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Abstract—Market pressures for new thermally efficient and environmentally friendly liquefied natural gas
(LNG) plants, coupled with the need for high plant availability, have resulted in the world’s first application
of high-performance PGT25+ aeroderivative gas turbines for the 3.7 MTPA Darwin LNG plant in Australia’s
Northern Territory. The plant was operational several months ahead of contract schedule and exceeded its
production target for 2006. This paper describes the philosophy leading to this first-of-a-kind aeroderivative
gas turbine plant and future potential for the application of larger aeroderivative drivers, which are an
excellent fit for the ConocoPhillips Optimized Cascade® Process.
Keywords—aeroderivative, gas turbine, greenhouse gas, LNG, LNG liquefaction, thermal efficiency
Cyrus B.
Meher-Homji
A eroderivative engines fit the ConocoPhillips
Optimized Cascade® Process1 because of the
two-trains-in-one design concept that facilitates
O n February 14, 2006, the Darwin LNG
plant was successfully commissioned
and the first LNG cargo was supplied to the
cmeherho@bechtel.com the use of such engines. Further, the application buyers, Tokyo Electric and Tokyo Gas. The plant
of a range of larger aeroderivative engines that represents an innovative benchmark in the LNG
are now available allows for a flexible design industry as the world’s first facility to use high-
Tim Hattenbach fit for this process. Benefits of aeroderivative efficiency aeroderivative gas turbine drivers. This
thattenb@bechtel.com engines over large heavy-duty single- and two- benchmark follows another landmark innovation
shaft engines include significantly higher thermal by ConocoPhillips: the first application of gas
efficiency and lower greenhouse gas emissions, turbine drivers at the Kenai LNG plant in Alaska
Dave Messersmith the ability to start up without the use of large built in 1969.
helper motors, and improved production The Darwin plant is a nominal 3.7 million tonnes
dmessers@bechtel.com
efficiency due to modular engine change-outs. per annum (MTPA) capacity LNG plant at
For instance, the Darwin liquefied natural gas Wickham Point, located in Darwin Harbour,
(LNG) plant is able to operate at reduced rates Northern Territory, Australia. The plant is
of 50% to 70% in the event that one refrigeration connected via a 500 km, 26-inch-diameter subsea
Hans P. Weyermann
compressor is down. pipeline to the Bayu-Undan offshore facilities.
hans.weyermann@
conocophillips.com Several practical aspects of the application of The Bayu-Undan field was discovered in 1995
aeroderivative gas turbines as refrigeration approximately 500 km northwest of Darwin
drivers along with design and implementation in the Timor Sea (see Figure 1). Delineation
Karl Masani considerations are discussed below. The drilling over the next 2 years determined the
selection of aeroderivative engines and their field to be of world-class quality with 3.4 trillion
karl.masani@
conocophillips.com configurations for various train sizes, and cubic feet (tcf) of gas and 400 million barrels
evaluation of emission considerations are (MMbbl) of recoverable condensate and liquefied
also covered. petroleum gas (LPG). The Bayu-Undan offshore
Satish Gandhi, PhD facility began operating in February 2004;
current production averages 70,000 bbl of
satish.l.gandhi@ 1 ConocoPhillips Optimized Cascade Process
conocophillips.com condensate and 40,000 bbl of LPG per day.
services are provided by ConocoPhillips Company
and Bechtel Corporation via a collaborative The Darwin project was developed through a
relationship with ConocoPhillips Company.
lump-sum, turnkey (LSTK) contract with Bechtel
DILL
TIMOR LESTE
ABADI
SUNRISE AUSTRALIA
SUAI
EKKN
SIA
ONE
IND
BAYU-UNDAN
IA
T RAL TIMOR SEA
AUS
CRUX PUTREL
DARWIN
TERN
SCOTT REEF NORTHERN TERRITORY
BREWSTER
BLACKTIP
N
0 50 100
BRECKNOCK
km
Corporation that was signed in April 2003 with a reduction of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gas
notice to proceed for construction issued in emissions from the unit.
