Date Fruit: Chemical Compositions, Nutritional and Medicinal Values,

Products

Zhen-Xing Tang1, 3,*, Lu-E Shi2 and Salah M Aleid3

1. Department of Food Science, Anqing Vocational & Technical College, 246003, Anqing,

Anhui, China

2. College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, 310016,

Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

3. Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, P. O. Box 420, Al-hasa 31982, Saudi

Arabia

Corresponding author: Dr. Zhen-Xing Tang, E-mail: tangzhenxing@126.com

This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not
been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which
may lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this
article as doi: 10.1002/jsfa.6154

© 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

Abstract

Date fruit is served as the staple food in the Arab world for centuries. The world

production of date fruit increases 2.9 times over 40 years, whereas the world production

reached to 7.68 million tons in 2010. Date fruit can provide many essential nutrients and

potential health benefits to the host. Date fruit goes through four ripening stages named

by kimri, khalal, rutab and tamer. The main chemical compositions of date fruit include

carbohydrates, dietary fiber, enzymes, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins, phenolic acids

and carotenoids etc. Chemical compositions of date fruit change with ripening stages,

the cultivar, growing environment and post-harvest conditions etc. Nutritional and

medicinal activities of date fruit are related to its chemical compositions. Many studies

have shown that date fruit has antioxidant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, gastro-

protective, hepato-protective, nephro-protective, anticancer, immune-stimulant

activities etc. Many date fruit-based products such as date syrup, date paste, date juice

and their derived products, have been available. Date by-products can be used as raw

materials for the production of value-added products such as organic acids,

exopolysaccharide, antibiotics, date flavored probiotic fermented dairy and bakery

yeast etc. In this paper, chemical compositions, nutritional and medicinal values of date

fruit and date fruit-based products were reviewed.

Keywords: date; nutritional values; medicinal activities

INTRODUCTION

Date palm (Fig. 1) is a particularly important crop in arid and semi-arid regions of the world.1

Date palm may be one of oldest cultivated plants and has more than 6,000 years history.1 The

earliest planting of date palm extended from northeast Africa to northwest of the Tigris and

Euphrates plateau. The Phoenician promoted the planting of date palm around Mediterranean.

The possible reason of promoting the spread of date palm is that date fruit can provide rapid

energy to the host, and can be preserved for a long time. It is a perfect food for people like

soldiers during military expeditions, merchants and excavators having a long distance trip.

They may be engaged in scattering and spreading the plant by throwing away date seeds after

eating date fruit.1 Now, there are more than 2,000 varieties of dates grown in the world.2 They

are mainly cultivated in the Middle East, North Africa, parts of Central and South America,

Southern Europe, India and Pakistan.2-4Based on FAO statistics (2010), Egypt, Saudi Arabia,

Iran, United Arab Emirates and Algeria are the main producing countries.5 Information

indicates that the world production of dates reached to 7.68 million tons in 2010 and

expectations are that the production will continue to increase.6, 7

The average per capita

consumption of date fruit now is reduced due to the changing dietary habits and lifestyle.8-10

The major components of date fruit (Fig. 2) are carbohydrate (the main sugars: sucrose,

glucose, and fructose), which may reach more than 70 %. Date fruit is also a good source of

fiber, and contains many important vitamins and minerals such as calcium, iron, fluorine and

selenium etc.2, 11, 12 Based on chemical compositions of date fruit, date fruit can be considered

as one of the most appropriate substrate for manufacturing value-added products such as

organic acids, exopolysaccharide, antibiotics, date flavored probiotic fermented dairy, bakery
yeast etc.13 Recent studies have shown that date fruit and its aqueous extract have the free

radical scavenging activity, anti-mutagenic and immune-modulatory activities.8, 14, 15

Considering the importance of date fruit to the date production regions, chemical

compositions, nutritional and medicinal value of date fruit as well as date fruit-based products

were discussed in this review.

CHEMICAL COMPOSTIONS OF DATE FRUITS

Maturation stages of date fruit are usually described by the Arabic terms: kimri, khalal, rutab

and tamer (Fig. 3). Many physical characteristics of date fruit at different stages have been

reported.2, 8The fruit at the kimri stage is the youngest, with green color and hard texture. The

color of fruit at the khalal stage may turn into yellow, purplish-pink, red or yellow scarlet

depending on the cultivar. It still has firm texture, the maximum size and weight. Date fruit at

the rutab stage has less astringent, with soft texture and darken color. At the tamer stage,

whole fruit becomes dark brown color, with soft texture and wrinkled appearance. It also has

the maximum soluble solid contents, the highest sweetness, and the lowest astringency at the

tamer stage. Chemical compositions of date fruit were focused on this section.

