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Recent Advances in Pipeline Free Span Design: A New Revision of DNV-RP-F105

Conference Paper · June 2016

DOI: 10.1115/OMAE2016-55010

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 RECENT ADVANCES IN PIPELINE FREE SPAN DESIGN: A NEW REVISION OF
DNV-RP-F105
Knut Vedeld
DNV GL
Oslo, Norway
Olav Fyrileiv
DNV GL
Oslo, Norway
ABSTRACT
Pipeline free span design has evolved from basic avoidance
criteria in the DNV ’76 rules [1], to fatigue and ultimate limit
state considerations in Guideline no. 14 [2]. Modern multi-
mode, multi-span free span design is predominantly performed
according to DNV-RP-F105 [3].
In 2006, the latest revision of DNV-RP-F105 [3] was
written as a direct result of extensive research, performed due to
significant free span challenges in the Ormen Lange pipeline
project. DNV-RP-F105 was at the time, and still is, the only
pipeline design code giving contemporary design guidance for
vortex induced vibrations (VIV) and direct wave loading design
for pipelines in free spans.
The last revision of DNV-RP-F105 included a few, but
highly important advances, particularly the consideration for
multi-mode and multi-span pipeline dynamic response behavior.
In the 10 years that have followed, no breakthroughs of similar
magnitude have been achieved for pipeline free spans, but a
large number of incremental improvements to existing
calculation methods, and some novel advances in less critical
aspects of VIV understanding have been made. As a result,
DNV-RP-F105 has recently been revised to account for these
advances, which include improved frequency-domain analyses
of wave-induced fatigue, a new response model for cross-flow
VIV in low Keulegan-Carpenter (KC) regimes in pure waves,
new analytical methods for dynamic response calculations of
short spans in harsh conditions, and extensive guidance on how
to apply the recommended practice for assessment of fatigue
and extreme environmental load effects on curved structural
members such as spools, jumpers and manifold flexloops.
This paper gives an overview of most of the important
changes and updates to the new revision of DNV-RP-F105.
Case studies are used to demonstrate the importance and effects
of the changes made, and to some extent how the revision of
DNV-RP-F105 can enhance its applicability and ease of use.
1. INTRODUCTION
The existing design codefor free spanning pipelines, DNV-
RP-F105 [3]was last revised a decade ago. Two of the most
prominent standards for offshore pipeline design, DNVGL-OS-
Håvar Sollund
DNV GL
Oslo, Norway
F101 [4] and API RP 1111 [5], both recommend that free span
design is performed according to DNV-RP-F105 [3]. Over the
last decade, DNV GL have accumulated experience with how
DNV-RP-F105 has been applied in the industry, and also how
the application of free span technology has gradually changed.
Changes to free span technology are influenced by advances in
several areas such as global buckling, deep water technology
and increasingly efficient and comprehensive numerical
analysis tools.
Since the last revision of DNV-RP-F105, significant work
has been done on interpretations on free span dynamic
response, particularly on structural modelling. Improved
analytical and semi-analytical methods for modal response
calculations have recently been developed, allowing for more
accurate and reliable calculations of eigen frequencies and
modal stresses in single- and multi-spans with little or no
additional computational effort [6-8].
A significantly improved frequency domain calculation
method for direct wave loading has been developed, which
allows for accurate fatigue and extreme environmental stress
calculations for both isolated single spans and interacting multi-
spans with several responding modes [9]. The previous model
assumed that the main damage contribution was associated with
the fundamental mode, and could not reliably account for
multiple interacting free spans. In addition, only a single critical
location was conventionally considered. With the introduction
of a true multi-mode stress-response spectrum, the stress
distribution is now allowed to vary along the pipe length.
More elaborate guidance has been given on the problem of
distinguishing between isolated single spans and interacting
multi-spans, compared to the previous approach which was
considered hard to apply and too unreliable [10].
VIV and dynamic response due to pure currents is a vast
and ongoing field of research. Research groups focused on riser
technology are mainly concerned with pure currents since it is
normally considered to be a conservative assumption to
disregard the influence of waves. On pipeline free spans, this
assumption is not correct and waves must be considered. DNV-
RP-F105 has traditionally considered combined waves and
currents, but cross-flow VIV due to waves in low Keulegan-
1
Carpenter regimes was not covered in the 2006 revision [3]. In  The separate single- and multi-mode VIV response
the new revision, a novel approach to account for cross-flow models have been merged. The historic distinction
VIV in pure wave conditions in low Keulegan-Carpenter flow between single- and multi-mode analyses is considered
regimes has been included for both fatigue and ultimate limit
artificial and obsolete.
state considerations [11].
Jumpers, spools, piping systems and manifold flexloops  A separate response model for cross-flow VIV in wave
have traditionally been designed according to VIV avoidance dominated low KC (Keulegan-Carpenter) flow regimes
criteria. In recent years, it has been more common to reduce (LKCR) (based on [11]) has been introduced and
conservatism by allowing for VIV in design of such structures harmonized with the general multi-mode approach.
[12-16]. The implication of allowing for VIV in design is to  General guidance on how to apply DNV-RP-F105 to
account for fatigue accumulation and extreme environmental
spools, jumpers, flexible loops and piping systems has
loading due to VIV. Due to the lack of general guidance on VIV
for geometries which include bends, it has been observed that been introduced in a new Appendix.
DNV-RP-F105 increasingly is the preferred design document to  Highly accurate modal response quantity calculation
cover VIV analyses of such structures, even if the document procedures (based on [8]) have been introduced for
was not initially intended for that purpose. Recent progress in short spans, typically relevant for river crossings, inlets
this area has also been made on the empirical side, since and straits with extreme environmental conditions.
realistic physical experiments have been conducted [17]. To
 A new section has been included, to provide some
account for updated knowledge and the industrial application of
the recommended practice to curved geometries, DNV-RP-F105 guidance for how to apply and interpret sensor
has been updated with a new appendix, which describes all the technology on free spans, and how the application of
additional considerations the designer needs to make in order to sensors influences the safety factor format.
conservatively apply DNV-RP-F105 to fatigue and ultimate  Systematic revisions to clarify symbols, text,
limit state calculations of jumpers, spools, goosenecks, doglegs,
limitations and ranges of applicability.
piping systems and manifold flexloops.
There have been some recent failures due to VIV of
The new revision has improved a number of key physical
pipelines in river crossings where floods or erosive processes
models, introduced guidance to new aspects where no real
have dug up pipelines [18]. Similar problems have proven
alternative guidance is given elsewhere, and the document has
relevant for offshore pipelines in straits, or in areas where
also systematically been improved based on experience and
strong erosive processes may excavate buried pipelines. There
feed-back provided by users of the previous revision.
is relatively little guidance on how to treat very short spans in
Apart from the brief description of the motivations and
extreme environments with significant flow velocities. Recently,
changes to the recommended practice presented above, the
however, analytical methods have been developed, which are
paper will focus on two main areas:
capable of performing a large number of analyses quickly,
satisfying the need for simple, robust and accurate means of
1. How the novel frequency plane force model presented
dynamic response calculations for short spans in harsh
by Sollund et al. [9] can be incorporated in DNV-RP-
environments [8].
F105. The impact of the novel method on realistic
Presently, it is not common to apply sensor technology to
design scenarios is studied.
monitor fatigue exposure of pipelines in free spans due to VIV
2. The new cross-flow response model for LKCR has
and direct wave action. There are, however, isolated and special
been extensively described in [11], and is already
cases where such technology has been applied and it is expected
adapted to the format of DNV-RP-F105. However, the
that sensor technology will be more relevant in the future. In the
impact of the new model on typical design cases will
new revision of DNV-RP-F105, a novel section has been
be investigated further herein.
included to provide some basic guidance on specific challenges
and considerations pertaining to the use of real-time monitoring
Due to the extensive revision of the recommended practice, the
devices for assessment of wave- and current-induced damage.
present paper only includes a high level introduction to the
The main changes from the 2006 revision to the new
remaining changes.
revision of DNV-RP-F105 may be summarized as follows:

 An updated stochastic frequency domain approach for

2. IMPROVED FREQUENCY-DOMAIN DIRECT WAVE
direct wave action has been introduced (based on [9]), ACTION CALCULATIONS
which allows for multi-mode and multi-span analyses.
The model also allows fatigue to be calculated as a 2.1 Background
function of the position along the pipe axis.

2
 A force model based on the Morison equation is described
in the 2006 revision of DNV-RP-F105 [3] for assessment of
load effects from direct wave action. A procedure is also
detailed for a stochastic analysis of wave-induced fatigue in the
frequency domain. The frequency-domain analysis is based on
the assumption that the main damage contribution comes from
the fundamental mode, and that higher-order modes can be
neglected, for both single- and multi-spans. The assumption
seems reasonable for single spans, where the second lowest
mode generally will not contribute to fatigue damage (since it is
anti-symmetric), and the third mode has an eigen frequency
typically more than 5 times higher than the fundamental
frequency. For interacting multi-spans, however, the modes may
be closely spaced and the fundamental mode will normally not
be sufficient to appropriately account for the dynamic response.
It has recently been documented based on time-domain
simulations that the third mode may contribute non-negligibly
(by an estimated 10 to 15%) to fatigue damage even for single-
spans [8]. In the paper by Sollund et al. [8], an extension of the
frequency-domain methodology given in the new revision of
DNV-RP-F105 is presented, which allows multiple modes to be
considered. This extended multi-mode representation of the
stress response spectrum was demonstrated to be highly
accurate compared to sophisticated time-domain analyses, and
differences between the two methods were found to be small
[8].
The novel frequency domain solution has been included in
the electronic implementation of DNV-RP-F105 FatFree [19],
allowing fatigue lives and peak stresses from single- and multi-
mode calculations to be compared for a number of free span
scenarios. In the present context, a small study is conducted to
simplify the introduction of the multi-mode approach for single
spans, and a study of the implications to multi-spans is also
presented.
2.2 Mathematical formulations
The mathematical expressions for the fatigue damage as a
function of the sea-state specific standard deviation of the stress
response σS in the previous revision of DNV-RP-F105 [3] are
kept, but changes are introduced to the stress spectra
themselves, and their related parameters. When non-negligible
damage contributions from higher order modes cannot be
excluded, the one-sided stress response spectral density
function SSS(x,ω) is given by
S SS x,    R D2  b 2 g D2   2 g I2 G 2  S   
N N  j j x  k k x  T jk