June 2003. An aerial photo of the completed
The Darwin plant incorporates several other design
plant is shown in Figure 2. Details regarding the
features to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. They
development of the Darwin LNG project have
include the use of waste heat recovery on the
been provided by Yates. [1, 2]
PGT25+ turbine exhaust that is used for a variety
Not only has the Darwin plant established a of heating requirements within the plant.
new benchmark in the LNG industry by being The facility also contains ship vapor recovery
the first LNG plant to use aeroderivative gas equipment. Both of these features not only reduce
turbines as refrigerant compressor drivers, it also emissions that would have been produced from
is the first to use evaporative coolers. The GE fired equipment and flares, but they also lead to
PGT25+2 is comparable in power output to the reduced plant fuel requirements, which reduce
GE Frame 5D gas turbine but has an ISO thermal the carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere.
efficiency of 41% compared to 29% for the Frame
Gas turbine nitrogen oxide (NOx) control is
5D. This improvement in thermal efficiency results
derived by water injection, which allows the plant
in a reduction of required fuel, which reduces
to control NOx emissions while maintaining the
greenhouse gas in two ways. First, CO2 emissions
flexibility to accommodate fuel gas compositions
are reduced due to a lower quantum of fuel
needed for various plant operating conditions.
burned, and second, the total feed gas required for
At the same time, there is no need for costly fuel
the same LNG production also is reduced. The feed
treatment facilities for dry low NOx combustors.
gas coming to the Darwin LNG facility contains
carbon dioxide, which is removed in an amine The Darwin plant uses a single LNG storage tank
system before LNG liquefaction and is released with a working capacity of 188,000 m3, one of the
to the atmosphere. The reduction in the feed gas largest aboveground LNG tanks. A ground flare is
(due to the lower fuel gas requirements) results in used instead of a conventional stack to minimize
visual effects from the facility and any intrusion on
aviation traffic in the Darwin area. The plant also
2 This engine uses a LM2500+ gas generator, coupled
uses vacuum jacketed piping in the storage and
with a two-stage high-speed power turbine developed
by GE Oil & Gas.
loading system to improve thermal efficiency and
reduce insulation costs. Methyldiethanolamine
TURBINES TURBINES
400 37%
40%
300 50%
200
Process flexibility
100
and stability
of operation are
0
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 of paramount
LNG Price, $/MMBtu importance and
Fixed feed gas flow: gas cost = $0.75/MMBtu Availability is adjusted for aeroderivatives (+1%) and combined cycle (–2%) must be
Present value calculated at discount rate = 12% and 20-year life Capital cost adjusted for incremental capacity (SC: $150/tonne, CC: $300/tonne)
incorporated into
the considerations
Figure 4. Present Value of Gross Margin as a Function of Driver Thermal Efficiency, for a Range of LNG FOB Prices
regarding thermal
efficiency.
have encountered fuel valued much higher a tradeoff between capital and life cycle costs.
than a decade ago. Host governments also Gas turbine selection, the use of waste heat
are requiring more gas for domestic use, recovery and ship vapor recovery, and self-
increasing the shortfalls for LNG plants. generation versus purchased power all have a
significant effect on the overall thermal efficiency
Given this situation and the fact that fuel not
of the process. Process flexibility and stability of
consumed can be converted to LNG, use of
operation are of paramount importance and must
high-efficiency aeroderivative engines delivers
be incorporated into the considerations regarding
significant benefits with a net present value
thermal efficiency because the value of a highly
(NPV) of hundreds of millions of dollars. Because
efficient process is diminished if plant reliability
NPV is a strong function of feed gas costs and
and availability are sacrificed.
LNG sales price, it is highly affected by a plant’s
thermal efficiency, especially when the free Yates [3] has provided a detailed treatment of
on board (FOB) LNG costs are high, as in the the design life cycle and environmental factors
current market. that affect plant thermal efficiency, such as feed
gas characteristics, feed gas conditioning, and
The present value of converting fuel into LNG for
the LNG liquefaction cycle itself. Some of the key
a nominal 5.0 MTPA plant is shown in Figure 4
elements of this discussion are provided below,
for a range of driver efficiencies between 33% and
leading into the discussion of the selection of
50%, as compared to a base case of 30%. Results
high-efficiency aeroderivative engines.