Carbohydrate

Date fruit can provide rapid energy to the host due to their high carbohydrate content.16The

most important carbohydrate components in date fruit include glucose, fructose and sucrose,

which can reach up to 70-80 % (Table 1).1, 17-19 Difference of carbohydrate concentration in

date fruit can probably be attributed to date cultivars, harvest and postharvest factors, and

growth environment like growth temperature, humidity and the use of the fertilizer etc.20-23
Borchani et al. analyzed the main chemical compositions of date fruit from 11 Tunisian

cultivars, and found that date fruit was rich in sugar (799.3-880.2 g kg-1 dry matter).21 Ali

et al. found that the total sugar concentration in three Omani date cultivars was ranged from

685.3 to 753.7 g kg-1 of date fruits.23 The highest sugar value 753.7 g kg-1 of date fruits was

observed in Khalas cultivar. Amoros et al. found the total sugar concentration in date fruits of

‘Caqui 24’ and ‘Caqui 22’ was ranged from 424 to 542 g kg-1.24

The total sugar concentration and the percentage of glucose and fructose in date fruit also

change with the growth stages of date fruit (Table 2-a).25The total sugar concentration usually

is increased from the kimri stage to the tamer stage. Ahmed et al. reported that the total sugar

concentration in the kimri stage varied from 3.4 to 7.7 % while the total sugar concentration

in the tamer stage varied from 44.3 to 64.1 %.26 In other date cultivar, the concentration of

total sugar in the tamer stage was as high as 88 %.2 The increase of sugar concentration from

the kimri stage to the tamer stage is related to loss of moisture in date fruit.2 The percentage

of glucose and fructose in Barhi dates was increased from the kimri stage (4.9 % and 2.8 %,

respectively) to the tamer stage (29.7 % and 27.6 %, respectively).

The date cultivar also can significantly affect the percentage of glucose and fructose in date

fruit.8, 23, 25
Ali et al. observed an overall glucose-to-fructose ratio of 1.3 in three different

Omani date cultivars.23 However, Ismail et al. reported higher fructose concentration, with a

glucose-to-fructose ratio of <1 at the tamer stage, were in five different UAE date cultivars

(Khalas, Barhee, Fard, Boumaan, Ruzeiz).9 Amores et al. found the accumulation of fructose

and glucose started from the khalal stage.24 Fructose concentration was higher than glucose

concentration at the tamer stage for all investigated date fruits.

Date Fibers

Date fruit can be considered as a good source of dietary fiber such as cellulose, hemi-

cellulose, lignin and pectin etc.16, 27As the change of carbohydrate concentration in date fruit,

fiber concentration in date fruit is depended on date cultivar and ripening stages (Table 2-b).20

Elleuch et al. reported dietary fiber concentration of two Tunisia date cultivars (Deglet-Nour

and Allig), and studied characteristics of dietary fiber.28The obtained dietary fiber

concentration of Deglet-Nour and Allig was 14.4 and 18.4 %, respectively. The dietary fiber

showed a high water-holding capacity ( 15.5 %) and a high oil-holding capacity ( 9.7 %).

Borchani et al. found fiber concentration in 11 Tunisian cultivars was ranged from 80.9 to

202.5 g kg-1 dry matter.21Date fiber presented a high water-holding capacity (6.2 ×10-3 g kg-1)

and a high oil-holding capacity (1.8×10-3 g kg-1). Mrabet et al. also determined their

composition, water and oil holding capacities of date dietary fibers from Tunisian oases.29The

total fiber concentration is decreased when date fruit becomes soft at the tamer stage.30During

the ripening process, the enzymes gradually break down polysaccharides into more soluble

compounds, decrease fiber concentration which render the fruit more tender and softer.16,

29
The crude fiber concentration in date fruit at the kimri stage is higher (6.2–13.2 %) than that

at the tamer stage (2.1–3.0 %).1 Al-Turki et al. found that the percentage of pectin in date fruit

was decreased from the kimri stage (44.4 g kg-1) to the tamer stage (16.8 g kg-1).31

Minerals

Many minerals such as boron, calcium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iron, magnesium,

manganese, potassium, phosphorous, sodium and zinc etc, are found in date fruit. 11, 12, 20, 21Of

all the minerals in date fruit, potassium concentration may be probably the highest, which can
reach up to 0.9 %.

The mineral concentration in date fruit is influenced by soil fertility, date cultivar and

ripening stages (Table 2-c).32Amira et al. found that mineral concentration in five Tunisia

date cultivars was increased with ripening stages of date fruit.25 Mineral concentration in

Deglet Nour variety at the kimri stage was increased from 1.06 % at the rutab stage and 3.25

% at the tamer stage, respectively. However, in other reports, many researchers found mineral

concentration was decreased with date ripening.30, 33-35

In the report of Al-shahib and

Marshall, the mineral concentration in date fruit was decreased from 3.7 % at the kimri stage,

to 2.8 % at the khalal stage, 2.6 % at the rutab stage and 1.7 % at the tamer stage,

respectively.2 The concentration of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium and

zinc was decreased from the kimri stage to the tamer stage. Al-Hooti et al. found that the

mineral concentration in five date varieties was depended on the ripening stages.36The

percentage of iron in four cultivars was decreased from the kimri stage to the tamer stage,

whereas it was increased in Lulu date. The percentage of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,

potassium, sodium and zinc in all five cultivars was decreased from the kimri stage to the

tamer stage. Rastegar et al. also found the mineral concentration was decreased from the

kimri stage to the tamer stage.37Among the studied minerals, potassium was the most

abundant in the concentration of 11.7-27.2 g kg-1.