j 1 k 1 m 2

T  U 2jk
2
e jk
where
 
T jk   2j  k2   2  2j   k2   4  4 T , j  T ,k  j  k  2
    2
U jk  2 T , j j
2
k 2 T ,k k
and, RD is a factor accounting for wave spreading and
direction, b is a linearisation constant, gD is the drag force term,
gI is the inertia force term, G(ω) is the frequency transfer
function from sea surface elevation to wave-induced flow
velocity at pipe level, Sηη is the single-sided wave elevation
spectrum for the irregular sea state, ωj = 2πfIL,j/γf is the still-
water in-line angular natural frequency for the jth mode, me is
the effective mass per unit length incl. added mass, N is the
number of modes with non-negligible damage contribution and
ζT,j is the total damping ratio for the jth mode. The total damping
ratio includes contributions from structural, soil and
hydrodynamic damping. The mode shape weighting factor λj in
Eq. (2) can be interpreted as a measure of how strongly a
particular mode will be responding to the assumed uniform, and
thus perfectly symmetric, wave loading. It is given by
L  j ( x)dx
j  2 (3)
  j ( x)dx
L
where φj is the mode shape of the jth mode. ψj is the modal
stress amplitude for the jth mode, and may be expressed as
  2 j 
 j x   1  CSF Er  2 
 x  (4)
 
where E is the Young’s modulus and the radial coordinate r is
taken as Ds/2 on the outside of the pipe wall and as (Ds-2ts)/2 on
the inside.
2.3 Multi-mode assessments
Generally, modal stresses vary with position, and an
accurate frequency-domain assessment of fatigue requires a
critical location to be determined for each span based on fatigue
calculations for a large number of locations along the pipe axis.
Such analyses will be quite time consuming. However, for a
single-span there will generally be only two critical locations,
namely in the middle of the span and on the shoulder.
It has previously been demonstrated that including the third
mode normally increases the fatigue damage on the shoulder
where the modal stress for the third mode has a local maximum
[8]. The third mode also has a maximum value in the middle of
the span. However, the cross-spectrum between the first and
third modes is generally negative at the latter location, resulting
in a reduction of the fatigue damage as illustrated in Figure 1. It
can further be observed from the figure that the third mode
increases the damage on the span shoulders. It should be noted
(1) that modes that are anti-symmetric with respect to the mid-span
location (i.e., the second and fourth modes) will not be excited,
since the wave loading is assumed uniform along the span
length. This may also be inferred from Eq. (3), where the mode
shape weighting factor becomes equal to zero for anti-
  symmetric modes.
2
j 2 (2)
3

