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to consciousness, top-down processing has been suggested as a key feature (Dehaene & Naccache, 2001). Here,
we argue thatit is not crucial because these processes can occur outside consciousness. Also, the current study
demonstrates that top-down processing can be differentiated from ‘mental effort’, another feature that is
proposed to be critical to consciousness(Dehaene et al., 1998): Top-down modulation changed unconsciously, so it
can hardly be qualified as effortful. This does not,of course, imply that other features of consciousness are not
crucial either. For example, recent research demonstrates that‘seriality’ may be crucial in the sense that chaining
mental operations requires consciousness (Sackur & Dehaene, 2009; VanOpstal, de Lange, & Dehaene, 2011).A
theory of consciousness should clarify which features are crucial for consciousness. Developing such a theory is
obvi-ously beyond the scope of the current paper, but the paper does show that a feature which standardly has
been assumed tobe crucial, actually is not. As such, it underscores the power of unconscious
processes.AcknowledgmentF.V.O. is a Postdoctoral Fellow of the Research Foundation–Flanders (FWO-
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This research was supported by a Wellcome Trust award to N. Lavie.M. Nasrallah and D. Carmel
contributed equally to this work.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
toDavid Carmel, Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science, New York University, 6
Washington Place, New York, NY 10003
Email: davecarmel@nyu.edu
Received April 8, 2008
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