Enzymes

Enzymes in date fruit, namely invertase, β-galactosidase, endo-1, 4-β-D-glucanase, pectin

methyl esterase, cellulase, and polyphenol oxidase, play an important role in fruit softening

and maturation.38-40The enzyme activities change with ripening stages.37, 41The invertase is
responsible for hydrolyzing sucrose into glucose and fructose. The activity of invertase is

increased sharply from the kimri stage, and reach to the maximum at the tamer stage.37Pectin

methyl esterase can convert protopectin into soluble pectin. The activity of pectin methyl

esterase is increased from the khalal stage to the rutab stage, and then is sharply decreased at

the tamer stage.2, 27, 37The role of cellulase in date fruits softening is uncertain. Awad et al.

showed the activity of cellulase was relatively low at the kimri stage, then was sharply

increased to the maximum at the khalal stage, and followed by a slight decrease at the rutab

stage.38 Similar results were reported by Rastegar et al.37β-galactosidase activity was very

low at the green stage, then was gradually increased to its highest value at the tamer stage.37,

40
Date fruit softening during ripening may be, at least partially, to the action of β-

galactosidase.42Loss of galactosyl residues from pectin fractions during ripening probably

caused by β-galactosidase has been reported.41, 43

Endo-1,4-β-D-glucanase involved in the

softening process of date fruit was reported by Rastegar et al.34The activity of endo-1,4-β-D-

glucanase was increased significantly with fruit growth, and reached a maximum level at the

tamer stage (with the exception of Shahani cultivar), followed by a slight decrease at the

tamer stage. Polyphenol oxidase is mainly involved in the metabolism of tannins. The activity

of polyphenol oxidase activity is decreased from the kimri stage to the tamer stage.30, 34The

relation between polyphenol oxidase activity and the intensity of date color during ripening

has been studied.44Through the metabolism of tannins, the color of date fruit changes from

yellow to brown.

Carotenoids

Major carotenoids in date fruit include lutein, β-carotene, zeaxanthin, and neoxanthin.45The
carotenoids concentration in date fruit may be depended on many factors such as date

cultivar, maturation stages, drying and post-harvesting conditions.11, 45An evident carotenoid

degradation during ripening from the khalal stage to the tamer stage was found. So, the ripe

date fruit has low carotenoids concentration. Al-Farsi et al. reported around 4-30 % of

carotenoids in date fruit were degraded after sun drying.11, 13According to USDA National

Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19 (2007) the total carotenoids

concentration in Deglet Noor and Medjool was 0.81 and 1.12×10-3 g kg-1, respectively. The β-

carotene concentration in the Algerian date varieties of Deglet Noor, Tantebouchte and

Hamraya, was reported to be 6.44, 3.3 and 2.5 ×10-5 g kg-1, and the lutein concentration was

1.56, 0.28 and 0.336 ×10-3 g kg-1, respectively.6, 45

Phenolic Acids

Phenolic acids are classes of bioactive substances containing a hydroxylated benzene ring

with at least more than one carboxyl groups. Many studies have showed that date fruit are

rich in phenolic acids.11, 46The difference of phenolic acid concentration and composition in

date fruit are attributed to date cultivar, environment conditions etc. Mansouri et al. found the

main phenolic acids in seven Algerian varieties of date fruit were p-coumaric, ferulic and

sinapic acids, some cinnamic acid derivatives and three different isomers of 5-o-caffeoyl

shikimic acid.47 The main phenolic acids in Omani date fruit were ferulic acid, caffeic acid,

p-coumaric acid, and o-coumaric acid.6, 14

The total concentration of these phenolic acids

varied from 0.0261 to 0.1227 g kg-1 and from 0.0606 to 0.1477 g kg-1 in fresh and dried dates,

respectively. Chaira et al. found phenolic acid in Mermella cultivar was the lowest (0.0573 g

kg-1), while phenolic acid in the Korkobbi cultivar had the highest content (0.5466 g kg-
1 48
). Main phenolic acids were ellagic acid, gallica acid and p-coumaric acid. Caffeic acid was

not detected.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are important phenolic compounds including proanthocynidines, flavanoid

glycosides and anthocyanins.11, 47, 49, 50Hong et al. identified thirteen flavonoid glycosides of

luteolin, quercetin, and apigenin in date fruit at the khalal stage.49 Chaira et al. showed that

the highest concentration of flavonoids in Tunisian dates was in the Korkobbi cultivar (544.6

g kg-1).48 Biglari et al. found flavonoids concentration in Iran date fruits varied from 0.0162

to 0.8179 g kg-1.51

Other Chemical Compositions

(A) Proteins: Most proteins in date fruit with molecular weight from 12,000 to 72,000 daltons

are soluble albumin. The proteins in date fruit is around 1.5-3.2 ×10-3 g kg-1. Protein

concentration in date fruit changes with date cultivars and ripening stages.9, 11
Protein

concentration in date fruit at the kimri stage is 5.5–6.4 %. After the kimri stage, protein

concentration begins to decrease gradually and reduces to 2.0–2.5 % at the tamper stage.16, 20,

33, 52
The decrease in protein concentration during ripening stages is attributed to non-

enzymatic browning reactions (Maillard) and tannin precipitation. Twenty-three kinds of

amino acids in date fruit have been found, most of which are not found in other popular fruits

such as oranges, apples and bananas.2The amino acid concentration and composition vary

with maturation stages. The high concentration of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, leusine,

alanine, and serine is found in date fruit at the kimri stage, while the high concentration of

glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, leusine, proline, and glycine is the most abundant at the
ripening stages.53

(B) Fat and Fatty acid: Fat concentration in date fruit is very low, which usually is ranged

from 0.1 to 0.9 %.22, 25, 30, 52The fat of date fruit is concentrated in the skin. The role of fat in

date fruit is to protect the fruit. Major fatty acids in date fruit include lauric, myristic, palmitic

acids and oleic acid etc.2, 27, 54Hasnaoui et al. reported fat concentration was between 1 and

4.76 g kg-1.20Analysis of variance of fat concentration showed there was a significant

difference between different cultivars.