Figure 1 – Damage distribution along pipe axis for a single-
span with mid-span at x = 140m. The fatigue calculation
was based on time-domain simulations with 1, 2 or 3 modes
included [8].
In order to conservatively and efficiently estimate the effect of
including multiple modes for a large number of single-spans,
the following approach has been adopted for multi-mode
calculations:
1. Eigenfrequencies, mode shapes and associated modal
stresses are calculated by a semi-analytical method,
Ref. [6], and given as input to a revised FatFree.
2. Mode shape weighting factors are calculated for each
mode.
3. The maximum modal stress for the fundamental mode
on the shoulder is identified.
4. The maximum modal stress on the shoulder is
determined also for the third and fifth modes.
5. The three stress maxima are conservatively assumed to
act at the same location, and fatigue and peak stress
calculations are carried out based on the total stress
response spectrum corresponding to this critical
location.
6. If the maximum stress for the fundamental mode is at
mid-span, fatigue and peak stress calculations are also
carried out for this location. All symmetric modes
generally have a peak value at this location, but the
effect of including higher order modes is then
generally beneficial as exemplified in Figure 1.
Multi-mode calculations have been carried out according to the
methodology outlined above and compared to corresponding
single-mode calculations for 51 different free spans. The spans
are listed in Annex A. The selected spans cover a range of pipe
geometries, effective axial forces, span lengths and soil stiffness
values.
2.4 Single-mode calculation with a multi-mode
correction factor
The added fatigue damage at the critical location on the
span shoulder is expected to result in consistently reduced
fatigue lives and increased peak stresses as compared to
conventional single-mode calculations. Thus, it is likely that
conventional single-span, single-mode calculations are biased in
non-conservative direction for spans where the shoulder
location is more critical in terms of fatigue damage. As a
possible means to reduce or altogether remove this bias, the
present study will investigate the effect of including a multi-
mode correction factor ψmm on the standard deviation of the
stress response σs.
As a result, the maximum environmental stress due to
direct wave action, σFM,max, given by Sec. 2.5.12 in DNV-RP-
F105 [1] becomes
 FM , max  k p  k M   s  mm ,
k p  2 ln f v T  ,
(5)
1  s 
kM  1   1
2   s , I 
where fv is the vibration frequency and ΔT is the time period
used to calculate the significant wave height, typically 3 hours
in modern metocean studies. σs,I is the standard deviation for the
stress response when drag loading is disregarded. It is assumed
that σs and σs,I are affected in similar manners by including
multiple modes, thus explaining why ψmm is not included in the
expression for kM. This assumption will also be tested in the
present study.
For fatigue calculations the stress range S, given by Sec.
5.2.2 in DNV-RP-F105 [3], is modified to
S  2 2   s  mm   s (6)
where γs is a safety factor on the stress range.
2.5 Results for maximum environmental stress
calculations
The maximum bending stresses σFM,max corresponding to 1-
year, 10-year and 100-year events were calculated for each free
span using FatFree with both single- and multi-mode
calculations. The ratio rULS was calculated for each case
according to the formula
 FM ,max multi  mode
rULS 
 single  mode
FM , max
(7)
Thus, a value of rULS > 1 indicates increased stress due to
inclusion of more modes. The values for 1-year, 10-year and
100-year estimates were generally similar, and only the 100-
year results will be discussed in the following.
A histogram of the values recorded for the 51 cases
described in Annex A is shown in Figure 2 below.
4
Figure 2 – Histogram of observed rULS ratios.
The mean value of rULS was found to be 1.053 and the standard
deviation was 0.016. The minimum value was 1.023 and the
maximum value was 1.084.
A 5% increase in peak stresses is quite modest. However,
safety factors are not included in ULS calculations according to
DNV-RP-F105. Hence, a non-conservative bias is undesired
and should be corrected for. Based on the observed results it is
suggested to include a correction factor ψmm = 1.07,
corresponding roughly to the mean value of rULS plus one
standard deviation.
2.6 Results for fatigue calculations
The fatigue life Tlife was calculated using single-mode and
multi-mode approaches for all 51 cases, and for each case the
ratio rFLS was calculated according to
Tlife multi  mode
rFLS 
T single  mode
life
(8)
A value of rFLS < 1 hence indicates a smaller fatigue life in the
multi-mode calculation, implying that the single-mode estimate
is non-conservative. A histogram of the values recorded for the
51 cases described in Annex A is shown in Figure 2 below.
Figure 3 - Histogram of observed rFLS ratios.
The mean value of rFLS was found to be 0.833 and the standard
deviation was 0.058. The minimum value was 0.749 and the
maximum value was 0.982.
In cases where only a few sea-states contribute with fatigue
damage, the ratios may be somewhat uncertain and should thus
be given less weight. When all cases with a fatigue life higher
than 104 years for calculations without safety factors are
excluded, 38 cases remain in the study (note that the reported
results are based on calculation with safety factors according to
safety class normal for pipes 1 and 2, and safety class high for
pipe 3). The mean value and standard deviation of rFLS then
change negligibly to 0.834 and 0.060, thereby demonstrating
that the results reported above are not affected by uncertainty
due to small damage accumulation.
A 16.7% reduction in fatigue lives is not very large, but
since the reduction is quite consistent it is desirable to correct
for it. A correction factor ψmm on the stress range, as described
in Eq. (4), was therefore tested as part of the present study. In
order to set a reasonable value, results for Case 45 were
extracted for every combination of significant wave height Hs
and direction θ (of co-linear mean current and wave-induced
flow velocity) as specified in the tables with Weibull parameters
for Pipe 3 in Annex A. For each of the 480 combinations, the
ratio of multi-mode to single-mode results were calculated for
the standard deviation of the stress response σs and the standard
deviation of stress response with inertia loading only σs,I.
The ratios were found to consistently increase with Hs and
peak period Tp. This is not surprising, since an increase in Tp
reduces the peak wave frequency and hence also reduces
dynamic amplification of the fundamental mode, implying a
more pronounced influence of higher-order modes. The values
were observed to increase from 1.027 to 1.045, which
corresponded closely to rULS (= 1.047) for the selected case.
Moreover, it was found that the ratios for σs and σs,I were almost
identical, with a root-mean-square deviation of only 3∙10-4,
thereby justifying the omission of correction factors in the
expression for kM in Eq. (3).
5
 Based on the case study, it appears that a value of ψmm close reducing the length of the intermediate span shoulder in Figure
to the mean value of rULS should be conservative in most cases. 4 a) to 3 diameters [8]. A simplified approach of treating the
The value was therefore set to ψmm = 1.055. longest span as a single-span is thus demonstrated to be
Note that all the fatigue lives reported in this section were inaccurate.
calculated for the critical location on the shoulder. In the (few) The presented case demonstrates that several contributing
cases where the modal stress associated with the fundamental modes must be accounted for in multi-span analyses, and
mode has a global maximum at mid-span, the inclusion of furthermore that the damage varies significantly along the pipe
additional modes have a beneficial effect. The correction factor axis.
ψmm can therefore be set to unity (i.e., disregarded) in such
cases. DNV-RP-F105 already contains an approximate method
for determining modal stresses both on the shoulder and at mid-
span, thereby allowing cases where the maximum stress occurs
at mid-span to be readily determined. Alternatively, the equation
suggested by Sollund et al. [7] may be applied:
 Seff
limit  4.25  (9)
30
where
 K L L4s  S L2
  log10  and  Seff  eff s
 (10)
 EI  EI

Whenever β calculated according to Eq. (10) is larger than βlimit

from Eq.(11), the maximum stress occurs at the shoulder. This
implies that cases where β < βlimit, a full multi-mode analysis
may be conducted in order to reduce conservatism in the design,
ref. Figure 1. In Eq. (10) EI is the pipe bending stiffness, KL is
the lateral dynamic soil stiffness, Ls is the span length and Seff is
the effective axial force [20-22].