are provided for FOB LNG prices ranging from
$1 to $5 per million British thermal units A common consideration in evaluating competing
(MMBtu). The present value of the gross margin LNG technologies is the difference in thermal
(defined as LNG revenue—feed gas cost) is efficiency. The evaluation of thermal efficiency
calculated over a 20-year life and a discount rate tends to be elusive and subjective in that each
of 12%. The graph shows the strong influence project introduces its own unique characteristics
of driver efficiency. that determine its optimum thermal efficiency
based on the project’s strongest economic and
The thermal efficiency of an LNG facility depends
environmental merits. Different technologies
on numerous factors such as gas composition,
or plant designs cannot be compared on
inlet pressure and temperature, and even more
thermal efficiency without understanding and
obscure factors such as the location of the loading
compensating for such unique differences of
dock relative to the site of the liquefaction
each project.
process. Higher thermal efficiency is typically
Temperature, °F
0 T avg
design condition does not address plant –50
performance during variations in operating –100
conditions. A two-shaft gas turbine such as the –150
0 T avg
–50
–100
SELECTION OF AERODERIVATIVE ENGINES
–150
Advantages of Aeroderivative Engines over Both the propane and ethylene trains have
Heavy Duty Gas Turbines speed reduction gearboxes. All compressors are
Several advantages of using aeroderivative horizontally split except for the last casing of
engines, some of which have been discussed, the methane string, which is a barrel design. The
include: gas turbines and compressors are mezzanine
mounted as shown in Figure 8, which facilitates a
• Much higher efficiency that leads to reduced
down-nozzle configuration for the compressors.
fuel consumption and greenhouse emissions
A view of the six strings from the gas turbine
inlet side is shown in Figure 9. The four
once-through steam generators are on the
1.1
four turbine exhausts to the left. The LM2500+
gas generator is shown in Figure 10.
1.0
DARWIN LNG
0.8
T he PGT25+ engine used at the Darwin
plant has a long heritage, starting from the
TF39 GE aeroengine, as shown in Figure 11.
0.7
This highly successful aeroengine resulted
in the industrial LM2500 engine, which was
0.6
then upgraded to the LM2500+. The PGT25+ is
essentially the LM2500+ gas generator coupled to
0.5 a 6,100 revolution-per-minute (rpm) high-speed
GE GE GE GE GE Rolls GE Trent
Frame LM2500+ Frame Frame Frame Royce LM6000PD 60 power turbine (HSPT). The latest variant of this
5C 6B 7EA 5D 6761 DLE
engine is the G4, rated at 34 MW.
The first LM2500+ design was based on the
Figure 7. Relative CO2 Emissions from Different Classes of Gas Turbines successful history of the LM2500 gas turbine
Power Output
MW/SHP
Thermal Efficiency
23/32,000
38%
LM2500/PGT25
/
C-5 31.3/42,000
39%–41%
TF39/CF6-6 LM2500+/PGT25+
34.3/46,000
39%–41%
DC-10
LM2500+G4/PGT25+G4
(Source: GE Energy)
Figure 11. LM2500 Engine Evolution
(Source: GE Energy)
40,000 95
90
35,000
(Source: GE Energy)
33
31
29
27
Temperature, °C 25
Because 23
aeroderivative
21
machines are
more sensitive Jan Apr Jul Oct
19
to ambient Feb May Aug Nov
17 Mar Jun Sep Dec
temperature,
they benefit 15
0:30
2:30
4:30
6:30
8:30
10:30
12:30
14:30
16:30
18:30
20:30
22:30
Mean
significantly from
inlet air cooling.
Time of Day
Figure 16. Darwin Temperature Profile Based on Time of Day over 12-Month Period
50
airflow channels for efficient heat transfer and
40
minimal pressure drop. As the gas turbine airflow
30
passes over the media, the airstream absorbs
20
moisture (evaporated water). Heat content in
10 the airstream is given up to the wetted media,
0 resulting in a lower compressor inlet temperature.
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
A typical evaporative cooler effectiveness range
DBT, °C
is 85% to 90%, and is defined as follows:
Figure 17. RH vs. DBT at Darwin Airport for the Month of September 9 Data is for Darwin Airport, from the typical
(Considerable Evaporative Cooling Potential is Available During Hot Daytime Hours) meteorological year (TMY2) database.