(C) Vitamins: Date fruit has reasonable amounts of vitamins including vitamin A, B1, B2,

niacin (nicotinic acid), C and folic acid.2, 6, 18, 27Vitamin concentration in date fruit decrease

with the development of maturity stage due to drying and environment factors. 2, 8, 34, 55

(D) Phytosterols: Date fruit has many phytosterols.56, 57However, the change of phytoserols

concentration in date fruit with ripening stages is still obscure. In a recent study, Liolios et al.

identified phytosterols in date fruit including campesterol, stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-β-ol, β-

sitosterol, sitosterol, lupenone, lupeol, 24-methylenecy-cloartanol, (E)-24-

propylidenecholesterol, stigmastan-3, 5-diene, cholest-4-en-3-one, 4-methyl-cholest-4-en-3-

one, spinasterone, stigmast-4-en-3-one, and cholesta-3,5-diene.58

(E) Phytoestrogens: Phytoestrogens in date fruit were revealed by Thompson et al.59 The

chemical structure of phytoestrogens is similar to that of estradiol. There are three major

classes of phytoestrogens including isoflavones, coumestans, and lignans. Detailed

information, such as pytoestrogens distribution in different date cultivars and the change of

pytoestrogens concentration with ripening stages, is still unexplored.

NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICINAL VALUES OF DATE FRUITS

-Antioxidant activity. Antioxidant activity of date fruit has been reported by many

investigators (Table 3).14, 24, 31, 47, 60, 61Date fruit extract can inhibit protein oxidation as well as

neutralize superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. Many medicinal values such as hepatoprotetive

effect, nephrotoxic protection and neturoprotetive effect etc, are related to the antioxidant

activity of date fruit.10, 62-65Chaira et al. found the Korkobbi cultivar had the best lipoperoxyl

radical scavenging activity, while the Rotbi cultivar had a good ability of scavenging the

hydroxyl radicals.66The antioxidant activity of date fruit is attributed to the phytochemical

compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins etc, and mineral selenium.14, 61,

67
Selenium can contribute to the antioxidant effect because it may play an important role in

activating many enzymes related to Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-detoxification.68, 69

Presently, three methods are used to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of date fruit in vitro,

including DiPhenyl-l-PicrylHydrazyl (DPPH), Ferric-Reducing Ability of Plasma, (FRAP),

Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC).70-72Chaira et al. demonstrated that 100 µg of

ethyl acetate extract of Deglet Noor cultivar could inhibit 54 % DPPH radicals formation,

while the extract from Alig cultivar did not have the ability to scavenge DPPH radicals at the

same concentration.73Rock et al. showed that Medjool and Hallawi date cultivars could

inhibit DPPH radicals by 44 % and 39 % at a concentration of 10 µg mL-1,

respectively.72Abdul Ameer investigated the antioxidant capacities of sixteen date cultivars

commonly grown in Bahrain using FRAP assay.61 The fruit at the un-ripening stage had the

highest antioxidant activity (57.1 ± 4.31 mmol kg-1), followed by the rutab (12 mmol kg-1)

stage and the tamer (9.4 ± 0.21 mmol kg-1) stage. Al-Farsi et al. evaluated the antioxidant
ability of Oman date cultivars using ORAC method, found that the antioxidant ability of fresh

Oman date cultivars had higher than those of dried date cultivars.11Investigation of free

radical quenching activity of date fruit extract in cell culture system has also been carried out.

Asadi-Shekaari et al. showed that aqueous extract of date fruit had potent activity against

H2O2-induced cell damage in HEPG-2, A172, U937, and PC12 cell lines.74

-Anti-mutagenic activity. Vayalil investigated anti-mutagenic activity of date fruit using the

Ames mutagenicity assay (Table 3).75The results showed that date fruit could inhibit benzo

(a) pyrene-induced mutagenecity on Salmonella tester strains TA-98 and TA-100 with

metabolic activation. The present components in date fruit, such as proanthocyanidins,

anthocyanins, β-carotene, phenolic acids and mineral selenium, have been reported to have

anti-mutagenic effect.76-79  However, these compounds in date fruit need more studies to

evaluate their anti-mutagenic effect.