2.7 Effects of multi-spans

A double span subjected to direct wave action was reported
by Sollund et al. [8], and the main results are presented here,
and discussed in further detail here. The double span in [8],
illustrated in Figure 4 a), was subjected to a 1-hour sea-state
with Hs = 7m at a water depth of 60m. The pipe was a 30 inch
concrete coated pipe, for which more details are given in [8].
The mode shapes and associated modal stresses for the first two
modes are shown in Figure 4 b) and c), while the annual fatigue
damage is plotted in Figure 4 d). Time-domain and frequency
domain solutions produced fatigue lives of 193 years for a
single mode approach. A significantly smaller fatigue life of Figure 4 – Mode shapes (b), modal stresses (c), distributed
44.2 years was obtained by including the second mode in the yearly fatigue damage (d) for an interacting double span (a)
calculations, and for 10 modes the solution converged at 36.5
years. Thus, the assumption that the main damage contribution A range of previous studies have investigated the effects of
comes from the fundamental mode does not hold for multi- interacting multi-spans on VIV fatigue damage [23-30]. Based
spans. Fatigue lives may be particularly non-conservative if the on the results presented by Sollund et al. [8] and discussed
fundamental mode has an anti-symmetric mode shape, resulting herein, it is clearly demonstrated that span and modal
in a small mode shape weighting factor λ1. interaction is equally important for the study of multi-spans
A frequency domain calculation treating the longest span as when considering direct wave action as when considering VIV.
a single-span, and with only the fundamental mode included,
gave Tlife = 48.0 years, which is 31% higher than the 3. A NEW RESPONSE MODEL FOR CROSS-FLOW
corresponding time- and frequency-domain multi-span VIV IN LKCR
estimates. The single-span fatigue life was also 79% higher than
the multi-span fatigue life of 26.8 years that was obtained when 3.1 Presentation of the model

6
 The theoretical background for the cross-flow response
model for LKCR is extensively documented in [5]. In this
paper, the model is merely reproduced and adapted to the multi-
mode format of DNV-RP-F105. The range of validity for the
presented model is 2 ≤ KC < 10, and α ≤ 0.5, where KC is the
Keulegan-Carpenter number and α = Uc/(Uc+Uw) is the current
to wave flow velocity ratio. Uc is the current induced flow
velocity and Uw is the wave induced flow velocity. In Figure 5,
the response model for cross-flow VIV in LKCR is presented.
Figure 5 – Response model for cross-flow VIV in LKCR
The KC dependent coordinate, fr,KC, is defined by:
KC  6
 2.68 ,
f r , KC  
2.68  0.08 KC  6  , 6  KC  10
The frequency ratio frd is the ratio between the jth cross-flow
frequency fCF,j and the wave frequency fw, reduced by the safety
factor γf. With nCF modal frequencies excited by cross-flow VIV
according to the LKCR response model, the associated modal
stress response SLKCRCF,j for the jth mode is:
 Az 
, j  x   2  ACF , j  x      KC  Ks  
LKCR
S CF
 D j
where ACF,j is the unit diameter stress amplitude for the jth cross-
flow mode and the reduction factor ψKC is a function of KC:
 KC  0.4  0.075KC  2 .
The reduction factor ψKs is a function of the stability parameter,
or Scruton number, Ks [19]:
1  0.1K s , Ks  4
 Ks  
 0.6 , Ks  4
The combined response model cross-flow induced stress range
at a given pipe axial position x, SLKCRcomb,CF (x) is given as:
2
, j x 
2
m  LKCR
S CF 
f LKCR
x     f CF , j LKCR 
cyc ,CF
j 1  S comb,CF  x  

(16)
The response model given in Figure 5 has been thoroughly
documented, including a discussion of its limitations [5]. The
multi-mode response calculations, i.e. equations (15) and (16),
are, however, without experimental foundation. Multi-mode
response in pure currents has been extensively studied, with
particular relevance for pipeline free spans in relation to the
Ormen Lange project [31-34]. In wave conditions, however,
multi-mode response due to synchronization between the eigen-
frequency of a span and the wave lift load frequency has not
been tested with respect to potential multi-mode response. For a
single span, the notion of multi-mode response becomes fairly
exotic since the spacing between two consecutive cross-flow
frequencies is relatively large. For multi-spans, however, any
number of cross-flow modes may have similar frequencies and
potentially be excited by the same wave. For that reason, it has
been assumed that the mathematical expressions for multi-mode
interaction in wave dominated LKCR flow conditions are equal
to the typical multi-mode response in pure currents. Due to the
lack of experimental data, any reduction in VIV amplitude due
to competing modes has conservatively been disregarded.
3.2 Case studies
For the present study, the algorithm given in Section 3.1
(11)
was implemented in FatFree [19]. A considerable amount of
calculation testing has been performed (see case study
description in Annex A) using three different pipe cross-section,
with varying water depths, span lengths, effective axial forces
and gaps. For pipes 1 and 2 (cf. Table 1), no triggering of the
new LKCR model was achieved in the relevant cases. It was
only possible to trigger cross-flow VIV in LKCR when fatigue
lives were predicted down to matter of days, but these cases
(12)
were considered irrelevant. For pipe 3, however, KC numbers
are lower due to the higher diameter, and hence LKCR were
achieved combined with VIV excitation according to the
response model presented in Section 3.1. At around 80 m water
(13) depth, a balance was struck where the occurrence of LKCR
regimes was obtainable for cases where it may actually have an
influence on the design.
Cross-flow fatigue life as a function of span length for pipe
3 is shown in Figure 6. From the figure, it is observed that the
(14)
LKCR response model has a significant impact on the cross-
flow fatigue life, starting at about 95 m span lengths. The
response model in Figure 5 requires a range of different
combinations of variables to match at the same time, since the

