muffler

assembly

Internal
spring mounting Internal pressure relief
valve

Crankshaft Top main bearing

Crankcase heater Pistons

Outboard bearing
Connecting rods

Oil spinner External mounting

grommet and
spacers
Thrust plate Discharge tube

(b)
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
 Inlet
port

Shaft
Drive
seal
shaft

Pressure
plate
Vane

Figure 4.13

Spring recess
Sliding valve
Discharge valve
Discharge
point
Comp.
Body
cylinder

Eccentric
Rolling piston

Figure 4.14
 Plain
radial
bearing, Balancing
outlet end piston

Female Male Thrust Sliding valve

Suction site rotor rotor bearing actuating piston

Control
cylinder

Oil
pump

Plain
radial
bearing, Unloading spring
inlet end

Discharge side

Shaft seal Capacity control,

gas return port

Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
 Gas
Suction opening
Delivery opening
Suction Fixed scroll
chamber Orbiting scroll

Compression
chamber

Suction stroke
Delivery stroke
Compression stroke
(b) (c)
Suction pocket
seal-off position

(a) (d)

Figure 4.17
Figure 4.18 Centrifugal compressor unit (Courtesy of York Division of Borg-Warner Ltd)
Table 4.1 Model No. PLE08, R.502

Suction Condensing at
30 C 35 C 40 C 45 C
Temperature Pressure Capacity Power Capacity Power Capacity Power Capacity Power
– 50 0.82 5.64 5.70 4.78 5.59 3.87 5.41 3.01 5.18
– 45 1.04 8.49 7.00 7.49 7.00 6.48 6.94 5.48 6.81
– 40 1.31 11.9 8.29 10.7 8.41 9.56 8.48 8.40 8.40
– 35 1.63 15.9 9.65 14.5 9.92 13.1 10.1 11.9 10.3
– 30 2.00 20.6 11.0 19.1 11.5 17.6 11.6 15.9 11.9
 C mp
on e
te

de rat

300
ns ure
Cooling capacity (kW)

in

C
g

250 30 C
35 C
200 40

150

100

50
0
– 40 – 35 – 30 – 25 – 20 – 15
Evaporating temperature ( C)

Figure 4.19
 Gas outlet to Delivery gas inlet
condenser from compressor

High-pressure
cut-out connection
Conical baffle

Becoil demister unit

Separator shell

Baffle

Oil return float valve

Heater boss
Mounting feet
Oil reservoir

Figure 5.1
Table 5.1 Miscibility of oil with liquid refrigerants

0 C 35 C
(kg/m3)
R134a Fully miscible Fully miscible 1295
R.22 Separates into oil- Fully miscible 1177
rich mixture at top
and refrigerant-rich
mixture at bottom
R.717 Non-miscible Non-miscible 596
Oil 910
 Suction gas
Suction to compressor

Bleed
compressor

connection
Gas to

Liquid level

Rectifier
vessel

Oil to
compressor

Flooded
Cooled Liquid from
evaporator
liquid condenser

Figure 5.2
 Entrainment velocity

5–7 m/s
Compressor

Evaporator Condenser

Expansion
valve

Figure 5.3