-Anti-inflammatory activity. It is very important for human health to control excess

generation of free radicals generated from inflammatory leukocytes. Mohamed and Al-Okbi

investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of date fruit.77The results showed that oral

administration of methanolic or aqueous extract of date fruit could suppress the inflammation

in the foot induced by the adjuvant, reduce erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and plasma

fibrinogen, increase body weight gain and food efficiency ratio compared to the adjuvant

treated controls. Date fruit constituents, such as proanthocyanidin, flavonoids, polyphenols,

β-carotene, and the mineral selenium, may contribute to anti-inflammatory effect.81-83

-Gastrointestinal protective activity. Date fruit is traditionally used to protect gastric mucosa

from the damaging effects of the gastric acid.84 Al Qarawi et al. investigated the influence of
date fruit extract on the gastrointestinal mobility, and found that date fruit extract could cause

a concentration-dependent increase in transit time (Table 3).85The aqueous and ethanolic

extracts of date fruit could be effective in ameliorating the ethanol-induced gastric ulceration.

The gastroprotective activity of date fruit is corrective to antioxidant compounds such as

proanthocyanidin, flavonoids, β-carotene, β-sitosterol and mineral selenium.86-89

-Hepato-protective activity. Liver disease is one of the serious health problems. No

satisfactory protective drugs are available. Saafi et al. reported date fruit extract could

decrease the levels of the hepatic markers enzymes (transaminases, alkaline phosphatase,

gammaglutamyl transferase and lactate dehydrogenase) and hepatic levels of

malondialdehyde, and concomitantly increase the levels of antioxidant enzymes.63 Al Qarawi

et al. found that feeding rats with date fruit extract could significantly reduce CCl4-induced

elevation in plasma enzyme and bilirubin concentration.94The histopathological studies also

confirmed the biochemical observations that date fruit extract possessed hepatoprotective

effect. Many findings indicated hepato-protective activity of date fruit may be due to their

compounds such as selenium, anthocyanin, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, β-carotene,

proanthocyanidins and luteolin etc.89-93

-Nephroprotective activity. Nephrotoxicity is a common side effect of pharmacological agents

like analgesics, antibiotics, cytostatics and other drugs. Al Qarawi et al. investigated the

nephroprotective effect of date fruit extract on gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in

rats.95Results showed that feeding rats with date fruit extract could reduce the levels of

plasma creatinine and urea concentration, ameliorate gentamicin-induced damage to the

proximal tubular regions of the rat kidneys. Saffi et al. found date fruit extract could restore
the liver damage induced by dimethoate, as revealed by inhibition of hepatic lipid

peroxidation, amelioration of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and

catalase (CAT) activities, and improvement of histopathology changes.63Many research

suggested vitamin E, ascorbic acid, mineral selenium, quercetin and melatonin fractions in

date fruit, may be responsible for nephroprotective activity.96, 97

-Gonadotropic activity. Date fruit has been used as important ingredients in various

aphrodisiacs and tonic confections. El-Mougy et al. found that date fruit extract could

increase sperm count in guinea pigs, enhance spermatogenesis and increase the concentration

of testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in rats (Table 3).98

Many phytochemicals, such as genistein, vitamin A and mineral selenium, have been reported

that they can protect testicular functions against various stress and possess gonadotropic

activity.99-101

-Prevent and control for cancer. Date fruit has shown potential benefit against many types of

cancers. However, only few studies have been reported on anti-cancer activity of date fruit.

Vayalil found date fruit was against chemical carcinogens by demonstrating its anti-

mutagenic activity in Salmonella tester strains.75 Excessive production of reactive oxygen

radicals and other reactive radical species are related to the formation of cancer. Thus,

antioxidant with the ability of scavenging the radicals, can be considered as a potential anti-

cancer agent.75 Date fruit can scavenge free radicals. Thus, it can be considered as a potential

anti-cancer agent Many phytochemicals in date fruit including phytoesterogens such as

genistein, glycitein, daidzein, phenolic acids such as gallic and ferulic acids, anthocyanins,

flavonoids and phytosterols etc, vitamins and minerials like Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, or Se, have
shown anti-cancer activity.

Activation of the immune system is another approach for cancer prevention. Puri et al.

showed that date fruit extract could improve immune activity in rate.102Seven days of

continuous treatment of date fruit extract could stimulate the antibody titer and plaque

forming cells. In a recent study, Karasawa et al. also found date fruit extract could stimulate

significantly IFN-γ mRNA expression in cells, and increase Th1 immune response.65These

effects were attributed to polyphenols and polysaccharides present in date fruit.67

Some studies showed dietary fibers could be considered as anti-mutagens in the intestinal

tract because it could dilute mutagen concentrations and increase fecal transit time by

increasing fecal mass through their water-binding capacity. Al-Qarawi showed date fruit

extract could be effective in decreasing the ethanol-induced gastric ulceration due to dietary

fiber contained in date fruit.84 Recently, Ishurda and John extracted the glucans from date

fruit, and validated a dose dependant anticancer activity.103

-Prevention and Control of Diabetes Mellitus Date fruit has a potential medicinal value for

prevention and control of diabetes mellitus due to the rich compounds of antioxidants and

minerals. Phenol compounds in date fruit can inhibit the activities of α-glycosidase and α-

amylase.71The digestion rate of carbohydrates is reduced after the activities of these enzymes

are inhibited, as a result, less glucose is absorbed into the circulation.

Many studies have indicated that there is deficiency in certain minerals for diabetic patients.