 S x 
nCF KC-number, the frequency ratio and the current flow velocity
,CF  x  
LKCR LKCR
S comb CF , j (15) ratio all must be within specific intervals. Therefore, the effect
j 1 of cross-flow VIV in LKCR is an on/off effect.
Similar plots to Figure 6 were generated for a wide range of
and the cycling frequency fLKCRcyc,CF at a given location x is water depths, for pipes 1 through 3. All of the cases are in
defined by: shallow waters and wave dominated flow conditions since the
wave conditions are generally more severe than the current

7
conditions (as may be observed from the tables of
environmental statistics in Annex A). Only pipe 3, for specific
water depths, encountered any significant effect of cross-flow
VIV in LKCR.
Figure 6 – Cross-flow fatigue life as a function of span
length for pipe 3, at 80 m water depth with various levels of
effective axial force
Based on the case studies presented herein, it is concluded
that the occurrence of cross-flow VIV in LKCR is likely to be
rare. Larger diameter pipes are more susceptible to such
excitation due to the inverse proportionality of the KC number
to the pipe diameter. For large diameter pipes, there will
therefore be some rare cases when the response model for
cross-flow VIV in LKCR may be dominating for the fatigue life
prediction. In most cases, however, it appears to be difficult to
achieve flow conditions where cross-flow VIV in LKCR is
relevant unless the standard response models for in-line or
cross-flow VIV dominate the fatigue life.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from this paper:
 A new revision of DNV-RP-F105 has been developed.
 A novel response model for cross-flow VIV in LKCR
has been introduced. Some combinations of pipe
geometries, span characteristics and flow conditions
may excite cross-flow VIV in such a way that design
may be influenced, but these cases appear to be rare.
 A novel frequency-domain method for calculation of
fatigue and extreme environmental load effects from
direct wave actionhas been introduced, allowing for
multi-mode and multi-span calculations. It has been
demonstrated that consideration for multi-mode
behavior is necessary, particularly for multi-span
configurations.
 Empirical correction factors have been introduced for
single spans, taking into account the effect of multi-
mode response in the frequency domain solution.
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Ho, M., 2014. “Fatigue of pipelines subjected to
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O. “Effective axial forces in offshore lined and clad
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[21] Fyrileiv, O., Collberg, L., 2005. Influence of pressure
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topography on modal analyses of free spanning
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EURODYN‟93, Trondheim, Norway.
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[26] Kristiansen, N.Ø., Tørnes, K., Nystrøm, P.R.,
Damsleth, P., 1998. Structural modelling of multi-span
pipe configurations subjected to vortex induced
vibrations. In: Proc. of 8th Int. Offshore and Polar
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Canada.
[27] Wang, J., Wang, S.F., Duan, G., Jukes, P., 2009. VIV
analysis of pipelines under complex span
conditions. In: Deepwater Offshore Specialty Symp.,
Jan. 16-19, DOSS-71, Harbin, China.
[28] Xiao, Z.-G., Zhao, X.-L., 2010. Prediction of natural
frequency of free spanning subsea pipelines. Int.
J. Steel Struct. 10(1), 81-89.
[29] Soni, P.K., Larsen, C.M., 2005. Dynamic interaction
between spans in a multi span pipeline subjected
to vortex induced vibrations. In: Proc. of 24th Int.
Conf. on Offshore Mech. and Arctic Eng., Jun. 12-
17, OMAE 2005, Halkidiki, Greece.
[30] Sollund HA, Vedeld K, Hellesland J, Fyrileiv O.
Dynamic response of multi-span offshore pipelines.
Marine Struct 2014;39:174-97.
[31] Holden, O.M., Paulsen, G., Bryn, P., Marthinsen, T.,
2005. Ormen Lange pipelines – Routing and cost-
effective seabed preparation. In: Proc. of 15th Int.
Offshore and Polar Eng. Conf., Jun. 19-24, ISOPE
2005, Seoul, South Korea.
[32] Søreide, T., Paulsen, G., Nielsen, F.G., 2001. Parameter
study of long free spans. In: Proc. of 11th Int. Offshore
and Polar Eng. Conf., Jun. 17-22, ISOPE 2001,
Stavanger, Norway.
[33] Fyrileiv, O., Mørk, K., Chezhian, M., 2005.
Experiences using DNV-RP-F105 in assessment of free
spanning pipelines. In: Proc. of 24th Int. Conf. on
Offshore Mech. and Arctic Eng., Jun. 12-17, OMAE
2005, Halkidiki, Greece.
[34] Fyrileiv, O., Mørk, K., Chezhian, M., Sigurdsson, G.,
2006. Updated design procedure for free
spanning pipelines DNV-RP-F105 – Multi-mode
response. In: Proc. of 25th Int. Conf. on Offshore
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Hamburg, Germany.
9
 ANNEX A