40
DBT DBT, °C
CIT, °C; Efficiency = 90%
35
30
DBT, CIT, °C
25
20
15
10
CIT with Evaporative Cooler Because the
Optimized Cascade
5
Process uses a
1
33
65
97
129
161
193
225
257
289
321
353
385
417
449
481
513
545
577
609
641
673
705
two-train-in-one
Hours per Month
concept, in which
two parallel
Figure 18. Calculated CITs due to Evaporative Cooling During the Summer Month of January
compressor strings
are used for
(T1DB – T2DB) FUTURE POTENTIAL OF
Effectiveness = AERODERIVATIVE ENGINES USING each refrigeration
(T1DB – T2WB) THE OPTIMIZED CASCADE PROCESS service, the
Where:
by adding gas turbines, as shown in Table 1. compressor with each system independently
While the output with one driver down in controlled. The gas turbine consists of five major
a 2+2+2 configuration is approximately 60% to components: a 5-stage low-pressure compressor,
70%, the output would be even higher with a 14-stage high-pressure compressor, an annular
The new generation a larger number of drivers. combustor, a 2-stage high-pressure turbine, and
of highly efficient a 5-stage low-pressure turbine. The low-pressure
As split-shaft industrial gas turbines are not
and high-power turbine drives the low-pressure compressor and
available in the power class of large aeroderivative
the load. The engine is available in both a water-
aeroderivative gas turbines, the application of aeroderivative
injected and DLE configuration, with a DLE
engines in engines offers the significant advantage of not
capability of 15 parts per million (ppm) NOx.
requiring costly and complex large starter motors
the 40 MW to
and their associated power generation costs. The importance of high thermal efficiency and
50 MW range the details on the implementation and operating
For example, the LM6000 depicted in Figure 19
available today experience of aeroderivatives at Darwin LNG
is a 44 MW driver11, with a thermal efficiency
is ideally suited have been presented by Meher-Homji et al. [12]
of 42%, operating at a pressure ratio of 30:1 and
to the Optimized with an exhaust mass flow rate of 124 kg/sec.
Cascade Process This engine is a two-spool gas turbine with the
load driven by the low-speed spool, which is CONCLUSIONS
I
due to its n 1969, the ConocoPhillips-designed Kenai
mounted inside the high-speed spool, enabling
two-trains-in-one the two spools to turn at different speeds. The LNG plant in Alaska was the first LNG plant
concept. output speed of this machine is 3,400 rpm. to use gas turbines as refrigeration drivers. This
plant has operated without a single missed
The LM6000 gas turbine makes extensive use of shipment. Another groundbreaking step was
variable geometry to achieve a large operating made 38 years later with the world’s first
envelope. The variable geometry includes the successful application of high-efficiency
variable inlet guide vanes, variable bypass aeroderivative gas turbines at the Darwin
valves, and the variable stator vanes in the engine LNG plant. This efficient plant has shown how
technology can be integrated into a reliable
LNG process to minimize greenhouse gases and
provide the high flexibility, availability, and
efficiency of the Optimized Cascade
Process. The plant, engineered and constructed
by Bechtel, was started several months ahead
of schedule and has exceeded its production
targets. It has been successfully operated for
close to 3 years and will shortly be upgraded
by implementing PGT25+G4 engines as part
of a debottlenecking effort.
The new generation of highly efficient and
high-power aeroderivative engines in the 40 MW
to 50 MW range available today is ideally suited
to the Optimized Cascade Process due to its
two-trains-in-one concept. The ConocoPhillips-
(Source: GE Energy) Bechtel LNG collaboration will offer the engine
Figure 19. LM6000 Gas Turbine for future LNG projects. In the meantime,
the ConocoPhillips-Bechtel LNG Product
Development Center continues to design and
11 To compare the power/wt ratio, the LM6000 core
develop new and highly efficient plant designs
engine weighs 7.2 tons compared to 67 tons for a
32 MW Frame 5D engine (core engine only).
that can be used for 5.0–8.0 MTPA train sizes.