Therefore, minerals can be investigated as a potential preventive and treatment strategy for

diabetes. As mentioned in this review above, date fruit is rich in minerals involved in glucose

metabolism. So, it may be potentially beneficial for the prevention of diabetes. These
minerals include Mg, Zn, Cr, Se.104 Therefore, regular consumption of date fruit may prevent

the development of diabetes in the healthy population as well as control of diabetes in

patients who are deficient in these minerals.

Generally, diabetes is companied by increased oxidative stress due to hyperglycemia that

leads to micro- and macrovascular complications. Several studies have demonstrated the

significantly decrease of α- and γ-tocopherol, lycopene, β- and α-carotene, lutein, β-

cryptoxanthin, retinol, zeaxanthin, as well as ascorbic acid in diabetic patients.105Therefore,

use of antioxidants is considered to a treatment strategy for diabetes alone or in combination

with other treatment strategies.106As mentioned above, date fruit has strong antioxidant

activity due to phenolic compounds as well as carotenoids in it. They can effectively inhibit

ROS production by inhibiting several ROS producing enzymes, chelating trace metals and

inhibiting phospholipases A2 and C.107

Many evidence have shown that dietary phytoestrogens may play a beneficial role in diabetes.

Phytoestrogens like isoflavones, lignans, genistein and daidzein, appear to act through various

mechanisms that modulate pancreatic insulin secretion or regulation of glucose

homeostasis.108, 109 Thus, high amounts of phytoesterogens in date fruit may potentially help

to keep normal glucose metabolism in healthy body as well as in diabetic patients.

Weickert and Pfeiffer showed that consumption of date fruits being rich in dietary fiber could

improve insulin sensitivity, modulate of the secretion of certain gut hormones, and affect on

various metabolic and inflammatory markers that are associated with the metabolic

syndrome.110 Therefore, dietary fiber in date fruit may help to prevent the development of

diabetes.
-Therapy for Cardio- and Cerebro-Vascular Diseases (CCVD) Date fruit can provide a

therapy for initiation and progression of CCVD through many ways such as reducing

hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and oxidation of lipoproteins, enhancing serum

antioxidant status, alleviating the harmful effects of oxidative stress.

Hypertension is a major risk factor for the development of CCVD. Date fruit has been used

for centuries as an anti-hypertensive food and medicine in eastern Africa as well as in the

Middle East. However, only recently the anti-hypertensive activity of date fruit has been

studied.

Through controlling the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the pulmonary

circulation as well as in the endothelium of blood vessels is an important treatment strategy to

reduce blood pressure. Braga et al. showed that date fruit had potent ACE inhibitory activity.

Also, the total phenolic in date fruit had the ACE inhibitory activity.111

Minerals in date fruit play an important role in maintaining the blood pressure. High sodium

together with a low potassium intake can cause a rise in blood pressure.112, 113 The best way to

keep the blood pressure is the consumption of fruit and vegetables with low sodium

concentration. Date fruit is an excellent dietary source of potassium with very low sodium

concentration. Consumption of date fruit may prevent the development and progression of

hypertension by maintaining the electrolyte balance within the body. Other major elements

that have been shown to protect from hypertension are Mg and Ca.

Hypercholesterolemia is another major risk factor for the development of CCVD. Alsaif et al.

found adding of date fruit to high cholesterol fed hamsters could significantly reduce

cholesterol-induced the increase of the organ weights, total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides
and LDL cholesterol levels, and HDL cholesterol in the plasma.114This study thus suggested

that date fruit supplementation had a good potential to modulate cholesterol absorption or

metabolism. Dietary fiber and phytochemicals in date fruit may be responsible for this effect.

Date fibers may have significant hypocholesterolemic activity by three potential mechanisms:

a) dietary fiber may reduce the absorption of cholesterol and re-absorption of bile acids in the

intestinal lumen, b) dietary fiber may reduce insulin secretion, and c) fermentation of dietary

fiber can produce short-chain fatty acids that may inhibit hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis.

The phytochemicals such as phytosterols and phytoestrogens present can inhibit intestinal

cholesterol absorption by displacing cholesterol from micellar binding, and therefore lower

the cholesterol levels.115The pronounced cholesterol lowering effect of stigmasterol and

sitosterol has been demonstrated in animals and in humans, respectively.116, 117

FOOD PRODUCTS FROM DATE FRUITS

Fresh Date fruit can be eaten directly without any fumigation or washing. To meet the high

quality standards expected by consumers, date fruit has been processed into many types of

products. And a number of date-packing and date-processing factories have being built.

Date juice-based products

The most common method for producing date juice is the mixture of pitted or something un-

pitted date fruit and water is heated until it boils, and then, filtered and concentrated.118 Date

juice has tendency to lose flavor, vitamins and color during processing when subjected in

open conditions.119In order to overcome these problems, some mild technologies during the

production of date juice have been used. The juice can be extracted at lower temperature and
vacuum condition.118

Date juice (Fig. 4-A) has considerable antioxidant and anti-mutagenic activity.75 Many

products, such as carbonated and non-carbonated beverages, date juice wine, ice cream, jam,

and jelly as a sugar substitute, are being made using date juice.1

Dates syrup-based products

Date syrup (Fig. 4-B) has the same quality with date juice, but it is more concentrated. Date

syrup is one of the most common date fruit derivatives. Date fruit at the khalal stage of

maturity, being high in soluble sugars, is an excellent raw material for the preparation of

syrup.120As the method for production of date juice, the general process for the production of

date syrup include pitted, extracted with hot water, autoclaved, filtered and concentrated.