CASE STUDY DESCRIPTIONS

In the case studies, a representative variation with respect to steel diameter Ds, steel wall thickness ts, effective axial force Seff, relative
span length Ls/Ds and dynamic soil stiffness KL have been emphasized. A total of 54 cases were originally chosen and the specific
combinations of variables are given below in Table 1.
Three different pipe cross-sections were selected, corresponding to a 6-inch oil pipeline (Pipe 1), a 16-inch flowline (Pipe 2)
and a 40-inch gas pipeline (Pipe 3). The three pipes have Ds/ts-ratios of 15, 25 and 34, respectively.
The effective axial force has for each pipe been varied from 0.35 Pcr in compression to 0.2 Pcr in tension, where Pcr is the critical
buckling load calculated according to Sec. 6.7.2 in DNV-RP-F105 [1]. For each level of effective axial force, the relative span length
Ls/Ds has been varied from 60 to 150, and for each span length calculations have been performed with soil stiffness corresponding to
both very soft clay and dense sand.
Note that three of the cases (case nr. 1, 7 and 13) in the original case matrix of 54 cases have been omitted from the study, thus
reducing the number of cases to 51. The reason for this is that the shortest spans on very soft clay had mode shapes that extended far
into the span shoulders, and the full mode shapes were for this reason not recorded when the modal analyses were conducted (mode
shapes were recorded for a total pipe axis length of 3Ls, where Ls is the span length).
The water depths were chosen to be 45m, 60m and 80m for Pipe 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Weibull parameters for current velocity
and significant wave height corresponding to different North Sea locations are specified for each pipe, given in the tables below.

Table 1 – Input parameters for the case studies

Case nr. Pipe Ds ts Seff/Pcr Ls/Ds KL
(mm) (mm) (-) (-) (kN/m2)
1a 5.834·105
60
2 1.955·107
3 5.834·105
0.2 110
4 1.955·107
5 5.834·105
150
6 1.955·107
7a 5.834·105
60
8 1.955·107
9 5.834·105
1 168.3 11.2 0 110
10 1.955·107
11 5.834·105
150
12 1.955·107
13a 5.834·105
60
14 1.955·107
15 5.834·105
-0.35 110
16 1.955·107
17 5.834·105
150
18 1.955·107
19 5.780·105
60
20 1.937·107
21 5.780·105
0.2 110
22 1.937·107
23 5.780·105
150
24 1.937·107
25 5.780·105
60
26 1.937·107
27 5.780·105
2 408.3 16.3 0 110
28 1.937·107
29 5.780·105
150
30 1.937·107
31 5.780·105
60
32 1.937·107
33 5.780·105
-0.35 110
34 1.937·107
35 5.780·105
150
36 1.937·107

10
 37 9.109·105
60
38 3.053·107
39 9.109·105
0.2 110
40 3.053·107
41 9.109·105
150
42 3.053·107
43 9.109·105
60
44 3.053·107
45 9.109·105
3 1027.2 30.3 0 110
46 3.053·107
47 9.109·105
150
48 3.053·107
49 9.109·105
60
50 3.053·107
51 9.109·105
-0.35 110
52 3.053·107
53 9.109·105
150
54 3.053·107
a
Cases nr. 1, 7 and 13 have later been excluded from the study because the mode shapes were not recorded.

Table 2- Weibull parameters for current velocity Uc for Pipe 1. Pipe heading is 60 deg. relative to N. Gap e = 4 m, reference
height zr = 3 m and turbulence intensity Ic = 0.04.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
0 0.2175 2.159 0.143 0.000 0.126 0.488 0.36 0.41 0.45
30 0.1523 1.819 0.120 0.000 0.106 0.569 0.35 0.41 0.46
60 0.0777 1.350 0.075 0.010 0.079 0.651 0.31 0.39 0.46
90 0.0577 1.300 0.068 0.008 0.070 0.688 0.28 0.36 0.43
120 0.0626 1.500 0.089 0.000 0.081 0.679 0.31 0.38 0.44
150 0.0837 1.397 0.086 0.012 0.091 0.627 0.34 0.42 0.50
180 0.0736 1.600 0.101 0.001 0.091 0.636 0.32 0.39 0.45
210 0.0486 1.606 0.095 0.000 0.086 0.638 0.29 0.36 0.42
240 0.0363 1.458 0.090 0.001 0.082 0.693 0.30 0.38 0.45
270 0.035 1.421 0.084 0.000 0.077 0.714 0.29 0.36 0.44
300 0.0532 1.473 0.092 0.002 0.085 0.675 0.32 0.39 0.46
330 0.1016 1.975 0.132 0.000 0.117 0.529 0.35 0.40 0.45

