Allama Iqbal Open University

STE Autumn-2020 Course; B.ED

Code; Educational Statistics (8614)
Submitted By; Manzar Sarfraz Roll No. BY677690
Reg. No. 12pns03382

Q No. 1
Educational Statistics is widely applied in teaching
learning process. Discuss and elaborate your answer with
example?
Ans;
Statistics in Education
Measurement and evaluation are essential part of teaching learning
process. In this process we obtained scores and then interpret these
score in order to take decisions. Statistics enables us to study these
scores objectively. It makes the teaching learning process more
efficient. When we want to know about the pupil we administer a test
or observe the child. Then from the result we describe about the pupil’s
performance or trait. Statistics helps the teacher to give an accurate
description of the data. Sometimes due to lack of technical knowledge
the teachers become vague in describing pupil’s performance. But
statistics enables him to describe the performance by using proper
language, and symbols. Which make the interpretation definite and
exact. Statistics gives order to the data. It helps the teacher to make the
data precise and meaningful and to express it in an understandable and
interpretable manner.

general conclusions
Statistics helps to draw conclusions as well as extracting conclusions.
Statistical steps also help to say about how much faith should be placed
in any conclusion and about how far we may extend our generalization.

Predict the future performance

Statistics enables the teacher to predict how much of a thing will
happen under conditions we know and have measured. For example
the teacher can predict the probable score of a student in the final
examination from his entrance test score. But the prediction may be
erroneous due to different factors. Statistical methods tell about how
much margin of error to allow in making predictions.

Analyse some of the causal factors

It is a common factor that the behavioral outcome is a resultant of
numerous causal factors. The reason why a particular student performs
poor in a particular subject are varied and many. So with the
appropriate statistical methods we can keep these extraneous variables
constant and can observe the cause of failure of the pupil in a particular
subject.

Concept in Statistics:
Data;
Data may be defined as information obtained from a survey, an
experiment or an investigation.

Continues Series
Continuous series is a series of observations in which the various
possible values of the variable may differ by infinitesimal amounts. In
the series it is possible to occur at any intermediate value within the
range of the series.

Discrete Series
Discrete series is a series in which the values of a variable are arranged
according to magnitude or to some ordered principles. In this series it is
not possible to occur at any intermediate value within the range. The
example of such is merit, number of persons or census data.

Statistics education is the practice of teaching and learning of statistics,

along with the associated scholarly research. Statistics is both a formal
science and a practical theory of scientific inquiry, and both aspects are
considered in statistics education.

Requiring statistics does not necessarily mean adding another math or

AP class. ... If all students are exposed to the statistical fundamentals,
we will be giving them the tools to better understand the world around
them that they will use for the rest of their lives.

Application
One of the greatest advantages of the application of
statistics to education is the optimization of school management. The
organization of students data and grades, for example, allows for
administrators to better evaluate any school-wide issues that emerge.

Importance
Importance of Statistics in Education that the method of enumeration
by which a state,' condition is known called statistics. Separate
methods are used to represent, these two types of data-ungrouped and
grouped. Generally these diagrams or pictures are drawn on graph
paper.

Role
in the design and delivery of education and some of the statistical skills
and reasoning find it difficult to apply statistical concepts in real
settings where the concepts are ... well as consider student
performance on concepts over all the grades.

Statistics is a concept that is used most often in every field such as

helps in the collection and presentation of data in a well-arranged
manner. Statistics in Education make the teaching and learning
process. Understand measures used to summarize data, including
greatly affected by one or more very high salaries. Median
chance processes and develop, use and evaluate
Q No. 2
Identify a problem of your own choice. briefly discuss the
steps you will follow to test your hypothesis ?
Ans;
You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor
at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. You should also
repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first
results weren't just an accident. The scientific method is a process for
experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer
questions. Does this mean all scientists follow exactly this process? No.
Some areas of science can be more easily tested than others. For
example, scientists studying how stars change as they age or how
dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star's life by a
million years or run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to test their
hypotheses. When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists
modify the scientific method. In fact, there are probably as many
versions of the scientific method as there are scientists! But even when
modified, the goal remains the same: to discover cause and effect
relationships by asking questions, carefully gathering and examining the
evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined in
to a logical answer.

Steps
Ask a Question
The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something
that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be
something you can measure, preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Your Question

 Laboratory Notebook

Do Background Research
Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for
answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library
and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and
ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Background Research Plan

 Finding Information

 Bibliography

 Research Paper

Construct a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an
attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be
tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be
testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Variables

 Variables for Beginners

 Hypothesis

Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus
your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment
to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change
only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure
that the first results weren't just an accident.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Experimental Procedure

 Materials List

 Conducting an Experiment

Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and
analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their
hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will communicate
the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new
hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned
during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific
method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was
supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Data Analysis & Graphs

 Conclusions

Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your
results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional
scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final
report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or
during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are
interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support
your original hypothesis.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

 Final Report

 Abstract

 Display Board

 Science Fair Judging

Q no. 3
Discuss different situation where a teacher can use
correlation and regression to draw conclusion?
Ans;
The most commonly used techniques for investigating the relationship
between two quantitative variables are correlation and linear
regression. Correlation quantifies the strength of the linear relationship
between a pair of variables, whereas regression expresses the
relationship in the form of an equation. For example, in patients
attending an accident and emergency unit, we could use correlation
and regression to determine whether there is a relationship between
age and urea level, and whether the level of urea can be predicted for a
given age.

Correlation
On a scatter diagram, the closer the points lie to a straight line, the
stronger the linear relationship between two variables. To quantify the
strength of the relationship, we can calculate the correlation
coefficient. In algebraic notation, if we have two variables x and y, and
the data take the form of n pairs (i.e. [x1, y1], [x2, y2], [x3, y3] ... [xn, yn]),
then the correlation coefficient is given by the following equation.

This is the product moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson

correlation coefficient. The value of r always lies between -1 and +1. A
value of the correlation coefficient close to +1 indicates a strong
positive linear relationship (i.e. one variable increases with the other. A
value close to -1 indicates a strong negative linear relationship (i.e. one
variable decreases as the other increases. A value close to 0 indicates
no linear relationship however, there could be a nonlinear relationship
between the variables.

Hypothesis test of correlation

We can use the correlation coefficient to test whether there is a linear
relationship between the variables in the population as a whole. The
null hypothesis is that the population correlation coefficient equals 0.
The value of r can be compared with those given in Table, or
alternatively exact P values can be obtained from most statistical
packages. For the A&E data, r = 0.62 with a sample size of 20 is greater
than the value highlighted bold in Table for P = 0.01, indicating
a P value of less than 0.01. Therefore, there is sufficient evidence to
suggest that the true population correlation coefficient is not 0 and that
there is a linear relationship between in urea and age.

Confidence interval
Although the hypothesis test indicates whether there is a linear
relationship, it gives no indication of the strength of that relationship.
This additional information can be obtained from a confidence interval
for the population correlation coefficient.

Misuse of correlation
There are a number of common situations in which the correlation
coefficient can be misinterpreted. One of the most common errors in
interpreting the correlation coefficient is failure to consider that there
may be a third variable related to both of the variables being
investigated, which is responsible for the apparent correlation.
Correlation does not imply causation. To strengthen the case for
causality, consideration must be given to other possible underlying
variables and to whether the relationship holds in other populations.

Regression
We are interested in the effect of age the predictor or x variable on ln
urea the response or y variable. We want to estimate the underlying
linear relationship so that we can predict in urea and hence urea for a
given age. Regression can be used to find the equation of this line. This
line is usually referred to as the regression line.

Method
The regression line is obtained using the method of least squares. Any
line y = a + bx that we draw through the points gives a predicted or
fitted value of y for each value of x in the data set. For a particular value
of x the vertical difference between the observed and fitted value of y
is known as the deviation, or reside. The method of least squares finds
the values of a and b that minimize the sum of the squares of all the
deviations.

Hypothesis test
We can test the null hypotheses that the population intercept and
gradient are each equal to 0 using test statistics given by the estimate
of the coefficient divided by its standard error.

Analysis of Variance
As stated above, the method of least squares minimizes the sum of
squares of the deviations of the points about the regression line.
Consider the small data set illustrated in. This figure shows that, for a
particular value of x, the distance of y from the mean of y the total
deviation is the sum of the distance of the fitted y value from the mean
the deviation explained by the regression and the distance from y to
the line the deviation not explained by the regression.

Prediction
The fitted value of y for a given value of x is an estimate of the
population mean of y for that particular value of x. As such it can be
used to provide a confidence interval for the population mean. The
fitted values change as x changes, and therefore the confidence
intervals will also change.

Limitation
The use of correlation and regression depends on some underlying
assumptions. The observations are assumed to be independent. For
correlation both variables should be random variables, but for
regression only the response variable y must be random. In carrying out
hypothesis tests or calculating confidence intervals for the regression
parameters, the response variable should have a Normal distribution
and the variability of y should be the same for each value of the
predictor variable.

Conclusion
Both correlation and simple linear regression can be used to examine
the presence of a linear relationship between two variables providing
certain assumptions about the data are satisfied. The results of the
analysis, however, need to be interpreted with care, particularly when
looking for a causal relationship or when using the regression equation
for prediction. Multiple and logistic regression will be the subject of
future reviews.