Recently, Ei-Sharnouby et al. reported the recovery of soluble solids obtained by pectinase

and cellulase almost was two times higher than those were obtained with the conventional hot

water and autoclaving extraction method.121This date syrup extracted with pectinase and

cellulase was found to be a good substitute for sucrose in bakery products.

Date syrup can be utilized in beverages, confectionary, biscuit, bread, ice cream and cake as a

sweetening and flavoring agent.122Liquid date sugar is made from refined date syrup, being a

mixture of various sugars (i.e., glucose, fructose, and sucrose) having a soluble solid content

of 75 %. Liquid sugar is used mostly in soft drinks, cakes, jellies, preserved fruits,

confectionary products, and ice cream.

Date paste-based products

Date food producer is very interesting in producing date paste because it can not only reduce

transportation and storage cost, but also it can convert dates of inferior quality into a value-
added product.30 For the preparation of date paste (Fig. 4-C), pitted date fruit is soaked in hot

water or steamed under certain pressure, and then grinded. In order to improve shelf life and

desirable color of date paste, citric or ascorbic acid (0.2 %) is generally used.118Date paste

can be used as a substitute for flour in bakery and confectionary products.118, 123Use of 4–8 %

date paste in bread formulation results in significant improvement in the dough rheological

properties, delays gelatinization, improves gas production and retention, extends the shelf

life, retards staling and improves the crumb and crust characteristics. Sanchez-Zapata et al.

used date paste in cooked meat product, investigated the effect of date paste on the quality of

meat product.124The results showed that the addition of date paste into the meat product could

decrease its fat content and increase the nutritive value of the product.

Also, date paste can be used to prepare date candy and date power.123In order to further

enhance the nutritive value of date paste, it can be mixed with skim milk powder, chocolate

and fruit juices such as banana, orange, pineapple, apple, grape, or strawberry, and turn it into

a high-protein product, tamar heep.

Products from By-products of date processing

Date processing is companied by substantial losses of date palm fruits. Lost dates are

discarded due to improper appearance than can’t be packaged for marketing. These by-

products can be used as substrates for fermentation products because of their nutritive

components for microorganism growth and metabolism such as sugars, proteins, minerals and

fiber. Many research on the potential of by-products used as substrate for fermentation

products have been reported.

Acourene et al. investigated the potential of date waste as substrate for the production of
citric acid using strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 1102 and Aspergillus niger

ATCC 16404.125 The results shown 0.1264 kg L-1 citric acid could be obtained under optimal

fermentation conditions. Chauhan et al. investigated the possibility of production of lactic

acid by Lactobacillus sp. KCP01 using date juice as a carbon source.126 Results shown that

0.0151 kg L-1 lactic acid could be obtained under the optimization of pH and temperature

using date juice as a carbon source.

Moosavi-Nasab and Yousefi utilized low quality date syrup for the production of Bacterial

Cellulose using Gluconacetobacter xylinus.127 Results showed that 0.0435 kg L-1 bacterial

cellulose could be obtained. Moosavi-Nasab et al. adopted Xanthomonas campestris for

producing xanthan gum using date syrup as a substrate.128 The results showed that maximum

gum concentration could be increased to 8.9 ×10-3 kg L-1.

Radwan et al. found high bleomycin yield (0.138 ×10-3 kg L-1) was obtained when date syrup

was used as an additional carbon source.129

Aleid incorporated probiotic microorganisms Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12, B. longum Bb-46

and Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 into date pastes. All probiotic bacteria were capable of

surviving in date products.13 The viable count of L. acidophilus remained above 6 ×10-3

log10CFU kg-1 until the third week of storage in date products.

Al-Jasass et al. investigated the production of the bakery yeast strain Saccharomyces

cerevisiae using substrates from date syrup and pure molasses.130 The results showed that the

overall biomass yield from pure date syrup substrate was significantly lower than those from

pure molasses substrates. The reason may be due to the effect of yeast toxic organic acids

contained in date syrup at high concentrations.

Other products

Date pickles (Fig. 4-D) including pickles-in-oil, brine and salt-stock pickles and chutney are

another popular products, can be made using date fruit at the kimri and the khalal

stages.30Pickles-in-oil are prepared using pitted fruit at the kimri stage with various spices,

condiments, and mustard oil.118Chutney is composed of date fruit, vinegar, vegetables, and

hot spices.

Date bars (Fig. 4-E) can be made using date pulp, sesame seeds, almonds and oak flakes. It is

very popular in young children. Such fortified date fruit bars can also supply a reasonable

amount of fat, protein, fiber, and minerals.

Tamer stage dates containing high sugar content are appropriate for date butter (Fig. 4-F)

making.30 It is similar to jam making, except the pH is adjusted to 4.7.118

Date pulp and clear date fruit extraction can be used to prepare date jam (Fig. 4-G) and date

jelly, respectively. A good date jam can be made when sugar concentration is 65 %, the pectin

is 1 % and the pH is about 3.0 to 3.2. Some date-fruit cultivars, such as Khalas, Sukkary, and

Ruzeiz, are very suitable for jam making. Masmoudi et al. reported that various types of

jellies prepared from date fruits were with high adhesiveness, chewiness, cohesiveness, and

taste attributes.131

CONCLUSION

Date fruit plays an important role in date growing regions, specially in middle-east countries.