Table 3 – Weibull parameters for significant wave height Hs for Pipe 1. Peak period Tp = 7.5(Hs)0.3 and peak parameter γ is
calculated according to Sec. 3.3.3 in DNV-RP-F105. Spreading constant s = 8. Water depth is 45 m.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m) (m) (m)
0 1.90E-01 1.172 1.495 0.850 2.27 0.53 8.06 10.25 12.35
30 2.02E-02 1.083 0.738 0.810 1.53 0.43 3.51 4.89 6.24
60 1.04E-02 1.076 0.779 0.840 1.60 0.44 3.28 4.78 6.23
90 1.47E-02 1.163 1.061 0.650 1.66 0.52 3.96 5.65 7.24
120 8.23E-02 1.611 2.898 0.290 2.89 0.57 8.62 10.65 12.46
150 7.14E-02 1.771 2.862 0.910 3.46 0.43 8.28 9.93 11.38
180 7.32E-02 1.597 2.373 0.220 2.35 0.58 7.01 8.72 10.24
210 8.38E-02 1.509 2.338 0.460 2.57 0.55 7.70 9.58 11.29
240 8.42E-02 1.499 2.278 0.500 2.56 0.55 7.61 9.47 11.16
270 1.33E-01 1.440 2.505 0.650 2.92 0.55 9.30 11.51 13.53
300 1.08E-01 1.239 1.836 0.700 2.41 0.58 8.24 10.59 12.82
330 1.28E-01 1.329 2.177 0.600 2.60 0.58 8.91 11.23 13.40

11
Table 4 - Weibull parameters for current velocity Uc for Pipe 2. Pipe heading is 90 deg. relative to N. Gap e = 4 m, reference
height zr = 3 m and turbulence intensity Ic = 0.04.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
0 1 2.159 0.143 0.000 0.126 0.488 0.40 0.44 0.48

Table 5 - Weibull parameters for significant wave height Hs for Pipe 2. Peak period Tp = 7.5(Hs)0.3 and peak parameter γ is
calculated according to Sec. 3.3.3 in DNV-RP-F105. Spreading constant s = 8. Water depth is 60 m.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m) (m) (m)
0 1.00E+00 1.193 1.790 0.660 2.35 0.60 10.87 13.28 15.61

Table 6 - Weibull parameters for current velocity Uc for Pipe 3. Pipe heading is 60 deg. relative to N. Gap e = 4 m, reference
height zr = 3 m and turbulence intensity Ic = 0.04.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
0 0.2175 2.159 0.143 0.000 0.126 0.488 0.36 0.41 0.45
30 0.1523 1.819 0.120 0.000 0.106 0.569 0.35 0.41 0.46
60 0.0777 1.350 0.075 0.010 0.079 0.651 0.31 0.39 0.46
90 0.0577 1.300 0.068 0.008 0.070 0.688 0.28 0.36 0.43
120 0.0626 1.500 0.089 0.000 0.081 0.679 0.31 0.38 0.44
150 0.0837 1.397 0.086 0.012 0.091 0.627 0.34 0.42 0.50
180 0.0736 1.600 0.101 0.001 0.091 0.636 0.32 0.39 0.45
210 0.0486 1.606 0.095 0.000 0.086 0.638 0.29 0.36 0.42
240 0.0363 1.458 0.090 0.001 0.082 0.693 0.30 0.38 0.45
270 0.035 1.421 0.084 0.000 0.077 0.714 0.29 0.36 0.44
300 0.0532 1.473 0.092 0.002 0.085 0.675 0.32 0.39 0.46
330 0.1016 1.975 0.132 0.000 0.117 0.529 0.35 0.40 0.45

Table 7 - Weibull parameters for significant wave height Hs for Pipe 3. Peak period Tp = 7.5(Hs)0.3 and peak parameter γ is
calculated according to Sec. 3.3.3 in DNV-RP-F105. Spreading constant s = 8. Water depth is 80 m.
Direction Sector Weibull parameters Statistics Return period (years)
relative to probability F(x)=1-exp(-((x-)/a)^) mean CoV 1 10 100
geographic N Shape () Scale (a) Location () value (m) (m) (m)
0 1.37E-01 1.13 1.43 0.54 1.91 0.64 7.56 9.91 12.19
30 3.50E-03 1.161 0.910 0.410 1.27 0.59 2.29 3.81 5.23
60 1.80E-03 1.608 1.230 0.190 1.29 0.54 1.88 3.09 4.04
90 1.80E-03 1.075 0.870 0.480 1.33 0.59 1.87 3.61 5.28
120 4.20E-03 1.287 1.100 0.440 1.46 0.55 2.69 4.17 5.49
150 7.70E-02 1.764 3.070 0.180 2.91 0.55 8.18 9.96 11.52
180 1.35E-01 1.507 2.270 0.380 2.43 0.57 7.81 9.61 11.24
210 1.01E-01 1.568 2.420 0.190 2.36 0.60 7.52 9.30 10.89
240 1.03E-01 1.434 2.270 0.270 2.33 0.63 7.92 9.96 11.83
270 1.34E-01 1.300 2.090 0.330 2.26 0.66 8.59 10.95 13.16
300 1.11E-01 1.137 1.630 0.420 1.98 0.69 8.05 10.66 13.19
330 1.91E-01 1.160 1.670 0.470 2.06 0.67 8.66 11.17 13.59

12

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