Many chemical compositions of date fruit have been reported. Main chemical compositions

of date fruit are carbohydrates (mainly sucrose, glucose, and fructose). Date fruit is a good

source of fiber, vitamins, minerals, enzymes and phytochemicals including carotenoids,

phenolics and flavonoids etc. Date fruit can not only provide antioxidant, antimutagenic and

immune-modulatory benefits to health, but also have diverse medicinal values including

antihyperlipidemic, anticancer, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective and nephroprotective

activities. The observed medicinal properties have a good relationship with its compositions

such as high concentration of minerals and antioxidants. Date fruit has been processed into

many products like date juice, date paste, date syrup and other derived products. Date by-

products can be used as raw materials for the production of value-added products such as

organic acids, exopolysaccharide, antibiotics, date flavored probiotic fermented dairy and

bakery yeast etc.

In the future, we need to characterize and estimate various antioxidants present in date fruit,

and study their bioavailability and metabolism in humans. In order to further explore the

nutritional and medicinal benefits of date fruit, we also need to explore the health benefits of

date fruit and develop the value-added food products and supplements based on its functional

compositions.

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Table 1. Chemical compositions of date fruit6, 19

Composition Concentration

Carbohydrates (g kg-1) 526-886

Fructose 136-368

Glucose 176-414

Sucrose 0.5-33.9

Total Fiber (g kg-1) 35.7-109

Fat (g kg-1) 1-14

Ash (g kg-1) 10-19

Protein (g kg-1) 11-26

Minerals (10-1 g kg-1) 41.74-198.2

Vitamin (10-3 g kg-1) 22.55-200.24

Table 2-a. Total sugar of different varieties of dates at different ripening stages25

Variety Total sugar (%)

Khalal stage Rutab stage Tamr stage

Alig - 47.92 52.62

Degla - 53.56 53.89

Deglet Nour - 61.47 63.16

Gosbi - 56.11 57.56

Horra - 53.38 55.44

Table 2-b. Total dietary fiber concentration of different varieties of dates21

Cultivars Total dietary fiber (%)

Alligh 11.45

Tranja 11.26

Deglet Nour 8.09

Bajo 16.95

Boufeggous 10.05

Goundi 10.16

Ikhouat 17.82

Kenta 12.18

Kentichi 20.25

Lgou 18.53

Touzerzaillet 17.25
Table 2-c. Mineral concentration of different varieties of dates at different ripening stages37

Cultivars Ripening Macro elements (10-2 g kg-1) Micro elements (10-2 g kg-1)

stages

Shahani K Ca Mg Na Mn Zn Fe

Kimri 2720 440 330 120 3.6 3.5 3.5

Khalal 2330 300 240 132 1.3 2.3 2

Rutab 1350 150 130 123 0.7 1.4 1.8

Tamar 1170 140 114 129 0.4 1.4 1.6

Piarom

Kimri 2440 360 275 124 1.3 2.5 2.4

Khalal 1940 230 156 129 1.1 1.7 1.5

Rutab 2040 238 225 128 0.6 2.8 2.3

Tamar 1380 160 123 126 0.4 2 1.7

Deiry

Kimri 2630 490 340 133 1.3 2.1 2.5

Khalal 2300 450 370 128 1.1 1.9 2

Rutab 1440 200 173 123 0.6 1.5 1.2

Tamer 2440 385 250 134 1.6 2.3 1.8

Table 3. Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Date Fruit

Nutritional and Observation and Conferences

Medicinal Values

Antioxidant activity inhibits peroxidation, protein oxidation as well as neutralizes

superoxide and hydroxyl radicals 63-65, 132

Inhibits benzo(a) pyrene-induced mutagenecity in the Ames test75

Anti-mutagenic activity Increases gastrointestinal transit time, reduces ethanol induced gastric

ulceration84, 85

Gastrointestinal reduces CCl4-induced elevation in plasma enzyme and bilirubin

protective activity concentration94

Hepato-protective

activity

Anti-inflammatory reduces erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and plasma fibrinogen,

activity increases body weight gain and food efficiency ratio80

inhibits hepatic lipid peroxidation, ameliorates superoxide dismutase

(SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) activities63

Nephroprotective stimulates significantly IFN-γ mRNA expression in cells, and increases

activity Th1 immune response65

Anticancer activity
Gonadotropic activity increases sperm count in guinea pigs, enhances spermatogenesis and

increases the concentration of testosterone, follicle stimulating

hormone98
Figure captions

Fig. 1 Photograph of date palm

Fig. 2 Photograph of date fruit

Fig. 3 Different stages of date ripening

Fig. 4 Date products

A Date Juice, B Date Syrup, C Date Paste, D Date Pickle, E Date Bar, F Date Butter, G Date

Jam
Fig. 1 (permitted by Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia)
Fig. 2 (permitted by Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia)
Fig. 3 (permitted by Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia)
Fig. 4 (permitted by Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia)