Computer Science

UNIT
Computer System
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
 Know the concept of computer.
 Know about data and information.
 Know the major characteristics of computer.
 Know the applications of computer.
 Know the concept of ICT (Information Communication Technology).
 Know the capabilities, advantages, limitations and disadvantages of computer.
 Know the history and generation of computer.
 Know the measurement unit of processing speed and storage unit.
 Know the types of computer (Super, Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers).
 Know the concept of mobile computing and its application.
 Know the advantages and disadvantages of mobile computing.
 Know the concept of computer architecture and organization.
 Know the concept of Components of Computer System (Input hardware, Output hardware, Processing hardware, Storage
(Main Memory/Auxiliary Storage) hardware) and their functions.
 Know the different types of input and output hardware.
 Know the component of CPU.
 Know the types of Memory (primary and secondary).
 Know the concept of bus system and different types of bus.
 Know the concept of hardware interfaces and types of interface.
1.1 Introduction of Computer

The computer is the most powerful and reliable device that man has ever made. It has made a great
impact on our everyday life. Consider this statement “Everything is in the computer.” Nowadays,
everything is in computer means almost any information we can get easily with the help of
computer and internet technologies. That’s why “Everything is in computer” and as a result
“computer is everywhere”.
In the past three decades, technology has been transferred from developed countries to developing
countries like Nepal as well. As a result, most of the citizens and the organizational business
companies of Nepal have been using the computer these days. We use a computer because of its
influence on professional endeavours in daily life. With the invention of the computer, all science,
accounting, financial, cultural, art, historical, medical, engineering, and other disciplines are
required to change with the base of the computer or computing environment. No disciplines shall
survive for a long time without the use of their studies through the computer.
Our past generation was referred as illiterate as they were not capable of writing a letter to their
children and their dears. In addition to this, these days the people would be treated as illiterate
because of incapability to send message through e-mail. Nowadays, the computing environment is
really very interactive and has also reduced a distance a lot. Now, the world has turned into a global
village due to Computer and Information Technology. So, we can get information easily on any part
of the earth less than a second.
2 ESSENTI ALS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
1.1.1 Definition, Characteristics and Application of Computer

Definition of Computer
The development of the computer is not one day’s invention. In fact, it began with civilization and
computing instructions on devices. The word “computer” comes from the Latin word “computare”
(compute in English), which means to calculate. The word “calculate” means to find out the result
of some operation on numeric and non-numeric values. So, a computer is normally considered to be
a calculating device at high speed. Moreover, the computer is defined in the oxford dictionary as
“An automatic electronic apparatus of making calculations or controlling operations that are
expressible in numerical or logical terms.”
Some Other Definitions of Computer

 A computer can be defined as a multipurpose, programmable, electronic data processing
device that is capable of accepting input, processing it, and producing information as output at
enormous speed.
 A computer may be defined as a machine that can solve problems by accepting data,
performing certain operations, and presenting results of those operations in sequential
instructions. Such a set of sequenced instructions, which cause a computer program to perform
particular operations, is called a program.
 A computer can be defined as a programmable digital automatic machine, which takes input
from the user, processes it, and gives the output (information) in the desired form to the user
and stores it if necessary.
 A computer is an electronic device, which can perform computation as well as logical action at
enormous speed.
Figure: IPO (Input-Process-Output)
Input (data) Processing Output (information)
Characteristics (Features) of Computer

Some factors that might lead people to use a computer are speed, accuracy, word length, automation,
diligence, reliability, versatility, and storage capacity.
1. Speed: The data processing speed of the electronic computer is very fast because the signals can
pass at the speed of electricity which is near to that of speed of light i.e. 2.997 × 108 m/sec. Thus
millions of calculations can be done in a second. Such speeds are beyond the comprehension of
the human brain.
The processing speed of a microprocessor is usually measured in Millions of Instructions Per
Second (MIPS or throughput is also used in computer literature for a number of instructions per
second.)
Note: CPU executes one instruction per second is one cycle per second which is one hertz (Hz). Similarly, 1 Mega
Hertz (MHz) is equal to 106 instructions per second that are the measuring unit of the processing speed of the
computer although Hertz is measuring unit of frequency.
Its formula is:
Chapter 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM 3
1
Frequency (Hz) = time (Second or sec.)
For Computer processing,

1
Frequency (MHz) = time (micro second)
Table: Measuring units for processing speed in terms of frequency and time
Measuring Units in Frequency Measuring Units in Time
1 Hz (Hertz or 1× 100 Hz ) 1 second (1× 100 sec)
1 KHz (Kilo Hertz or 1×103 Hz) 1 milli second (1× 10-3 sec)
1 MHz (Mega Hertz or 1× 106 Hz) 1 micro second (1× 10-6 sec)
1 GHz (Giga Hertz or 1× 109 Hz) 1 nano second (1×10-9 sec)
1 THz (Tera Hertz or 1×1012 Hz) 1 pico second (1× 10-12 sec)
1 PHz (Peta Hertz or 1× 1015 Hz) 1 femto second (1× 10-15 sec)
1 EHz (Exa Hertz or 1×1018 Hz) 1 atto second (1× 10-18 sec)
1 ZHz (Zetta Hertz or 1×1021 Hz) 1 zepto second (1× 10-21 sec)
1 YHz (Yotta Hertz or 1×1024 Hz) 1 yocto second (1× 10-24 sec)
Some other related units for processing speed of computer are:
 MIPS: Millions of instructions per second are used for integer computation.
 MFLOPS: Millions of floating a point instruction per second is used for floating point
computation.
 TPS: Transaction per second is used for online-processing application of computation.
 KLIPS: Kilo logical inferences per second, is used for knowledge based computation of 5th
generation of computer.
2. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is consistently high, and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy i.e. almost 100% accurate results are always the same as per design. The
degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon it’s designed.
Accordingly, software needs to be designed properly, and proper checks and controls are
necessary for the program and data. Errors can occur in a computer system due to inaccurate
data or instructions fed by humans or end-users.
3. Word length: Digital computer operates on binary digits (bit), a combination of 1 (one or high)
and 0 (zero or low), which means all data or information are kept in a computer or its memory
in terms of 0’s and 1’s. 8 bits is equal to one byte. The number of bits that a computer can
process at a time in parallel is called its word length. Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32,
or 64. Longer the word length, the faster the computer is.
4. Automation: A computer is an automatic machine, capable of functioning automatically, once
the appropriate set of instructions (program) and data are provided to the computer. Once a
task is initiated in a computer, it can proceed automatically.
5. Diligence: The computer can perform repetitive tasks without being bored and never gets tired.
Diligence means being constant and earnest in effort and application. It can continuously work
for several hours or days after the data and programs are fed in it. Unlike human beings, a
computer is free from tiredness, weakness, lack of concentration and monotony. If one work is
repeated many times, human being suffers from physical and mental tiredness, but the
computer can perform the repeated task with the same speed and accuracy. Because of this
reason, human beings are getting a high level of benefit.
6. Reliability: The computer system is particularly master a lot of work without any mistakes and
tiredness. That’s why they are widely used everywhere because of their reliability.
On the other hand, Unreliable can occur if the end-user feeds incorrect data and instructions, or
faulty instructions for processing the data automatically lead to faulty results. This is known as
GIGO, i.e. Garbage iEn Garbage Out (GIGO). Errors may occur in the results, but due to
increased efficiency of error-detecting techniques, they can be minimized. Thus, the probability
of errors in a computer is negligible.
7. Versatility: Computer can perform different tasks depending upon the different program fed to
it, is known as versatility. It has a wide range of application areas i.e. it can do many types of
jobs. It can perform operations ranging from simple mathematical calculations to highly
complex and logical manipulations. Some of the applications areas of computers are in
education, business, office-automation, bank, medical diagnosis, science and technology,
communications, and astronomy, so it is versatile in nature.
8. Storage capacity: A computer can store a huge amount of data. It has a data storage area, called
memory. Any data stored in the memory can be retrieved at any time and at a very fast speed.
The memory can be divided into primary memory and secondary storage. Primary memory is the
working memory of the computer and is capable of sending and retrieving data at very high
speed, whereas secondary storage is long-term memory and operates more slowly but capable
of storing large amounts of data. Example: floppy disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, magnetic
disks and optical disk.
The storing capacity of a computer is measured in terms of byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte,
terabyte. A binary number either 0 or 1 is called a bit (binary digit). 4 bits are equal to 1 nibble
and 8 bits are equal to 1 byte or a character. One kilobyte is equal to 210 that equal to 1024 bytes.
Application of Computer
The computer is the most powerful instrument man has ever produced. It has a great impact on
every aspect of mankind and plays an important role in our society. Computer technology is one of
the fastest developing technologies. It has numerous impacts on the daily life of modern society.
Every sphere of life and education is influenced by this technology. Earlier the computer was a
massive, special-purpose instrument/device that only huge institution/organization could afford for
complex scientific calculations. They used for lunching the precise orbit of Ballistic Missile or
spacecraft and processing statistics for the Bureau of the Census and other engineering purposes
Nowadays, computer is used in education; to teach students through multimedia, in business; to

perform accounting and financial work, tabulation of results, in office; office automation to accurate
reschedule secretarial job, managerial job, make decision, business plan activities and organization
activities into specific tasks, in communication; to communicate people to receive, and send,
information, process their message in accurate given format of time, in bank work; analyze
transaction of cash of several sub branches, analyze them for future use to maintain and sort the
records of clients, in hospitals; do medical diagnosis, to diagnose diseases and prescribe medicines,
to perform clinical tests, in factory; to make automatic control of devices, counting mechanism, and
its process, in military; to control of military equipment and search certain areas, to help police in
crime investigation, in airways; make the route of aircraft landing and departure guidelines, air
traffic control and air ticket issue and reservation system, in robotics; to control robots and its
simulation that is use for science and technology and so on. In this chapter these important
applications of computers are discussed below:
1. Computer in Education
In education, most schools and universities in the world are using computers for learning purposes.
It has been proved that learning with computers has been more successful and this is why numerous
forms of new teaching methods have been introduced. This enhances the knowledge of computers in
our daily life - whether we are at the cinema, the school, or the public library. The beginning of
computer literacy is already apparent.
In educational institutions, the computer is used as teaching aids, information resources and
computing and research means or tools. When a computer is used as a teaching tool, it is referred to
as computer-added (assisted) instruction (CAI). The CAI programs can be prepared in a variety of
modes, such as tutorial, discovery, problem-solving, modeling, and drill and practice mode. The
computer has generated a new subject of study in terms of Computer Science, Computer
Engineering, and ICT. It is also used to prepare documents, reports, presentations.
Figure: Computer in Education
2. Computer in Business
In the business sector, a Point of Sale (POS) -terminal is mostly used in department Malls, shops and
other retail centers to process sale transactions. The computer prints name of the item, rate, and price
validated to date and other details on the receipt and issues the receipt to the customer, then the total
amount to be paid. Most notable thing is that it also updates sale records and inventory control. E-
Commerce (Electronic Commerce) is being popular these days. It is the process of selling and buying
products or services by using an electronic medium. Payments are done electronically through the
computer.
Figure: Computer in Business
3. Computer in Office
In office, the computer is used in preparing the report, memorandum, and copy of advertisement,
letter, publicity, contract, form, note, and notice that is the basic works of an office. It helps the user
in preparing, storing, retrieving, and displaying text. In office accounting, billing preparation of
payrolls, data analysis, auditing, investment, inventory control, preparation of budgets, sales
analysis is also performed. In most of the computerized office, word processing and spread
applications are used.
Figure: Computer in Office
The term electronic office is used, when all work of the office is done using computers. It helps to
automate the office work.
4. Computer in Communication
The computer is massively used in communication. Communication is done by email, chat, online
conferencing (computer conferencing, teleconferencing or audio or video conferencing), e-fax
throughout a computer network that connects a number of computers or workstations with the help
of Internet. In communications, computers are used to view and post news on computer Bulletin
Board System (BBS), for electronic shopping, banking and brokerage and to get information services.
Most of all, computers are the backbone of all the telecommunication companies and
telecommunication means. It has made the communication faster, easier, and cheaper.
Figure: Computer in Communication
5. Computer in Bank
Banks use the computer for general-purpose computations, to handle the transaction, to maintain the
ledger, to issue fixed deposit receipts, to make withdrawals and deposits to customers, to provide
online service to customers who want to perform bank transactions from terminals and to answer
customers regarding their balance.
Figure: Computer in Bank
Even though handling the cash, banks use cash dispensing machines, this is mainly a
microprocessor-based device. The large volume of a cheque received every day in banks is processed
by computers. To handle this task magnetic-ink character reader is employed with computers. With
the use of a computer, the electronic transfer of funds from one account to another has become
possible. The customers from their preferred places (home, office, or store) can insert their
identification number and type the transaction details on the terminal's keyboard. Immediately the
amount they specify will move out of their account and enter another's account.
These days, banks provide 24 hours ATM service, where user can withdraw their money anytime
from the ATM machine by using the ATM card. Online banking service is being popular, which is
the process of performing banking transactions using the Internet.
6. Computer in Health and Medical Field

The computer is widely used in hospitals to help doctors in diagnosis, getting information about
patient’s diseases, required treatments, keeping patient records, online booking. It is also used in
administration for keeping patient records. Doctors can get information from distant data banks and
expert systems. They can discuss with colleagues using teleconferencing or online conferencing.
Many medical databases are being developed; they contain information about diseases and their
treatment. Doctors are taking the help of expert systems in the diagnosis and treatment of a patient.
An expert system is a program based on the expert knowledge of specialists. It is a diagnostic tool for
doctors. The doctors have to supply detailed information such as symptoms, medical history, and
test results to get the information from the expert system.
Figure: Computer in Health and Medical Field
One of the most important things is that the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), CT scan machine,
eye testing machines, ultrasonic machine are attached or built within the computers.
7. Computer in Industry
In industry, the computer is extensively used for automatic control of machines, processes,
measurement, and display of electrical and physical quantities. For example, automatic control of
temperature of a heating system, the speed of a motor, the voltage of generator, the pressure of
boiler, testing of products, all is a microprocessor-based computer system.
A microprocessor-based computer system can monitor, measure, control and displays any part of
physical and electrical quantities like the pressure of boilers, the temperature of heating system,
displacement of devices, deflection of the object, force, strain, voltage, current, power, frequency
output of generators, and water level.
If any fault occurs on any part of the system, it immediately alarms and disconnects the faulty part
from the healthy part of the system.
Figure: Computer in Industry
8. Computer in Military
The computer is widely used for defense purposes. At present, sophisticated weapons are being
widely used in military operations with refined microprocessor-based control systems. These are
Modern tanks, missiles, fighter planes.
Figure: Computer in Military
In guided missiles, tanks, fighter planes or even arms use the internal computer for their control.
Computer's memory holds a detailed map of the target area. Photographs of the target area are taken
and compared with the stored map before it hits the target. These computer-guided missiles or
fighter planes are flying faster and turn more quickly as compared to manned aircraft. They can fly
into dangerous zones without the risk of a pilot's life. In this way, the computer plays vital role in
military system.
9. Computer in Aviation
In aviation, computer stores all necessary information regarding ticket reservations, such as flight
number, flight route, flight distance, number of seats available for each flight in each class, ticket fare.
It also stores information regarding persons who have already reserved. The person sitting at the
counter gets information immediately whether seat on a particular date, in a particular flight, is
available or not. If seats are available, computer prints and issues ticket and the details of the person
getting reservation are recorded. The computer also prints reservation charts. It also gives
information regarding flight departure and arrival time to the customer and the aviation department.
It is also used in the air traffic control system to control landing and takeoff of airplanes to minimize
any accidental risk and to increase the number of flight in an airport. The computer is used to control
The RADAR system and other communication devices.
Figure: Computer in Aviation
10. Computer in Robotics

In robotics, the robot is computer-controlled programmable machines composed of mechanical body,
and optical sensors to provide eye-vision. A robot contains one or more microprocessors to control
its actions. It is designed to move parts or bodies, or equipment, to perform certain specialized
works. In robotics, it is used to perform works such as dancing mankind device, walking, moving,
placing devices in the right places, spray painting, welding, packing, and placing a huge amount of
cartons. Now a day, the robot is used in hospitals to perform many works that are presently survived
by nurses.
The robot can be used in hazardous places, where a man cannot work. A robot may be provided
with artificial intelligence along with sensory capabilities such as hearing, smelling, sense of touch,
and vision system.
Figure: Computer in Robotics
11. Computer in Graphics

The computer is being used to draw drawings, graphics, and pictures. One need not depend on
draftsman or artist for these purposes and available graphic software packages like Adobe
Photoshop, CorelDRAW. The computer can draw sophisticated drawings in multi-color in minutes.
The Graphics package is also used to recognize a picture, process images, draw a picture, and finally,
it can also be modified.
Figure: Computer in Graphics
12. Computer in Design and Research Work

Scientific and engineering design and research work involve complex and massive computations. In
many cases simulation is also required. Design of bridges, towers, buildings, generators, motors,
electrical transmission network, statistical analysis of the molecular structure of complex proteins
needs complex computations. In some cases massive data are to be processed particularly in
statistical analysis. The computer is suitable for both complex computations as well as the processing
of massive amount of data. Research work in the science and engineering field also requires complex
computation. Such complex computation may not be possible by hand or calculator. Nowadays, the
computer is a must for this type of work.
Figure: Computer in Design and Research Work
13. Computer in CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacture) / CAD (Computer Aided Design)

The computer is also used to control production of certain engineering and chemical products. In the
mechanical industry, designers use CAD and prepare the design of machines and machinery parts.
As integrated approach to CAM and CAD is also used. In the integrated system there is a database,
which stores all data regarding design, drawings and specifications.
Figur: Computer in CAM / CAD
CAD is a software package, which helps design engineers and architects to design and prepare
drawings. CAD is widely used to prepare machine drawings, building drawings, presentation of the
solid model (3-D views) of machine parts on the screen. It also shows dimensions. The output of
CAD helps other engineers in manufacturing the machines and erecting buildings. CAD is also used
to draw electric and electronic circuit diagrams, to design printed circuit board layouts, LSI/VLSI
chips, aircraft structure, bridge, tower structures, chemical plants piping layout. AutoCAD is a
popular CAD package used for preparing drawings.
14. Computer in Desktop Publishing System

A desktop publishing package is more powerful than a word processor package. The desktop
publishing system includes computer and a number of peripherals with powerful software that can
produce complete page layouts with pictures and text printed in a variety of attractive ways. Such
pages are used in book design, manuals, bulletins, newsletters.
Figure: Computer in Desktop Publishing System
15. Computers in Some Other Places

Some general applications of computers which have not been discussed earlier are mentioned here.
A microprocessor-based system is used to control the efficient burning of fuel in a car, bus, truck.
Smart cars are also on the market. Microprocessor controls engine operations such as air-fuel
mixture, ignition timing. They control door locks, air conditioning, braking, skidding, and speed of
the car. Other functions are vehicle diagnosis, collision avoidance, maintenance analysis, and vehicle
performance analysis.
These days, personal computers are being used of home for a variety of tasks such as, to surf the
Internet, computer aided education, home management, accounting, playing games.
Figure: Computer in Some Other Places
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

ICT is a popular term at present that covers all the technical aspects of:
1. Computer Science education
2. Computer Technology (hardware, software, data, procedure, the user)
3. Communication Technology (transmission media, protocols, telephone system)
ICT used various technologies required for processing data to generate information and share it. ICT
has influenced almost each and every sector as shown in the figure below:
Figure: A pictorial representation of ICT.
Computer Science Education COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Medicine
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
Economy
Engineering
Management
Education
Office automation
Tourism
Finance
Science & Research
Agriculture
Industry
Capabilities and Limitations of Computer

Capabilities
 The computer is capable of producing 100% accurate outputs, performing calculations
complicated and difficult work at extremely high speed using correct data and instructions.
 It is capable of permanently storing huge amounts of data and retrieving it whenever required.
 It can perform the repetitive tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
 It is capable of performing different types of tasks in different areas.
 It is capable of performing the task automatically after required instructions and data are
provided.
 The computer provides faster and cheaper communications by using transmission media.
 It can perform almost all works; just users must provide proper hardware and software or the
Internet.
Limitations
 The computer is the non- intelligent machine (dull machine). It cannot think and give the right
decisions as a human being.
 It cannot operate without a battery or electricity.
 Failure in devices and wrong information by users makes it unreliable.
 It requires instructions to perform a task. It cannot perform any task by itself.
 It cannot learn, think, reason, or react like humans, i.e. it can’t distinguish between the good and
bad, correct and incorrect input and output in comparison to a human being.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer
Advantages
 The computer is faster than a human being and any other device ever invented.
 It is always accurate and reliable.
 It is versatile i.e. master in all types of work and fields like education, hospital, bank.
 It can be used for communication among many users.
 It never feels exhausted and tired like a human being. Thus, useful for repeated jobs.
 It has a large and permanent storage facility. As a result, data and programs can be stored,
modified and used for different purposes
 It is used to develop and control simulators.
 With the help of computers and its technology, complex tasks will be easier, like sitting in
computer exploring places of the world using Google Maps.
Disadvantages
 The computer can be used for computer crime like hacking, cracking, creating and sending
malicious software (Like virus, worm, Trojan horse).
 It has increased dependency on the machine.
 It is still expensive.
 Repair and maintenance are required frequently.
 Skilled manpower is required to work on the computer.
 The failure of a device or program can produce unreliable things as a result of the loss of data
and information.
1.1.2 Evolution of Computer Technology

History of Computer
"Necessity is the mother of invention". The saying holds true for computers also because computers
were invented as a result of man's search for fast, accurate and ease calculating devices.
The need for calculations with the growth in science, commerce and other human activities, explain
the evolution of computers.
Evolution of computer is a study of the past development of computer; i.e. it is meant by the gradual
improvement of accuracy, speed and efficiency of computers through generations, whereas
generations of computers may be defined as the development of computer an average period of time
in which old computer technology may be replaced by newer technology.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that basically
changed the way of computer operation as a result, it is an increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more reliable device.
Ancient people lived on the earth for centuries without counting. Then they started to count with
their ten fingers. It became so difficult to live and to remember them more and more facts using their
ten fingers. These phenomena were gradually replaced by the use of stones, counting notches (V-
shaped cut in or on something) on sticks or marks on walls.
The Mechanical Era (Zeroth Generation)
The calculator of this age was developed by using mechanical components like wood, metal, stone,
bone. It was used for simple mathematical calculations. Some of the popular calculators used in this
age are:
Abacus
Historians started the history of calculation with the first mechanical tool Abacus, also known as
Suan-pan ('counting board ' in the Chinese language) or Soroban in Japanese and appeared in
between 3000 years to 6000 years ago.
Figure 1.18: Abacus
Value stored 0 5 5 4 7 9 0 8 6
in rod
Upper
Wooden deck
frame (Heaven)
Mid bar
Rod
Lower
Beads deck
(Earth)
Power of 10 108 107 106 105 104 103 102=100 101=10 100=1
Total = (0x108 + 5x107 + 5x106 + 4x105 + 7x104 + 9x103 + 0x102 + 8x101 + 6x100 )10 = 55479086
It had its origin in ancient-china, Greece (Roman), Egypt and Great silky road (located in the
Southern part of former USSR and central Asia). It was used for performing simple calculations like
counting, addition, subtraction, and multiplication of numbers.
An abacus consists of a rectangular frame carrying a number of wooden rods. Mid-bar divides each
of these rods into unequal - upper and lower parts. The upper part is called heaven, whereas the
lower part is called the earth. Heaven consists of two beads, whereas the earth part consists of five
beads to each rod. The value of bead on heaven part is five and the earth is one. Each abacus consists
of nine or eleven or thirteen rods.
John Napier (1550-1617 AD)
THE SCOTTISH mathematician John Napier first published the table of logarithms in 1614 AD. It
was very useful in simplifying the multiplication of large numbers.
He invented bone rods and used bones to demonstrate division by subtraction and multiplication by
addition, according to the principle of logarithms. These rods were made up of strips of bones on
which numbers were carved and painted, that device was called Napier's bone.
Figure: John Napier and Napier Bone
William Oughtred (1575-1660 AD)

THE ENGLISH MAN William Oughtred invented a rectangular device-slide-rule in 1620 AD. It was
a calculating device, based on the principles of the logarithm. A slide rule consists of two graduated
scales, one of which slips upon the other. The scales are devised in such a manner that suitable
alignment of one scale against the other makes it possible to find products and Quotient of any
numbers.
Figure: William Oughtred and Slide-rule
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 AD)

THE FRENCH MAN Blaise Pascal was a brilliant mathematician and religious thinker. He was the
founder of the modern theory of probability. The following work on barometers by Italian scientists
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), Pascal made a mercury barometer
and measured atmospheric pressure. He formulated Pascal's principle: in a liquid and gas; pressure
applied to one point is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. To assist his father in his
accounting work, Pascal invented the first numerical mechanical calculating machine in Paris.
Figure: Blaise Pascal and mechanical calculating machine

In this machine, numbers were entered by dialing a series of numbered wheels each wheel having
numbers from 0 to 9. A complete turning of the first wheel causes the 2nd wheel to move the next
number. Another series of toothed wheels transferred the movements to a dial, which showed the
result. In addition the wheel was moved into the forward direction and for subtraction into the
reverse direction. It could perform addition and subtraction up to 8 digits i.e. 99,999,999 that was a
great achievement at that time. This mechanical calculator was called Pascaline. Pascal programming
language is named on his name.
Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716 AD)

THE GERMAN mathematician and philosopher Baron Gottfried
Wilhelm Von Leibniz (in short Leibniz) was an outstanding thinker
who developed a method of computation called calculus. Both
Leibniz and the English scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) claimed
to be First with the theory of calculus. In fact they developed it
simultaneously and independently. Leibniz's knowledge was vast
and diverse, covering all the intellectual disciplines of his day.
In 1671 AD, Leibniz modified the Pascaline machine and invented
the first calculator Stepped Reckoner, which was able to perform
automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and could
find out square root. Leibniz’s machine used a stepped cylinder
each with nine teeth of varying lengths instead of wheels It was called Leibniz—Calculator or
Stepped Reckoner.
Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834 AD)

THE FRENCH MAN Joseph Marie Jacquard was a textile manufacturer invented a mechanism for
automated weaving cloths for the textile industry at Lyon in 1802 AD. This machine was used to
automatically control weaving looms to facilitate the production of weaving cloth with complex
patterns. This machine was controlled by punch-cards i.e. principle of present and absence of holes.
Figure: Joseph Marie Jacquard and Automated Cloths Weaving Machine
Charles Babbage (1791-1871 AD)

THE ENGLISH professor and mathematician Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine at
Cambridge University in 1822 AD. Theoretically, it can solve differential equations and calculate
various mathematical function, logarithmic tables, polynomial and trigonometric the functions.
Difference machine was intended to be steam powered, fully automatic, even to the printing of the
resulting tables and commanded by a fixed instruction program. The project could not be completed
due to a lack of funds. Babbage continued working on his difference Engine for a full ten years, but
he had a better idea. His new idea was the construction of a general-purpose, fully programmable
automatic mechanical counting machine. Babbage called his machine an Analytical Engine in 1833
AD.
Figure: Charles Babbage with his Difference and Analytical Engine
The idea of the Analytical Engine was considered the most significant step in the history of
computers, because of his idea only, the dream of modern computers has come true. In other words,
we can say that he developed a prototype computer. This machine was capable of calculating up to
20 decimals at about 60 additions per minute, could store information, making decisions, and carry
out instructions on its decisions.
Analytical Engine had four major units.
1. The Store: A mechanical memory unit consisting of sets of counters wheels, which could store
data and intermediate results in punched cards like on Jacquard loom.
2. The Mill: An arithmetic unit, which was capable of performing four basic arithmetic
operations; addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
3. Control Unit: His machine had mechanism having gears and shafts by which data and results
were transferred between the store and Mill, which is similar to the control unit of today’s
computer.
4. Cards (Input / output devices):
Input: There are basically two types of cards:
a. Operation Cards: Selects one of four arithmetic operations by activating the mill to
perform the selected function.
b. Variable Cards: Select the memory locations to be used by the mill for a particular
operation (i.e. the source of the operands and the destination of the results)
Output: Output could be directed to a printer or punch card device or got on a copper plate.
His efforts guided a number of principles, which have been shown to be fundamental to the design
of today's digital computers. That's why he was considered the “Father of modern day's computer".
Unfortunately, his work could not be completed. But as a tribute to Charles Babbage his Analytical
Engine was completed in the last decades and is now on display at the Science Museum in London.
Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (1815-1852 AD)

THE ENGLISH intelligent and independent-minded woman-Lady
Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace, (in short lady Ada) was the daughter of
English poet Lord Byron and a very great follower, assistant of Charles
Babbage. She described the Analytical Engine as weaving “algebraic
patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves.” One of the few
people who understood the Analytical Engine’s design as well as
Babbage, she helped revise plans, secure funding from the British
Government, and communicate the specifics of the Analytical Engine to
the public. Lady Ada’s fine understanding of the machine allowed her
to create the instruction routines to be fed into the computer and she suggested to Babbage writing a
plan for how the engine might calculate using Bernoulli numbers. In 1842, Lady Ada documents
Babbage’s work and writes programs for Babbage. This plan is now regarded as the first computer
program. That's why, she was considered the first computer programmer and, a software language
developed by the US Defense Department was named Ada in her honor in 1979 AD.
George Boole (1815 - 1864 AD)

THE SELF-TAUGHT IRISH mathematician George Boole produced
important work in many areas of the discipline, including calculus and
the theory of probability. However, he is chiefly remembered as a
pioneer of formal logic. Boole developed a method of reducing
statements in logic to algebraic statements, using a simple set of
symbols.
Although logicians have since streamlined the set of symbols, Boole's
basic system survives. An interpretation of Boolean algebra in terms of
truth values, called the propositional calculus, forms the basis of the
digital processes in modern computers.
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929 AD)

AN AMERICAN inventor Herman Hollerith also applied the Jacquard
loom concept in computing and applies for patents for the automatic
punch-card tabulating machine in 1884. He invented a machine known
as Tabulating Machine (TM) in 1886 AD.
Hollerith’s method used cards to store data which he fed into a machine
that compiled the results mechanically. Each punch on a card
represented one number, and combinations of punches represented a
letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a single card. This
device could process the punch cards and perform census calculating
faster than ever before.
His first task was to find a faster way to compute the U.S. census. The previous census in 1880 had
taken nearly seven years to count and with an expanding population, the bureau feared it would
take 10 years to count the latest census. Instead of 10years, census compilation was completed in just
6 weeks with Hollerith’s machine. In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage
method for data and they helped reduce computational errors. The patent is issued for Hollerith
Tabulating Machine in 1889 AD
Actually, he was a census statistician in the US bureau of statistics. Hollerith brought his punch card
reader into the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company 1896; later to become
International Business Machine (IBM). He was the first person who developed punch cards in
practical. He was the founder of IBM and founded in 1924 AD, USA. It is the largest computer
manufacturing vendor/company in the world till today. Both business and government used punch
cards for data processing until the 1980s.
John Von Neumann (1903 - 1957 AD)

THE HUNGARIAN mathematician, Jon von Neumann gave the idea of a stored-program computer
in the sense that the program is stored internally in the main memory of the computer along with its
associated data in 1945. So he is called the “Father of Stored program”. Before that, program
required for the computer was integrated and written permanently in chips, so modification of the
program was not possible. But after Neumann, such programs were stored inside a computer in
some storage media, so modification was easy and flexible. The Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed on the stored program concept. John Von Neumann
has also got a share of the credit for introducing the idea of storing both instructions and data in the
binary form (0, 1) to represent all characters instead of the decimal numbers and characters. EDVAC
was developed by J. P. Ecker & J.W. Mauchly in 1952 AD.
Figure: John Von Neumann and EDVAC
Figure: The basic architecture of John Von Neumann computer
Communication
[Processor] Program + Data [Memory]
Channel
It consists of a processor & a communication channel. The main job of the processor is to execute
programs & operations stored in the computer.
The Electro-Mechanical Era

The calculator of this age was developed by using a mechanical and electronic component vacuum
tube.
Successful general purpose mechanical computers were built in the 1930s. Konard Zuse developed a
mechanical computer, the Z1, in 1938 in Germany. The Zl used binary number system instead of the
decimal system. Konard Zuse built several mechanical computers and the Z3 was completed in 1941.
It is believed to be the first operational general-purpose computer. The Z3 employed relays
(electromechanical binary switches) to construct the arithmetic units.
The Mark I Computer (1937 – 1944 AD)

A Professor of Physics Howard H. Aiken designed a general-purpose mechanical computer at
Harvard University and IBM while working on his doctorate in physics, in the year 1937. The
machine was called IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (IBM ASCC); it was the first
fully automatic calculating machine and later as Harvard Mark I. It was constructed in IBM, leading
manufacturer of office equipment at that time. Mark I is completed in 1944 AD. It was a relay-based
computer based on the concept of Charles Babbage’s Analytical engine principle. It used binary
numbers for its operation.
Figure: Mark- I
It utilized a number of input/output (I/O) devices including a punch-card and a card reader. Later,
Mark II was built by Aiken and his colleagues that were working electromechanical relays for its
operation. Mark-II used 19000 valves.
Many computers using electromechanical relays were built in the 1940s. But they were quickly
outdated by faster and more reliable electronic computers.
Features of Mark I:
 It used about 18 thousand vacuum tubes (valves) as main memory devices with 7 lakes 50
thousand part.
 It’s about 51 feet long, 8 feet height and 3 feet wide i.e. bulky in size.
 Punch card, and card readers are used for input/output (I/O) operation.
 Technically it was a very complicated machine, consumed a huge amount of power, and
generated a lot of heat during the operation.
 It was capable of performing five basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and table reference.
 The time taken for average multiplication and division was about four and eleven seconds
respectively.
 The results were printed at the rate of one result per five seconds.
The Atanasoff Berry Computer (1939-1942 AD)

In 1939, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry designed Atanasoff-Berry Computer or ABC for
solving systems of mathematical simultaneous equations. It used 18000 valves and other 45 valves
for internal logic and capacitors for storage. It used punched cards as input and output operation i.e.
secondary storage. It is considered as the first computing machine which introduced the idea of
binary arithmetic, regenerative memory, and logic circuits. The main thing is that this computer used
electronic vacuum tubes and the circuitry was based on George Boole’s Boolean algebra.
The Colossus (1941-1944 AD)

In 1944, Colossus computer is a design by Alan M. Turing and built by British mathematician Alan
Mathison Neuman, along with some colleagues, created a computer named colossus at the
University of Manchester, England, which comprised 1800 vacuum tubes. It was one of the world’s
earliest working programmable electronic digital computers. Colossus was a special-purpose
machine that suited a narrow range of tasks (for example, it was not capable of performing decimal
multiplications). Although colossus was built as a special-purpose computer, it proved flexible
enough to be programmed to execute a variety of different routines.
The Electronic Computers Era

The computers of this age are developed by using electronic components like the vacuum tube,
transistors, IC, VLSI. These computers are smaller, faster and more reliable. Some of the computers
developed in the initial phase of this age are:
The ENIAC (1943 - 1946 AD)

In 1946, John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert constructed ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrated
And Calculator), at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania, USA. ENIAC
was the first-popular general purpose all-electronic digital computers. John Von Neumann was the
consultant of the ENIAC project. It was a very large machine weighing about 30 tons and containing
about 17468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 5 million soldered joins and it consumed 160 kilowatts. It
took 200 microseconds for addition and 3 milliseconds to perform a 10 digit multiplication. It was so
huge and generated so much heat that is needed to be water cooled. It was the first and last
computer, which used a decimal number system instead of a binary system. The main application of
ENIAC is that it represented an impressive feat of electronic engineering and was used for many
years to solve ballistic missile problems. Actually, it was developed as a result of military needs. The
machine had the problem of the huge effort of programming which discouraged its use for any other
than extensive computational problems. This computer did not have a memory unit and did not use
the stored-program concept. The programming had to be done manually by plugging and
unplugging a set of connecting wires. Data could be entered using a punched card reader, and
results in output on punched cards or on an electric typewriter.
The EDVAC (1946 – 1952 AD)

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was developed by Dr. John Von
Neumann, and a member of the Moore School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania, J.P
Eckert and J.W. Mauchly. The EDVAC is used for more school personnel and the Ballistics Research
Laboratory of the US Army, which was based on John Von Neumann’s ideas of the “Stored
Program”.
It used random access main memory consisting of a cathode ray tube. It also used vacuum tubes for
some internal storage. Neumann was the first to introduce the “stored program" concept on a
computer. The basic idea behind the stored program concept is that a sequence of instructions as
well as data can be stored in the memory of the computer for the purpose of automatically directing
the flow of operations.
The stored program feature considerably influenced the development of modern digital computers
and because of this feature, we often refer to modern digital computers as stored-program digital
computers.
The EDSAC (1947 – 1949 AD)

The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was invented by a group of scientists
headed by Professor Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge University in May 1949. It also used vacuum
tubes. Although it started after EDVAC, it was completed before EDVAC. In this machine, addition
operation was accomplished in 1500 microseconds, and multiplication operation in 4000
microseconds. So, it became the first stored program computer.
The Manchester Mark I (1948 AD)

This computer was a small experimental machine based on the stored program concept. It was
designed at Manchester University by a group of scientists headed by Professor M.H.A. Newman. Its
storage capacity was only 32 words, each of 31 binary digits. This was too limited to store data and
instructions. Hence, the Manchester Mark I was only for practical use.
The UNIVAC (1951 AD)

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was developed by J.P. Eckert and J. Mauchly in 1951. It
was the first computer manufactured for commercial use and general-purpose digital computer. It
was designed to handle both numeric and textual information. Before this, all the computers were
either used for defense or census. The UNIVAC was installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was
used continuously for 10 years. The first business use of a UNIVAC I computer, was by General
Electric Corporation in 1954.
In 1952, the International Business Machine (IBM) Corporation introduced 701 commercial
computers. In rapid succession, improved models of the UNIVAC I and other 700-series machines
were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650 and sold over 1000 of these computers.
The commercially available digital computers that could be used for business and scientific
applications had arrived.
Generation of Computers
Classification of generation of computer is mainly based on the basic devices used (technology). Also
the considerations are architecture, languages, modes of operation. The functions performed by
computers and the speed of their operations have been changing since the old days to the most
modern computers. There have been great variations in the size and cost of the computers.
A technological break-through in hardware and software resulted in more and advanced computer
systems. It has been identified that there are four major stages in the continuous development
process of computers. These stages are called computer generations. In fact, a computer system
belonging to one particular technological class is said to belong to a particular computer generation.
The first generation computer was the large mainframes built with valves. The smaller but more
reliable computers built with transistors are called second-generation computers. And the computers
made with silicon chips are the third generation computers. A real break-through came when the
microprocessor chip appeared. The microprocessor-based computers are called fourth generation
computers.
First Generation Computer (1945 -1956 AD)

The first generation computers operated on the principle of thermionic emission. They used
Thermionic valves also known as vacuum tubes as CPU, magnetic drum for data storage, and
machine language was used for giving instructions. The first generation computers used the stored-
program concept. The computers of this generation were very large in size called mainframe or room
sized computers. Their programming was a difficult and time consuming. The programming of first
generation computers was done in machine language (instructions were written in binary digits 0s
and 1s). Afterward assembly language (programs were written in mnemonics) was developed and
used in first-generation computers.
John Von Neumann designed a computer called EDVAC with the architecture of CPU, which
allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. Lee De Forest invented
vacuum tubes in 1908.
Features of the first generation computers were:
 Technology used: Vacuum tube
 Operating Speed was in terms of milliseconds range.
 Machine language was used to instruct the computer. Programming mainly at the hardware
level.
 Primary Memory used: Magnetic core memory
 Secondary Memory used: Electrostatic tubes (internal), paper tape, punched card, magnetic
tape.
 A punched card, printing devices were used for input/output operations and store the result.
 It occupied very large space, slow processing, inefficient, and unreliable due to low accuracy.
 The power consumption was very high and it generated much heat. So, a special cooling system
was required.
 It could only perform straight forward simple numerical calculations.
 The computers used to be much expensive.
The examples of first generation computers are ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, and UNIVAC.
Second Generation (1956-1964 AD)

The second generation of electronic computers began with the development of the transistor
(electronic switching device). A transistor transfers electric signals across a resistor. The three Bell
Lab scientists, John Burdeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockley, working for Bell Labs invented
the transistor in 1947AD which won Nobel Prize in 1956 AD.
Transistors were highly reliable compared to tubes. Transistors were far more superior in
performance on account of their miniature size, smaller power consumption, and heat production
rate. The second-generation computers used these semiconductor devices. Second-generation
computers had many advantages over their predecessors.
Features of the second generation computers were:
 Technology used: Transistor
 Operating speed was in terms of microseconds range.
 Assembly language and machine-independent language (high level) such as COBOL (Common
Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translation) were introduced to
simplify programming.
 Primary memory used: Magnetic core memory.
 Secondary memory used: Magnetic drum and magnetic tape.
 A punched card, printing devices were used for input/output operations.
 They were compact and hence occupied less space. Transistor reduced the size of the computer.
(a transistor is approx. 1/200th the size of the vacuum tube)
 The power required to operate them was low.
 The magnetic core was used as a primary and magnetic drum as secondary memory.
 It was much faster, more reliable, better speed, and could handle an enormous amount of data
than the first generation computers.
 It could perform scientific calculations such as solving differential equations.
 The Storage capacity and use of computers increased.
The examples of second generation computers are IBM 1620, Honeywell 400 series, LEO Mark III,
IBM 7094, etc.
Although these computers were faster, smaller, and powerful, they were still expensive machines,
which only large commercial organizations could afford.
Third Generation (1964-1971 AD)

The development of Integrated Circuits (IC) signaled the beginning of the third generation.
Transistors were replaced with integrated circuit known popularly as chips. Scientists managed to
fit many components on a single chip; as a result, computers became ever smaller as more
components were squeezed on the chip.
IC was first designed and fabricated by Jack S. Kilby at Texas Instruments and by Robert S. Noyce at
Fairchild independently. Integrated Circuit is a circuit consisting of a large number of electronic
components placed on a single silicon chip by a photolithographic process.
IC can be classified on the basis of components density as:
Table: Classification of IC
Integrated Circuit Number of components
SSI (Small Scale Integration) 1-20
MSI (Medium Scale Integration) 20-100
LSI (Large Scale Integration) 100-1000
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) 1000-10,000
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) Above 10,000
Magnetic disks began to replace magnetic tape for auxiliary and video display terminals were
introduced for the output of data. Keyboards were used for the input of data. A new operating
system was introduced for automatic processing and multiprogramming.
The size of the main memories reached about four megabytes. These computers were highly reliable,
relatively inexpensive, and faster. High-level programming languages continued to be developed.
Features of the third generation computers were:
 Technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit). Transistors were replaced by Integrated Circuits in
their electronic circuitry.
 Operating speed was in terms of nanosecond range.
 High level languages like FORTRAN, BASIC and others are used to develop programs.
 Primary memory used: Semiconductor memory like RAM and ROM.
 Secondary memory used: Magnetic disks like floppy disk, hard disk and magnetic tape.
 Monitors and keyboards were introduced for data input and output respectively.
 A multiprogramming facility was developed.
 Database Management System was developed.
 Computers were used in census calculation, military, banks and industries.
 Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased.
 Processing speed, storage capacity, use of computer increased.
The examples of third-generation computers are IBM-360 series, ICL-900 series, and Honey Well 200
series.
Fourth Generation (1971 AD-Present)

The invention of microprocessor chip marked the beginning of the fourth generation of computers.
MSI yielded to LSI, VLSI and ULSI. Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core memories. The
invention of microprocessors led to the development of microcomputer or the personal computers.
The development of chips diminishes the size and price of computers. The first microprocessor
called Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel Corporation in 1971.
This computer has faster accessing and processing speed and increased memory capacity. These
features led to the development of much more powerful operating systems.
Developments in fourth-generation language and application software for microcomputers became
popular and allowed home and business users to adapt their computers for word processing,
spreadsheet manipulating, file handling, and graphics.
In this generation, the concept of computer networks and CD-ROMs came into existence.
Features of the fourth generation computers are:
 Technology in use: VLSI is introduced and used. Microprocessor based technology.

 The operating speed is in terms of the picoseconds range.
 Problem-oriented fourth-generation language (4GL) is used to develop programs.
 Primary memory in use: Semiconductor memories like RAM, ROM and cache memory.
 Secondary memory in use: Magnetic disk-like hard disk, optical memories like CD, DVD, Blu-
ray disk, flash memories like memory chip, pen drive.
 Flexible input devices like mouse, touch screen, scanner, and output devices like LCD, LED
monitors, colour printers are developed.
 Microcomputers like desktop PC, laptop, tablet PC are developed.
 A more advanced operating system such as MS-Windows XP/7/8, Android and IOS is
developed.
 Computers could be linked together and share information. E-mail the Internet, and mobile
communication are developed.
 The computer is used for all scientific, engineering, commercial, entertainment, communication
applications.
 Advanced, user friendly, web based software is developed.
 Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to previous generations.
 Operating speed, storage capacity, use of computer increased compared to previous
generations.
The examples of fourth-generation computers are IBM-PC, HP laptops, Mac Notebook.
Fifth Generation (Coming Generation)

The fifth-generation computer was based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and that is still in the
developing process, but not yet a reality i.e. this computer is incomplete. Scientists are going on the
development of this computer. The aim to bring us machines with genuine I.Q., the ability to reason
logically, and with real knowledge of the world. Thus, this computer will be totally different, totally
novel, and totally new than the last four generations of computers. These computers will be able to
converse with people and will be able to mimic human sense, manual skills, and intelligence. For
this, the concept of Artificial Intelligence is being used.
Researchers are planning to produce biochip that is to be used in the fifth generation computer.
While a true fifth-generation computer is not available, computer scientists are implementing the
fifth generation concept on fourth generation computers. Among the developed countries, Japan has
chosen the PROLOG (Programming in Logic) language as its operating software and plans to have
the final machine talk with human beings, see and deliver pictures (it has image processing
capability), and hear the normal natural language. Presently, Japan and the USA have undertaken
projects to design such computers that are used in the field of medicine, treatment planning,
monitoring, on a very small scale.
Many projects have been started in the world for the 5th generation of computer
 The ICOT program in Japan
 DARPA project in USA Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
 MCC project in USA Microelectronic and Computer Technology Corporation
Features of the fifth generation computers will be:

 Technology to be used: These machines will incorporate Bio-chip and VVLSI (Very Very Large
Scale Integration) or Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
 These will use superconductor technology with little or no resistance greatly improving the
speed of information flow. For that, the two future devices are used: Gallium Arsenide and
Biochips.
 The computers will have AI (Artificial Intelligence).
 Natural language will be used to develop programs. They are intended to be able to cope with
large subset of natural languages, and draw on very large knowledge bases.
 Intelligent Knowledge-Based System (IKBS) are the central elements of fifth-generation
computers. The computers will based on the KIPS (Knowledge based Information processing
system).
 The computers will have parallel processing in full fledge.
 The operating speed will be in terms of LIPS (Logical Inference per Second) for knowledge
based processing and femtoseconds range or above, TIPS for other data.
 These are aimed to be able to solve highly complex problems, which require great intelligence
and expertise when solved by people.
 Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will be used completely.
Figure: Schematic Diagram of a 5th Generation Computer
User1 User2 . . . . . . . . . . . Usern
Intelligent User Interface
Application Inference
Systems Processor
Knowledge Base System
Table: Generation of Computers with their main features

Second Third Fourth Fifth
First Generation
Generation Generation Generation Generation
Electronic
Vacuum tube Transistors IC Microprocessor Bio-Chips
device:
LIPS and More
Speed: milli Second micro Second nano Second pico Second than femto
Second
Semi
Primary Magnetic Semi Conductor
Magnetic Core memory Conductor Unknown
Memory: Core Memory Memory
Memory
Secondary Punched cards, Paper Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic and New
Memory: tapes, Magnetic tape Tapes, Disk (Floppy Optical Disks technology for
Magnetic disk, hard (Hard Disk, CD, storage

drum disk) and DVD, Pen
magnetic Drive)
tape
Assembly
language and
Computer Fully High High Level and Natural
Fully Machine Level little bit of
Language: Level 4GL language
High Level
and
High High
Very high Low
Cost (Avg.): ($ ($ Unknown
($ 2.5 million) ($ 2.5Thousand)
250Thousand) 25Thousand)
Size, Electrical
consumption, Very high High Low Very low Unknown
Heat generation:
Speed,
Very less Less Moderate High Much higher
Capability:
Example: IBM 1401, IBM 360 IBM PC,
CDC 1604 , series, IBM Apple
UNIAC,ENIAC,EDSAC Unknown
IBM- 370 series Macintosh
7094/7030
1.1.3 Measurement Unit of Processing Speed and Storage Unit

A computer is a very fast processing electronic device. It can do task calculations at extremely high
speed.
When people talk about a computer's speed, they mean how fast it can do processing-turn data into
information. Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The system clock controls how fast all
the operations within a computer take place.
Processing speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1 million beats (cycles)
per second. An old IBM PC had a clock speed of 4.77 MHz, whereas computers with 80486 chips may
run at 66 MHz. The high-end Power Macintosh 8100, from Apple, uses a PowerPC microprocessor
running at 80 MHz. The most recent Intel Pentium I chip, used in IBM-style computers, runs at
speeds of 88 or 100 or 125 MHz
There are several units, which are used to evaluate the speed of a processor. Although none of them
is a perfect indication to evaluate the performance of a processor. It is measured by the number of
instruction executed per unit time, such as the use of Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) in case
of a super scalar architecture processor, whereas for a vector processor the speed is measured in the
Million Floating Point Instruction per Second such as the use of Mega Floating-Point Instruction per
Second (Mega FLOPs).
The processing speed of a microprocessor is usually measured in Millions of Instructions Per Second
(MIPS or throughput is also used in computer literature for a number of instructions per second.)
Note : CPU executes one instruction per second is one cycle per second, which is one hertz (Hz).Similarly, 1Mega Hertz
(MHz) is equal to 106 instructions per second that are the measuring unit of the processing speed of the computer
although Hertz is measuring unit of frequency.
Its formula is:

1
Frequency (Hz) = time (Second or sec.)
For Computer processing,

1
Frequency (MHz) = time (micro second)
Table: Measuring units for processing speed in terms of frequency and time
Measuring Units in Frequency Measuring Units in Time
1 Hz (Hertz or 1× 100 Hz ) 1 second (1× 100 sec)
1 KHz (Kilo Hertz or 1×103 Hz) 1 milli second (1× 10-3 sec)
1 MHz (Mega Hertz or 1× 106 Hz) 1 micro second (1× 10-6 sec)
1 GHz (Giga Hertz or 1× 109 Hz) 1 nano second (1×10-9 sec)
1 THz (Tera Hertz or 1×1012 Hz) 1 pico second (1× 10-12 sec)
1 PHz (Peta Hertz or 1× 1015 Hz) 1 femto second (1× 10-15 sec)
1 EHz (Exa Hertz or 1×1018 Hz) 1 atto second (1× 10-18 sec)
1 ZHz (Zetta Hertz or 1×1021 Hz) 1 zepto second (1× 10-21 sec)
1 YHz (Yotta Hertz or 1×1024 Hz) 1 yocto second (1× 10-24 sec)
Some other related units for processing speed of computer are:
 MIPS: Millions of instructions per second are used for integer computation.
 MFLOPS: Millions of floating– point instruction per second are used for floating point
computation.
 TPS: Transaction per second is used for the online-processing application of computation.
 KLIPS: Kilo logical inferences per second, is used for knowledge based computation of the 5th
generation of computer.
The storing capacity of a computer is measured in terms of byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte,
terabyte. A binary number either 0 or 1 is called a bit (binary digit). 4 bits equal to 1 nibble and
8 bits equal to 1 byte or a character. One Kilo byte equal to 210 that equal to 1024 bytes.
The remaining conversions are as follows:
Table: Storage Unit Conversion Table
Unit Abbreviation In Unit
1 Nibble – 4 bits
1 Byte B 8 bits
1 Kilo byte KB 1024 bytes
1 Mega byte MB 1024 KB
1 Giga byte GB 1024 MB
1 Tera byte TB 1024 GB
1 Peta byte PB 1024 TB
1 Exa byte EB 1024 PB

1 Zetta byte ZB 1024 EB
1 Yotta byte YB 1024 ZB
1 Bronto byte BB 1024 YB
1.1.4 Super, Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers

Computers are classified according to the working principle, size, brand, model and purpose. A single
computer can be a microcomputer on the basis of size, IBM compatible on the basis of brand, AT
computer on the basis of the model, digital computer on the basis of working principle, and general-
purpose computer.
Table: Classification of Computer
1. On the basis of Size 2. On the basis of Working Principle (Function)
Super Computer Analog Computer
Mainframe Computer Digital Computer
Mini Computer Hybrid Computer
Micro Computer
On the Basis of Size

Super Computer
The super computer is the most powerful and fastest computer among digital computers. This
computer is special purpose and is capable of handling huge amounts of calculations that are beyond
human capabilities. It can perform at billions of instructions per second (BIPS) and more. Some of
today’s super computer has the computing capability equal to that of 40,000 micro-computers. This
computer is the most expensive computer (cost about 15-20 million dollar range). Usually, such
computer uses parallel processors. They can recover automatically from failures such feature is
called Fault-tolerant Computer. For example, European banks, Securities and Exchange Commission
use the fault-tolerant system because of their reliability and their ability to process huge volumes of
data.
Due to its high cost and size, it is relatively rare. It used only by large corporations, universities, and
government agencies, mainly in the areas of defense and weaponry, weather forecasting, scientific
research, aeronautics, satellite communication and space administration, nuclear research work,
petroleum research work, molecular modeling, the study of DNA structures. It requires a large space
and a temperature–controlled room.
Example: CRAY X-MP/24, NEC-500, PARAM, ANURAG, Fujitsu VP-2600/10. In around 1991,
CRAY's model of Super Computer was available in the market. Today, super computers are
designed by companies such as HP, IBM, Cray Inc.
Figure: Super Computer
Mainframe Computer
The mainframe is large in size, one of the powerful computer systems. The processing speed of the
mainframe computer is slower than supercomputers but faster than mini and personal computers.
The largest mainframe computer can handle the processing needs of the number of users (more than
hundreds) at any given moment. Although this system offers high processing power, and lack of
flexibility, it is designed for large-scale data processing and a huge amount of data storage. They are
a general computer with large memory and excellent processing capabilities.
It occupies very largely with an approximate area of 1000 sq. ft. It supports a large number of I/O
terminals, more than 100 terminals. It is suitable for big organizations such as a bank, insurance
companies, airlines, railway reservation system, e-mail service providers, web hosting. It is also used
in a networked system.
Figure: Mainframe Computer
In a mainframe environment, each user access the mainframe's resources through a device called a
terminal. Their terminals are attached to the mainframes to perform the different types of tasks in
FIFO (First In First Out) order.
There are two kinds of terminals. A dumb terminal does not process or store data; it is simply an
input/output (IO) device that functions as a window into a computer located somewhere else. An
intelligent terminal can perform some processing operations, but it usually does not have any storage.
In some mainframe environments, however, workers can use a standard personal computer to access
the mainframe.
You may have interacted with a mainframe system without even knowing it. For example, if you
have ever visited the website such as www. hotmail.com, you probably conducted a transaction with
a mainframe computer.
Example: IBM 1401, ICL 2950/10, ICL 39, and CYBER 170. IBM 1401 was the first computer brought
to Nepal.
Minicomputer
First released in the 1960s, minicomputer got its name because of its smaller size and cost compared
to a mainframe computer. The capabilities of a minicomputer are somewhere between mainframe
and microcomputer. For this reason, a minicomputer is often called a midrange computer.
It is a work group computer system; a smaller but powerful multiuser system computer with
excellent memories and processing speed.
Figure: Mini Computer
Like mainframe, minicomputer can handle much more input and output than a microcomputer. It
can support about 50 terminals and requires an area of around 100 sq ft. This computer is useful for
medium sized business organizations, industries, universities, and banks due to cheap and easy to
operate than mainframe computers. Users can access a central minicomputer through a terminal or a
standard PC.
Example: Prime 9755, VAX 7500, HCL, MAGNUM, DEC VAX series and PDP series HP3000 series,
Honey Well-Bull level 6/DPS 6000 series, and CDC-1700.
Microcomputer
A computer, which is based on a microprocessor, is called a microcomputer. It is a small, low cost
digital computer. It requires small space, can be placed on a table, or even kept inside a briefcase.
This computer has a central processing unit on a single chip. It is mainly used in office, house,
school, shop, and store. The smallest of this category are laptop, notebook, palmtop, and PDA.
Examples: IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh.
A microcomputer can be further categorized as a non-portable and portable category.
Non-portable microcomputer
The microcomputer in the non-portable category can be:
1. Personal Computer (PC)
2. Workstation Computer (WC)
Personal Computer (PC)

PC is a small computer that easily fits on a normal sized office table. It is generally designed to be
used by one person at a time. It is a common computer and can be found everywhere like office,
college, home, hospital, and shop.
Figure: Personal Computer
Workstation Computer (WC)

A workstation is a specialized computer, which has more power and features than a standard
desktop PC. Thus, it lies between Minicomputers and Personal Computers. The processing power is
typically 5 to 10 times more than that of PC. Workstation usually has larger main and backup
memory, larger and high resolution monitor and accelerated graphics handling capabilities, making
it suitable for advanced architectural or engineering design, modeling, animation, and video editing.
It can be used by an individual or group. PC normally uses CPU based on CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computer) technology, whereas workstation uses CPU based on RISC (Reduced
Instruction set computer) technology. This machine is mainly popular among database
administrators, scientists, engineers, animators, and graphics designers, who need a faster system
and the power to perform sophisticated tasks than PC.
Example of workstation computers are Sun Micro system, IBM RS/6000s, Hewlett-Packard's series
7000.
Some Portable microcomputers are:
The microcomputer in the portable category is:
1. Laptop 2. Notebook
3. Tablet PC 4. Palm top
5. PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
Laptop
A laptop is a portable computer, which is easy to carry from one place to another. It is smaller to fit
on the lap of the users and light to carry also called Mobile Computers. So, it is suitable for the person
to move. It is a light-weight but incorporates all basic features of computer like display, keyboard,
touchpad, hard disk, CD/DVD drives. It generally uses an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitor or
LED (Light Emitting Diode) monitor. It can operate with AC or DC (battery power) or both as well.
It uses all the technologies used by PCs.
Figure: Laptop
Notebook
The notebook is also designed for people to move. It is smaller to fit on the hand or palm of the users
and light to carry also called Mobile Computers. But it is smaller in size compared to the laptop. It is
a light-weight PC. It has reduced keyboard, screen and usually, doesn't contain CD/DVD drive due
to its limited size. In terms of computing power, modern notebooks are nearly equivalent to personal
computers like laptop and desktop PC. CPU, memory, and storage capacity are almost similar.
However, all these in a small package are expensive.
Figure: Notebook PC
Tablet PC
A tablet PC, or simply tablet, is a mobile computing a device with display, circuitry, and battery in a
single unit. Tablet is equipped with sensors, including a camera, microphone, and touch screen with
finger or stylus gestures replacing computer mouse and keyboard. It may include physical buttons,
e.g., to control basic features such as speaker volume, power, and ports for network communications
and charger battery. An on-screen, pop-up virtual keyboard is usually used for typing instructions.
Tablet is typically larger than smart phones or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant).
Some of the popular tablet PCs is Apple's iPad, Amazon's Kindle Fire, Samsung Galaxy Tab, Lenovo
Idea Tab, MicroMAX Funbook, and Karbonn Smart Tab.
Figure: Tablet PC
Palm Top
Palm top is also a portable PC with the size of our palm. Unlike laptops and notebook, it has very
limited memory and features. It is mainly used for storing phone numbers, addresses, pictures,
calendar, and other small data.
Figure: Palm top
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)

PDA is also a species of the portable computer. It is a mobile computing device that works as a
personal information manager. It is much limited in terms of the task, it can perform. PDA contains
facilities such as colored screen, scientific calculator, digital-diary for storing telephone numbers and
addresses, web browsers, cell phones for communication, audio-video and games. At present, the
use of PDA has decreased due to the popularity of Smart phones and Tablet PC.
Figure: PDA
Table: Difference between Micro Computer and Super Computer

Microcomputer Super computer
1. It is a less powerful computer. 1. It is a more powerful computer.
2. It is a slower computer in terms of 2. It is a faster computer in terms of
processing. processing.
3. It is a general-purpose computer. 3. It is a special purpose computer.
4. It is the smallest computer on the basis of 4. It is larger in size.
size.
5. It can be portable as well as non-portable. 5. It is non-portable computer.
6. It is cheaper. 6. It is the most expensive computer.
7. It can be handled by only one person. 7. It requires numbers of experts or users to
operate.
8. It has less memory and storage capacity. 8. It usually contains larger memory and
storage capacity.
9. It is the most popular computer among 9. It is a rarely used for some specific tasks.
all.
10. It is used in office, house. 10. It is used in weather forecasting, scientific
research.
11. Example: Desktop PC, Laptop, Tablet PC 11. Example: CRAY X-MP/24, NEC-500,
PARAM.
On the Basis of Working Principle (Function)

Analog Computer
The computer which can process analog quantities (continuous data) is called an analog computer.
Analog computer operates by measuring rather than counting. It is a special purpose computer and
is mainly used in scientific work and not for commercial or personal purposes. Generally, it has less
storage capacity and its accuracy is poor compared to digital computers. It is specially designed to
compute physical forces such as temperature, pressure.
Presley is an example of analog computer. Examples of an analog devices are thermometer,
barometer, speedometer, and ammeter.
Digital Computer
The computer which works on discrete data (discontinuous data, binary systems or 0 and 1) is
known as a digital computer. The binary system is such a system of numbering in which only 2
digits are used 0 and 1 where 0 represents off and 1 as on. So, the basic principle of these computers
is either present or absence of an electric pulse in the signals. It is multipurpose and programmable.
So, it is high cost, fast processing, more accurate, and has larger memory capacity. It is usually a
general purpose computer.
Examples: IBM PC, IBM Compatible, Apple/Macintosh computer etc.
Note: Analog computers measure toward their answers, and digital computers count to their results.
Table: Difference between Digital computer and analog computer

Digital Computer Analog Computer
1. These computers work with digits. 1. These computers work with natural or
physical values.
2. It works upon discrete data. 2. It works upon continuous data.
3. It operates by counting and adding, i.e. it 3. It operates by measuring and comparing.
calculates.
4. Its accuracy is high. 4. Its accuracy is low.
5. Results are obtained after complete 5. The output is continuous.
computation.
6. It is general purpose in nature. 6. It is a special purpose computer.
7. Larger storage capacity (memory). 7. No or smaller storage capacity.
8. Higher cost compared to analog 8. Lower cost compared to digital
computers. computers.
9. It can be reprogrammed. 9. Normally, it cannot be reprogrammed.
10. The wave form of digital computer is: 10. The wave form of an analog computer is:
f v
1 +5
0 t
t -5
0 0 1 0 1 v
11. Desktop Computer is an example of a 11. Presley is an example of analog computer.

digital computer.
Hybrid Computer
A computer, which has a combined best feature of both analog and digital computers, is called a
hybrid computer. Thus, they have usually the speed of analog computers and the accuracy of digital
computers. It can perform the tasks of an analog computer as well as a digital computer. It can
convert data from analog to digital and vice-versa. They are usually used for special problems, thus
it is a special purpose computer, in which input data derived from measurements is converted into
digits and processed by computer. Generally, it has a high cost. The practically they are used in the
field of:
 During the rocket launching process, where the analog components/devices measure the speed
of the rocket, temperature, and pressure of the atmosphere. Then, these measurements are
converted into digital signals and supplied to the digital devices to analyze the data for taking
appropriate steps on launching.
 In the hospital, analog components/devices measure the temperature and blood pressure of
patient. Then these measurements are converted into a digital signal and fed to the digital
devices that monitor the patient’s vital information.
 In weather forecasting, analog components/devices measure wind speed, humidity,
temperature, wind direction, and fed to the digital devices that compare with the past
information to predict the climatic changes.
 In the automated industry, analog components/devices measure temperature, pressure, speed
and provide it to digital components/devices that take proper actions.
Characteristics of Hybrid Computer
 It is the combination of the qualities of analog as well as digital computers.
 It can process both continuous and discrete data.
 It has the capability to convert one type of data into another.
 It is the special purpose computer.
 It is mostly used in airplane, radar communication, rocket launching, weather forecasting,
automated industry control, hospital systems as CT scan, heart valve analysis.
 It usually has a high cost compared to analog and digital computers.
1.1.5 Mobile Computing and its Application

Mobile computing is a generic term describing one's ability to use technology while moving, as
opposed to portable which is only practical for use while deployed in a stationary configuration.
A mobile computing device is created using mobile components, such as mobile hardware and
software. Mobile computing devices are portable devices capable of operating, executing, providing
services and applications like a computing device. It is a computing device used in transit. Users can
access data and information from wherever they are.
Many types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including a wearable
computer, PDA, enterprise digital assistant, smart phone, UMPC (Ultra mobile PC), Tablet PC.
Features of Mobile Computing device are:
 It is a portable device that can be used during mobility.
 It has limited processing and storage capability.
 It includes mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software.

 It usually contains a touch screen for providing input. It contains an on-screen or virtual
keyboard for proving text inputs. However, an external keyboard can be connected by using the
USB port, infrared, or Bluetooth.
 It contains camera, speaker, and microphone.
 It contains handwriting recognizing software.
 Most of the mobile computing devices contain a memory card slot to expand the storage
capacity.
 It has wireless connectivity such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi to connect the Internet or with other
computing devices as well as a wired connection through the USB port.
 The most mobile computing device can synchronize their data with applications on users’
computers.
 It can be used for cloud computing and remote access.
 It uses a mobile computing operating system such as Android, iOS, Windows Mobile OS, Palm
OS.
 It can include GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver for navigation.
Advantages of Mobile Computing

Advantages of mobile technology are:
 It enables users to work from any location at any time.
 It saves time for accessing data and information.
 It helps to increase the productivity of users reducing the time and cost.
 It has made research easier.
 It is one of the major handheld sources of entertainment of users at present.
 Nowadays, Business processes are easily available through secured mobile connections.
 It is portable.
 It supports cloud computing.
 It provides remote access to the organizational data from any location.
 It is an independent platform. It can be accessed from any hardware or software.
Disadvantages of Mobile Technology
Disadvantages of mobile technology are as follows:
 Mobile technology requires faster and quality connectivity services like need either Wi-Fi or
GPRS or 3G or 4G connectivity.
 It has security concerns, most wireless connectivity is unsafe.
 Large power consumption due to the use of batteries continuously and they do not tend to last
long.
 The danger of misrepresentation i.e. credential verification is a problem.
 Extensive use of mobile devices results in health problems.
1.2 Computer System and I/O Devices

1.2.1 Concept of Computer Architecture and Organization
The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and
electromechanical (electronic and mechanical) components. By itself, a computer has no
intelligence and is referred to as hardware, which means simply the physical equipment.
A computer can't be used until it is connected to other parts of a computer system and software
is installed.
The design, arrangement, construction or organization of the different parts of a computer
system is known as Computer architecture. It is the conceptual design and fundamental
operational structure of a computer system. It is a framework and functional description of
requirements and design implementations for the various parts of a computer, focusing largely
on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses
addresses in memory. It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting, interconnecting
hardware components to create computers to meet functional performance and cost.
1.2.2 Components of Computer System

A computer system consists of the following components:
1. Input hardware
2. Output hardware
3. Processing hardware
4. Storage (Main Memory/Auxiliary Storage) hardware
Input Hardware
Most computers cannot accept data in forms similar to human communication such as speech or
hand-written documents. It is necessary to present data to the computer in a way that provides easy
conversion into its own electronic, pulse-based form. This is commonly achieved by typing the data
into a keyboard device that converts it into a machine-sensible form. A keyboard device is just one of
many kinds of input devices. In some cases, machine-readable documents or media are produced as
part of the input process.
Output Hardware
Output hardware provides results after data processing to the user. This result is taken from the
main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in which case the information is
automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy output, or alternatively data may be
displayed on a monitor screen similar to that used in a television set called softcopy output.
Processing Hardware
Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic operations are carried out on the data. The part
of the processor is called the Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU), although in reality, as for the control
unit, there is often no physically separate component that performs this function. In addition to
arithmetic, the processor also performs so-called logical operations. These operations take place at
incredibly high speeds, e.g., several million numbers may be sum up in less than a second.
The processor controls the operation of the computer. It fetches instructions from main storage,
interprets them, and issues the necessary signals to the components making up the system. It directs
all hardware operations necessary in obeying instructions. At one time most computers actually had
a separate electronic unit, called the control unit, to perform the control function.
Storage Hardware
Data and instructions are stored in the storage and are held until needed to be worked on. The
instructions dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of action will be held until they are
required for output. Main memory is supplemented by less costly auxiliary storage, also called
backing storage, e.g., hard disks for mass storage purposes Backing storage serves an important role
in holding maintained data, i.e. data held by the computer so that it can provide information to the
user when required.
Figure: The elements of a computer system showing its logical structure
The Processor
Control Unit
• Interprets stored instructions in sequence
• Issues commands to all elements of the computer
Arithmetic & Logic Unit

• Performs arithmetic and logic
operations
Output
Input
• Information
• Data
• the result of
• Instructions
processing
Main Memory (Primary Memory)

• Holds data, instructions and results of
processing Key
Data / Instruction flow
Command / Signal
Auxiliary Storage (Secondary Memory)

• To supplement main memory
The elements are shown in the above figure, which shows what is often referred to as the Logical
Structure of the computer. Observe particularly the following points:
a. Data normally flows from input devices or backing storage into main memory and from main
memory to output devices or backing storage.
b. The processor performs operations on data from the memory and returns the results of
processing to the memory.
c. In some cases, data flows directly between the processor and input or output devices rather
than as described in (a).
d. The Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU), combine to form the processor. The
processor is sometimes also called the central processor (CP) or central processing unit (CPU).
However, the term CPU is also sometimes taken to mean not only the ALU and control unit but
main storage too.
e. There are two types of flow shown in the above figure. Solid lines carry data or instructions and
broken lines carry commands or signals.
f. Data held on backing storage may be input to main memory during processing, used and
brought up-to-date using newly input data, and then returned to backing storage.
Figure: Description of the major component of the computer system showing the "block diagram"
Input Unit Central Processing Unit Output Unit
(E.g. Keyboard, Mouse) (CPU) (E.g. Printer, Monitor)
Memory Unit
Main Memory
(E.g. RAM, ROM)
Auxiliary Storage
(E.g. Hard disk, CD, DVD)
It consists of four major functional components such as

1 Input unit
2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3 Output unit
4 The memory unit (Main Memory, Auxiliary Storage)
Input Unit
The input unit provides an interface between user and machine, for inputting data and instruction
into the computer memory. Input Unit accepts input, converts it into a computer-readable format,
and provides it for processing and storage. One of the most common examples of the input unit is
the keyboard and mouse. Some common input devices are listed below:
 Keyboard  Scanners  Light Pen
 Mouse  Microphone  Joystick
Note: Detail of input devices (1.2.7 Input Devices) is provided after the topic Memory Unit.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is like the brain of a computer that organizes and executes the instruction. Its primary
function is to execute the instruction. Besides executing the instruction, the CPU controls the
operation of all other components such as memory, input, and output devices. Under its control,
programs and data are stored in memory, displayed on the monitor or printed on the paper.
The functions of the CPU (processor) are:
1 To carry out the processing.

2 To give commands to all parts of the computer system.
3 To control the sequence of operation.
4 To control the storage of data or instructions.
5 To perform arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction.
In the large computer systems such as supercomputer and mainframe computer, processing tasks
may be handled by multiple numbers of processors. In the average microcomputer, the entire CPU is
a single unit, called a microprocessor. The processor of the computer is a special kind of integrated
circuit (IC). It is a general purpose device, which may be programmed and applied to a wide range
of applications.
The different parts of the CPU are:
1 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
2 Control Unit (CU)
3 Register array
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the speed of those
operations as directed by CU. Arithmetic operations are the fundamental mathematical operations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. Logical operations are comparisons, logical AND,
logical OR and Logical NOT i.e. the ALU compares two pieces of data(0 and 1) to see whether one is
equal to other, greater than, or less than the other. (The comparisons can also be combined, as in
"greater than or equal to" and "less than or equal to."). The ALU includes a group of registers-high
speed memory locations built directly into the CPU that holds the data currently being processed.
When the entire CPU is contained on a single tiny silicon chip, it is called a microprocessor.
Control Unit (CU)
The control unit of the CPU controls the entire operation of the computer. It also controls all other
devices such as memory, input, and output devices connected to the CPU. It directs the movement of
electronic signals between main memory and ALU. It also directs these electronic signals between
main memory and IO devices. Hence, the control unit acts as the nerve system of the computer
system. The control unit has an electronic clock that transmits electronic pulses at the equal interval
of time. The control unit gives instructions to other devices based upon these pulses. It coordinates
and controls the flow and manipulation of all data and information. It also controls the flow of data
from input devices to memory and from memory to output devices.
It fetches an instruction from the memory, decodes the instruction, interprets the instruction to know
what task is to be performed, and sends suitable control signal to other components to perform
further necessary steps to execute the instruction.
Register Array
A CPU contains multiple registers to store data temporarily during the execution of a program. The
number of the register may vary between different processors.
As instructions are interpreted and executed by a computer's CPU, there is a movement of
information between various units of the computer. In order to handle this process satisfactorily and
to speed up the rate of information transfer, a number of special memory units called registers are
used. These registers are used to hold information on a temporary basis and are part of the CPU (not
main memory).
The length of a register equals the number of bits it can store. Hence, a register that can store 8 bit is
referred to as an 8-bit register. Most CPUs sold today have 32-bit or 64-bit registers. The length of the
register of a computer is sometimes called its word size. The bigger the word size, the faster the
computer can process a set of data. With all other parameters being same, a CPU with 32-bit registers
can process data twice as large as one with 16-bit registers.
Although, the number of registers varies from computer to computer, there are the some registers
common to all computers such as:
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
 Program Counter Register (PCR)
 Accumulator Register (AR)
 Instruction Register (IR)
 Input/Output Register (IOR)
Memory Unit
The memory unit is responsible for storing data and instructions either for a short or longer period of
time. Memory devices are of two types:
1. Primary memory or main memory
2. Secondary memory or auxiliary memory
Primary Memory
It is the main memory of the computer. It is used for storing data and instructions during processing.
It is the only memory, which is directly accessible to CPU. It is usually expensive, faster of
read/write operation, and used in small storage capacity. Example: RAM, ROM, Cache Memory
Secondary Memory/Storage
It is the additional memory of the computer. It is used for storing huge amounts of data for a longer
period of time. It is also used for transferring data from one computer to another. It is usually
cheaper, slower, and used in larger storage capacity. It is not directly accessible to CPU; it requires
primary memory for its operations. Example: Hard disk, DVD, CD, Pen drive.
Note: Detail of memory unit is provided after the topic Bus Architecture.
Output Unit
The output unit provides the result after processing the data to the users. It converts the output into
a user understandable format before providing it to the users. The output generated by the computer
is of two types:
1. Softcopy output
2. Hardcopy output
Softcopy output
The output generated by the monitor, speaker, and projector is termed as softcopy output. Users
cannot touch or feel this output. It remains with the user till the computer is in ON state. Users can
modify this output if required.
Hardcopy output
The output generated by printer and plotter is termed as hardcopy output. It can be touched or felt.
After the output is generated, it remains with the user even if the computer is in OFF the state. User
cannot modify this type of output. It cannot be used for the output of audio and video data.
1.2.3 Microprocessor
Basic Concepts
A microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-based electronic
component, fabricated on a single IC (Integrated Circuit) chip capable of performing Arithmetic and
Logical Unit (ALU) operations and communicating with the other component connected to it. It is a
general purpose device, which may be applied to a wide range of applications. It reads binary
instructions from an input device or primary memory, accepts binary data as input, and processes
data according to those instructions and provides results as output.
In the large computer systems such as supercomputer and mainframe computer, processing tasks
may be handled by multiple numbers of processors. In the average microcomputer, the entire CPU is
a single unit, called a microprocessor.
The first Microprocessor called Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel Corporation in 1971.
A microprocessor controls all functions of the CPU of a computer or other digital device. The
microprocessor functions as an artificial brain. The system can control everything from small devices
such as calculators, electronic door system of the building, and mobile phones, to large automobiles.
Functions of the Microprocessor

 The microprocessor is responsible to carry out processing instructions in and out (fetch) from the
main memory.
 It gives commands to all parts of the computer system.
 It controls the sequence of operations.
 It controls the storage of data or instructions.
 It also performs arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction.
 Later, the fetched instruction is decoded to determine the type of action that should be
performed.
 It will also supervise and control the I/O devices in addition to execution.
Clock Speed
Every microprocessor or CPU contains a clock along with the CU. This clock generates the speed at
which it executes instructions and synchronizes all the components of the computer. The frequency
of the pulses is known as clock speed. The Clock speed or System Clock is an "electronic pulse
generator" that sends out an electronic pulse at a regular interval of time. This electronic component
of the computer needs these electronic pulses in order to perform work. And then, clock speed
determines the number of operations per second the Control Unit can perform. It is also known as
Clock Rate.
The Clock speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz (GHz), where 1 MHz means 1
million cycles per second whereas 1 GHz equals 1 billion cycles per second. The greater the speed,
the more instructions can be performed in any given moment of time by the system clock.
The first personal computers had clock speeds of 8 MHz (8 million pulses per second) and today's
PC's have clock speeds up to 5 GHz. This is the maximum clock speed that current technology can
attain.
When the clock speed of microprocessor is high, then it develops enough heat due to friction. As a
result, damage the microprocessor chip itself. To overcome this problem, the manufacturer is using
multiple processors working in parallel on a chip.
Word Length
Word Length depends upon the width of the internal data bus, registers, ALU. The number of bits
that can be processed by a processor in a single instruction is called word length or word size. The
word length determines the amount of RAM that can be accessed and the total number of pins on the
microprocessor. The total number of input and output pins in turn determines the architecture of the
microprocessor.
The first commercial microprocessor Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor. It had 4 input pins and 4
output pins. The number of output pins is always equal to the number of input pins. An 8-bit
microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits
depending upon the type of the microcomputer. Currently most microprocessors use 32-bit or 64-bit
architecture.
Word size denotes how many bits of data a CPU can process at a time or at once. 32 bits is the
standard word size of CPUs used in today’s personal computers. The higher the word size, the faster
a CPU can execute the instructions.
Components of Microprocessor
The Microprocessor consists of mainly three components:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit (CU)
 Registers
Arithmetic and Logic Unit

The arithmetic and logic unit performs mathematical computations, logic operations and controls the
speed of those operations as directed by CU. The ALU also executes comparisons and logical testing.
Typically an ALU that interpret the instructions and perform the following calculations:
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
 Logical AND, logical OR, logical EXCLUSIVE-OR, logical NOT (complement).
 Increment (i.e. addition of 1), decrement (i.e. subtraction of 1).
 Left or right shift (the content of the accumulator can be shifted left or right by one bit).
 Clear (the content of the accumulator or carry flag can be made zero).
 It acts as a gateway between primary memory and secondary storage, as well as data
transferred between primary memory and secondary storage pass through the ALU.
Other mathematical operations such as exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, and floating-point
operations (it is a formulaic representation of real numbers) are carried out by math processor called
floating-point unit (FPU) and FPU contains on the microprocessor chip it-self (built-in
microprocessor chip).
The main function of the math processor or FPU is to speed up program execution and reduce
programming complexity.
Control Unit
The control unit of the CPU controls the entire operation of the computer. It receives signals from the
CPU that instructs the control unit to move data from the microprocessor to memory, input, and
output devices. It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory ALU and IO
devices. Hence, the control unit acts as the nerve system of the computer system. The control unit has
an electronic clock that transmits electronic pulses at an equal interval of time. The control unit gives
instructions to other devices based upon these pulses. It consists of multiple components, such as
decoder, flag, and Quartz crystal and control logic circuits. Typically, Control Unit provides the
following several functions.
Functions of the Control Unit:

1. It controls and coordinates the sequence of data movements around ALU, registers, memories,
input and output devices. (It controls all other devices like memory, input and output devices
connected to the CPU. It transfers and controls data flow between CPU, memory, and
peripherals around the system.)
2. It analyses and interprets each instruction in the program and sends the relevant control signal
to all other devices like an input device, Memory, ALU, and output devices too.
3. It fetches an instruction from the memory, decodes and interprets the instruction, and executes
the task.
4. It issues control signals that control hardware components within the CPU.
5. It gives the order to ALU and directs the operation of whole computer system.
6. It generates timing clock speed to count the instruction cycle of computer. (it measured in
MHz).
7. It provides the status of each and every device connected to a computer to know about its
functionality.
8. It receives external instructions or commands and it generates the sequence of control signals.
9. It also handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution handling, and storing
results.
For example, the decoder receives commands from an application. The decoder interprets the
instructions and takes action. It sends signals to the ALU or directs registers to perform specific
tasks. The control unit transmits signals to different sections of the microprocessor and registers,
which informs these components to execute actions. The CU sends signals that synchronize and
ensure the timely execution of commands and processes.
Register Array
The microprocessor has temporary data holding places called a register. Registers are small amounts
of high-speed memory contained within the CPU. A CPU contains multiple registers for the
execution of a program. The number of the register may vary between processor to processor.
As instructions are interpreted and executed by a computer's CPU, there is a movement of
information between various units of the computer. In order to handle this process satisfactorily and
to speed up, a number of special memory units called registers are used.
The length of a register equals the number of bits it can store. Hence, a register that can store 8 bit is
referred to as an 8-bit register. Most CPUs sold today have 32-bit or 64-bit registers. The length of the
register of a computer is sometimes called its word size. The bigger the word size, the faster the
computer can process a set of data. With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with 32-bit
registers can process data twice as large as one with 16-bit registers.
Registers are needed during processing, such as:
 The address of the next instruction to be executed.
 The current instruction is being decoded.
 The results of calculations of frequently used small amounts of data.
Different processors have different numbers of registers for different purposes and specific functions.
Such as, a program register holds the address of instructions taken from random access memory.
Some of the registers are as follow:
 Program Counter (PC)
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Memory Data Register (MDR)
 Current Instruction Register (CIR)
 Accumulator (ACC)
These memory areas maintain data, such as computer instructions, storage addresses, characters, and
other data. Some computer instructions may require the use of certain registers as part of a
command.
Although the number of registers varies from computer to computer, there are some registers
common to all computers. The functions of these registers are described below.
Memory Address Register (MAR)

It holds the address of the active memory location. It is loaded from program control register when
an instruction is read from memory
Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

It holds the contents of the accessed (read/write) memory word. An instruction word placed in this
register is transferred to the instruction register. A word placed in this register is accessible for
operation with an accumulator register or for transfer to the IO register. A word to be stored in a
memory location must be transferred first to MBR from where it is written in memory.
Program Counter Register (PCR)

It holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. Normally, the instructions of a program
are stored in consecutive memory locations and are executed in sequence unless a branch instruction
is encountered. A branch instruction is an operation that causes a transfer to a non-consecutive
instruction. The address part of a branch instruction is transferred to the PC register to become the
address of the next instruction.
Accumulator Register (AR)
It holds the data to be operated upon, the intermediate results, and the results of processing. It is
used during the execution of most instructions. Results of arithmetic operations are returned to the
accumulator register for transfer to the main memory through the memory buffer register. In many
computers, there are more than one accumulator registers.
Instruction Register (IR)
It holds the current instruction being executed. As soon as the instruction is stored in this register,
the operation part and the address part of the instruction are separated. The address part of the
instruction is sent to MAR while its operation part is sent to the control unit where it is decoded and
interpreted. Finally, the control unit generates command signals for the execution of the task
specified by the instruction.
Input/output Register (IO Register)
It is used to communicate with input and output devices. All input information such as instructions
and data are transferred to this register by an input device. Similarly, all output information to be
transferred to an output device is found in this register.
Some other Special purpose registers
CPU contains a number of special purpose registers for different purposes such as:
 Stack Pointer (SP)
 Status Register
 Index Register
1.2.4 Bus System: Data Bus, Address Bus and Control Bus
In computer architecture, a bus is a collection of wires, chips and slots inside the computer through
which data are transmitted from one part of the computer to another to and fro (in and out) from
peripheral devices. It is often compared to a highway (pathways in the computer on which data
travels). It is a set of parallel distinct wires, serving different purposes, which allow devices attached
to it to communicate with the CPU.
The functions of the bus are:-
 It carries information from one component to another.
 It carries data, address, or control signal.
 One component of the component can interact with others by bus.
The bus consists of three main parts:
 Control bus
 Address bus
 Data bus
Control Bus
The control bus carries the control signal. The control signal is used for controlling and coordinating
of the various activities across the computer. It is generated from the control unit within the CPU.
Different architectures result in a differing numbers of lines of wire within the control bus, as each
line is used to perform a specific task. For instance, different specific lines are used for each of the
read, write, and reset requests. These are not a group of lines like address bus and data bus, but
individual lines that provide a pulse to indicate a microprocessor operation. The control unit
generates a specific control signal for every operation, such as memory read or input/output
operation. This signal is also used to identify a device type, with which the microprocessor intends to
communicate.
Address Bus
The address bus carries a memory address within the device. It allows the CPU to reference memory
locations within the device. It connects the CPU and other peripherals and carries only memory
addresses. In a computer system, each peripheral or memory location is identified by a numerical
value, called an address and the address bus is used to carry this numerical value as well as it also
contains a few control lines to carry control commands. The address bus is unidirectional, bits flow
in one direction, from the processor to peripherals. The processor uses the address bus to perform
the first function of identifying a peripheral or a memory location. The address bus contains the
connections between the processor and memory that carry the signals relating to the addresses
which the CPU is processing at that time, such as the locations that the CPU is reading from or
writing to. The processor uses the address bus to perform, identifying a peripheral or a memory
location.
If the address bus could carry 8 bit at a time, the CPU could address only (i.e. 28) 256 bytes of RAM.
Most of the early PCs had 20-bit address buses, so CPU could address 220 bytes (1 MB) of data. Today
with 32-bit address busses CPU can address 4GB (over billion bytes) of RAM. Wider the bus path,
more information can be processed at a time, and hence it also affects the processing speed of a
computer.
Data Bus
Data bus transfers data from one location to another across the computer. The meaningful data
which is to be sent or retrieved from a device is placed on these lines. The CPU uses a data bus to
transfer data. It may be a 16-bit or 32-bit data bus. It is an electrical path that connects the CPU,
memory, and other hardware devices on the motherboard. These lines are bidirectional, data flow in
both directions between the processor and memory and peripheral devices.
The number of wires in the bus affects the speed at which data can travel between hardware
components just as the number of lanes on a highway affects the time it takes people to reach their
destination. Each wire can transfer 1 bit of data at a time, an 8 wire bus can move 8-bit at a time,
which is 1 byte data at a time. A 16-bit bus can transfer 2 bytes. 32-bit can transfer 4 bytes etc. Intel
80286 microprocessor used 16 bits of the data bus. Intel 80386 used a 32-bit data bus. As the data bus
width grows larger, more data can be transferred.
Figure: Bus Architecture

ADDRESS BUS
CLOCK
I/O PORT
I/O PORT
MAIN TO/FROM
MICRO
MEMORY
PROCESS CONTROL OUTPUT PERIPHERALS
UNIT PORT
BUS
OUTPUT
PORT
DATA BUS
The transmission of the data on bus lines takes place between approximately 1M baud for the
microcomputer to about 1000 M baud or more for the large more expensive computers. (1 baud=1
bit/sec.)
Communication between the different units of the processing system is carried out along address
and data bus and also along various control lines. All control operations are governed by the master
timing source and clock (Quartz crystal oscillator).
1.2.5 Memory
Memory is the part of the computer system that is used to store data or instruction (program)
temporarily and permanently. The memory can be assumed as the set of boxes, the boxes are
numbered from zero upwards so that each box can be identified and located data. Once data is
stored in a location in the memory, it remains there until it is replaced by other data.
The digital computer contains primary memory and secondary memory.
The primary memory (RAM) stores programs along with data temporarily, which is to be executed,
and it also stores necessary programs for the operation of the computer. Secondary memory stores
operating system, data, and application programs permanently. Hard disk, tape drive, CD, DVD is
secondary storage devices.
CPU contains necessary circuitry for data processing and controlling other components of the
computer. However, it does not have a place to store programs and data needed during data
processing. We also knew that the CPU contains several registers for storing data and instructions
but they can store only a few bytes at a time. They are just sufficient to hold only one or two
instructions with corresponding data. If the instructions and data of a program being executed by a
CPU were to reside in secondary storage like a hard disk, which is fetched and loaded one by one
into CPU registers as the program execution proceeded, this would lead to the CPU being idle most
of the time. This is because there is a large speed difference between the rate at which CPU can
process data and the rate at which data can be transferred from disk to CPU registers. For example, a
CPU can process data at a rate of about 5ns/byte and a disk reader can read data at a speed of about
5µs/byte. Hence, within the time in which a disk can supply one byte of data, a CPU can process
1000 bytes. This would guide to a very slow overall performance even if a computer used a very fast
CPU.
To overcome this problem, there is a need to have a reasonably large storage space that can hold the
instructions and data of the program(s) on which CPU is currently working. The time to fetch and
load data from this storage space into CPU registers must also be very small as compared to that
from disk storage to reduce the speed mismatch problem with CPU speed. Every computer has such
a storage space temporarily known as primary storage or main memory. It is a temporary storage area
built into the computer hardware. Instructions and data of a program reside mainly in this area
when CPU is executing the program. Physically, this memory consists of some integrated circuit (IC)
chips either on the motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to the motherboard of a
computer system. This built-in memory allows CPU to store and retrieve data very quickly. The rate
of fetching data from this memory is of the order of 50ns/byte. Hence, the rate of data fetching from
main memory is about 100 times faster than that from high-speed secondary storage like a disk.
Figure: Hierarchical classification of computer memory
Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
RAM ROM Cache Memory Magnetic Memory Optical Memory Flash Memory
SRAM PROM L1 Cache Magnetic disk CD Memory chip

DRAM EPROM L2 Cache Magnetic tape DVD Pen drive
EEPROM Magnetic disk BD
Hard Disk Floppy disk
From the technological point of view, memory can be classified as:

 Semiconductor memory
 Magnetic memory
 Optical memory
Semiconductor Memory
Semiconductor memory is built by using semiconductor components like a transistor, IC. It is faster,
lighter, has smaller storage capacity, and consumes less power. It is used as a main memory of the
computer. It has an access time of about 50ns. Example: RAM ROM, cache memory.
Magnetic Memory
Magnetic memory uses the magnetic property for storing data. It stores data in the form of
magnetized dots. It is slower to read/write operation but cheaper than semiconductor memory. It is
used as a secondary or backup memory of the computer. Example: Hard disk, Floppy disk, Tape
drive.
Optical Memory
Optical memory uses optical property (a reflection of light) to read/write operation of the data. It is
also slower and cheaper than semiconductor memory and used for a mass storage and backup.
Example: CD, DVD, BD (Blu-Ray Disc).
Primary Memory
Primary memory is also known as system memory or main memory or primary storage or internal
memory. Primary memory is the working area for the computer’s processor. It has three tasks,
 It holds data for processing.
 It holds instructions (the programs) for processing the data.
 It holds data after it is processed waiting to be sent to an output or storage device.
It is directly associated with the CPU and is in effect the computer’s short-term storage capacity. The
semiconductor memories are used as the primary memory for example RAM, ROM and cache
memory.
Features of Primary Memory
The features of primary memory are:
 It is directly accessible to the CPU.
 It is used for storing data and programs while they are being used on a computer. It is not used
for storing data permanently.
 It is usually volatile memory except the ROM.
 It is usually expensive and faster to read/write operation than secondary memory.
 It is normally used for smaller storage.
 It is a semiconductor memory.
 It is not used for transferring data from one computer to another.
RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is the read/write memory of the computer i.e. both, the information can be written into the
RAM and read from the RAM. It possesses random access property that means CPU can access any
memory location in a random sequence without going through any other memory location. It is a
volatile memory i.e. it stores data or information as long as the power supply is on when the power
supply goes off, the stored content in the RAM will be lost. RAM is used to store:
 Instruction waiting to be executed by CPU.
 Instruction currently being executed by CPU.
 Data waiting processing.
 Data currently being processed.
 Data waiting output.
Figure: RAM
There are two types of RAM:

 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
SRAM stores data and programs as long as the computer is in ON state. It is expensive but faster to
read/write than DRAM. It stores data in the form of voltage. It is rarely used at present due to
expensive costs and limited storage capacity.
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
In DRAM, the stored data will be lost after a few milliseconds even if the computer is in ON state. So,
to prevent data loss, a refreshing circuit is required. It is cheaper but slower to read/write than
SRAM. It stores data in the form of charge. It is popularly used at present.
Table: Differences between SRAM and DRAM
Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1. SRAM stores data or programs as long as 1. DRAM losses its stored information in a
the power supply is ‘ON’ state. very short time (few milliseconds) even
though the power supply is ‘ON’ state.
2. It doesn’t require a refreshing circuit. 2. It needs to be refreshed periodically so as to
retain data or programs stored in RAM, so
refreshing circuit is needed.
3. It has a higher speed compared to DRAM 3. It has lower speed than SRAM.
4. It stores data in a flip-flop circuit containing 4. It requires less number of transistors per
transistors in a memory cell. memory cell because capacitors and one
transistor are needed to form a memory
cell.
5. It stores bit as voltage. 5. It stores bit as a charge.
6. It is expensive in cost. 6. It is cheaper in cost.
7. The memory cell of SRAM is larger in size 7. The memory cell of DRAM is smaller in size
and loosely packed. and is tightly packed.
8. It is usually available in a smaller storage 8. It is usually available in large storage
capacity of a few MB. capacity of few GB
Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It can be used only to perform the read operation, it doesn’t have
writing capabilities. It is non-volatile memory, i.e. the information stored in it is permanent and is
not lost even if the power supply is cut down. It is used for permanent storage of programs. ROM is
cheaper than RAM on per unit basis but while comparing on the basis of storage capacity ROM is
expensive than RAM.
Figure: ROM
From a programming point of view, ROMs are classified as mask-programmed and user-
programmed. ROM, in which contents are burnt at the time of manufacturing by the IC
manufacturer are called mask-programmed ROM. PROM, EPROM, EEPROM are user-
programmable ROM, which can be programmed (burnt) by the user.
Table: Differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
1. RAM stands for random access memory. 1. ROM stands for read-only memory.
2. It allows both read and write operations. 2. It allows only to read operation.
3. It is volatile in nature i.e. data are lost 3. It is non-volatile in nature and used for
when the power supply is switched off. permanent storage.
4. It is used when an IO operation is 4. It is not used for buffering purposes.
performed, known as buffering.
5. It usually has a higher memory space than 5. It usually has less memory space than
ROM. RAM.
6. The second operation after booting the 6. The first operation in the computer system
computer system is performed in RAM. is performed in ROM (during the booting
process).
7. It is used to store data/instruction while 7. It is used to store programs that are
they are being processed, waiting to be required for the operation of electronic
processed, and after being processed devices.
before it is provided to output component.
8. It is usually expensive on per unit basis 8. It is usually cheaper in terms of per unit
but while comparing on the basis of basis but while comparing on the basis of
storage capacity RAM is cheaper. storage capacity ROM is expensive.
9. Types of RAM are SRAM and DRAM. 9. Types of ROM are PROM, EPROM, and
EEPROM.
Types of ROM
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is a programmable ROM. It is once programmable i.e. the user can write data in a PROM only
once. User can store permanent programs, data or any kind of information in a PROM. Special
equipment called ROM programmer or ROM burner is available for storing data in PROM.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM is an erasable PROM. The data stored in EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet
(UV) light. When an EPROM is exposed to ultraviolet light, the entire data are erased. The user
cannot erase the content of certain selected memory location. It is used to store programs, which are
permanent but need frequent updating. It is usually reprogrammed without removing it from the
circuit board. It is far more economical than PROM as it can be reused.
EEPROM (Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is an electrically erasable PROM. It can be erased and reprogrammed on the byte by byte
basis. Either a single byte or the entire chip can be erased in one operation. It requires a much shorter
time, a few milliseconds for erasing as compared to EPROM. Varying with different manufacturers,
it has a limit on the number of times for which it can be reprogrammed. It need not be removed from
the circuit board for erasing as EPROM.
Flash Memory (Special Type of EEPROM)

Flash memory is used in small portable computers. Flash memory, or flash RAM cards, consists of
the circuitry of credit-card-size cards. It can be inserted into slots connected to the motherboard.
Unlike standard RAM chips, flash memory is non-volatile. It can be used not only to simulate, the
main memory but also to supplement hard disk drives for permanent storage.
Figure: Flash Memory
A common question many people ask is "why are there so many different types of computer memory?" The
answer is that new technologies continue to be introduced in an attempt to match the improvements in CPU
design—the speed of memory has to, somewhat, keep pace with the CPU, or the memory becomes a bottleneck.
Although we have seen many improvements in CPUs over the past few years, improving the main memory to
keep pace with the CPU is actually not as critical because of the use of cache memory.
Cache Memory
Cache memory pronounced as cash, is a special, high speed, and expensive semiconductor memory
placed between RAM and CPU. It is used in CPU so that CPU doesn’t have to wait for data to be
delivered. The most frequently used instructions are kept in the cache memory so that the CPU can
look there first. This allows the CPU to run faster because it doesn’t have to take time to swap
instructions in and out of RAM. It is made by the components of static RAM. It is usually 5 to 10
times faster than the main memory. The speed of the CPU is faster than RAM. Hence, cache memory
is placed in between CPU and RAM so that the speed of operation of the main memory and cache
memory together can meet the speed requirements of the high speed CPU.
There are two types of cache memory-internal cache and external cache.
Cache present in the CPU is known as internal cache and cache present in outside CPU is known as an
external cache.
When the processor needs data or instructions, first it checks whether that data is in the cache or not.
If the CPU finds data in the cache, we say that a cache hit; otherwise, we say that a cache miss. In the
case of a cache hit, the CPU immediately reads or writes the data in the cache. The proportion of
accesses that result in a cache hit is known as the hit rate and is a measure of the effectiveness of the
cache. In the case of a cache miss, it copies of the data from memory. Misses are comparatively slow
because they require the data to be transferred from the main memory. This transfer results in a
delay since the main memory are much slower than cache memory, and also results in the overhead
for recording the new data in the cache before it is delivered to the CPU.
In general, the cache has two levels, Level 1(L1) and Level 2 (L2). In which, L1 is smaller and the
faster among two and L2 is larger but slower. Multi-level caches generally operate by checking the
smallest L1 cache first; if it hits, the processor proceeds at high speed. If the smaller cache misses, the
next larger cache L2 is checked, and so on, before the main memory is checked.
Figure: Relationship between Cache memory, Primary memory and Secondary memory.
CPU
Cache Memory
RAM
Hard Disk
Video Memory
Video memory or video RAM (VRAM) chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The
amount of video memory determines how fast images appear and how many colours are available.
Video memory chips are particularly desirable if running programs display a lot of graphics as in
video games.
Buffer
A buffer in a computer is a storage space set aside to hold data before it gets processed. They can be
used if you need to wait for a certain amount of data to arrive before you it is processed if the data is
coming in bursts that are too quick to be transferred for processing or even a combination of the two.
Buffers usually use a First In -First Out (FIFO) arrangement where data being buffered comes in one
end and data is read in order from oldest to newest.
When a command is issued to print a document, the operating system copies the document to a
printer buffer from which the printer can use it at its own pace. This frees the computer to perform
other tasks while the printer is running in the background. Print buffering is called spooling.
Likewise, video cards contain a buffer so that images can be assembled and displayed while the
computer is doing something else.
The buffer memory is memory space, which is used to store data temporarily. This memory is
mainly located in computer RAM, more precisely dynamic RAM. This memory is commonly used
for I/O processes. The buffer memory is also used for printing documents or files. Do you know that
keyboard drivers also have a buffer.
Buffering provides two general advantages, both dealing with the speed mismatch between I/O and
the computing system.
Every I/O operation requires time to set up and complete, plus the time to transfer the data. These
times tend to be fixed; regardless of how much data you are transferring and might even dominate
the transfer time for small transfers.
1.2.6 Secondary Memory

Secondary storage is non-volatile and has a lower cost per bit. It generally has an operating speed far
slower than that of primary memory because the problems existed in the primary memory in
accordance with the limited capacity and volatility. As a result, additional memory, called auxiliary
memory or secondary storage, is used with most computer systems. It is used primarily to store a
large volume of data on a permanent basis that can be partially transferred to primary storage,
whenever required for processing.
With respect to limited capacity, it became necessary to store many millions, sometimes billions, and
even trillions of bytes of data in a computer. Unfortunately, the storage capacity of the primary
storage of today's computers is not sufficient to store the large volume of data. In addition to this,
volatility, primary storage is volatile and the data stored in it is lost when power is turned off.
However, computer systems need to store data on a permanent basis for several days, several
months, or even several years.
Secondary storage is any storage device designed to retain data and instructions (programs) in a
relatively permanent form. Secondary storage is non-volatile, that is stored data and instructions
retain even if the power supply is cut off. It is also called as auxiliary memory or back-up memory.
Its purpose is to store programs and data for future use. The information, which is needed by the
CPU for current processing is transferred from secondary memory to the main memory.
Comparatively, secondary memory is cheaper than the main memory according to per-bit cost.
Features of Secondary Memory

The features of Secondary memories are:
 It is called the auxiliary, external or backup memory.
 It is not directly accessible to CPU; it requires primary memory for its operation.
 It is used for storing data and programs permanently.
 It is usually a non-volatile memory.
 It is usually cheaper and slower to read/write operation than primary memory.
 It is normally used in a larger storage capacity.
 It can be magnetic, optical, or a semiconductor memory.
 It can be used for transferring data from one computer to another.
Table: Differences between Primary and Secondary Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1. It is also called main, internal, or system 1. It is also called as auxiliary, external, or
memory. backup memory.
2. It holds data, program, and information 2. It holds data, programs and information
which are currently under execution. permanently.
3. It is directly accessible to CPU. 3. It is not directly accessible to the CPU. It
requires primary memory for its
operation.
4. It is usually volatile memory except for 4. It is a non-volatile memory in nature.
ROM.
5. It cannot be used for carrying data from 5. It can be used to transferring data from
one computer to another. one computer to another.
6. It is usually an expensive per bit cost. 6. It is usually cheaper per-bit cost.
7. It is faster to read/write operations. 7. It is slower to read/write operations.
8. It is used in smaller storage capacity in 8. It is used in larger storage capacity in PC.
PC.
9. It is normally made with semiconductor 9. It can be magnetic, optical, or
material and is in the form of IC (Chip). semiconductor memory and is normally
in the form of a disk.
10. It is on the top level of the memory 10. It is on the low level of the memory
hierarchy. hierarchy.
11. It is on board memory (internal), i.e. it is 11. It is the external media ad attached to the
the part of motherboard. motherboard as a separate device.
12. Example of primary the memory is RAM, 12. Example of secondary memory is Hard
ROM, cache memory. disk, CD, DVD, pen drive.
The modern computer uses the following types of secondary memory:
 Magnetic Memory
 Optical Memory
Magnetic Memory
Floppy Disk, hard disk, and magnetic tape (reel) use similar technology for reading and writing data.
The surface of these devices is coated with magnetically sensitive material such as iron oxide which
reacts to a magnetic field. The orientation of a magnetic field is used to represent data. To write data,
the head is magnetized by passing a current through a coil which generates magnetic fields in the
iron as the head passes over the disk or tape. The head alters the polarity of an iron oxide particle to
encode the bit. To read data from a magnetic surface the head passes over the disk or tape while no
current is flowing through the electromagnetic head. Since the storage medium has a magnetic field
but the head does not, the storage medium charges the magnet in the head which causes a small
current to flow through the head in one direction or the other depending on the polarity of the field.
The disk or tape drive senses the direction of flow as the storage medium passes by the head and
data is sent from READ/WRITE head into the memory.
Before the computer can use a magnetic disk, the disk’s surface must be magnetically mapped, so
that the computer can go directly to a specific point onto without searching through data. The
process of mapping a disk or the process of creating new tracks and sectors on a disk is called
formatting or initializing.
Magnetic Disk
The magnetic disk is the most common secondary storage device in a computer system. Generally, it
is a random access device. It contains circular disks, which are made of metal (aluminium) or thin
plastic (Mylar) coated with iron oxide on both sides. It allows the recording of data in the form of
magnetized spots. The data are stored on the disks in a number of concentric circles called tracks.
Tracks are divided into sectors. All the tracks have the same number of sectors. The most common
magnetic disks are floppy disk and hard disk.
Advantages of Magnetic Disk

 Magnetic disk supports direct access of data making them more suitable for a wider range of
applications.
 Due to direct access property, a magnetic disk is often used by multiple users simultaneously as
a shared device. For example, Winchester disk and disk pack are often used as on-line secondary
storage device storing data from multiple users of a computer system.
 The magnetic disk is suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data. For example,
Winchester disk and disk pack are often used as an online secondary storage device whereas
floppy disk and zip disk are used as off-line secondary storage devices. In fact, high-capacity
Winchester disk has made it possible for today's most personal computer users to enjoy the
convenience of having all data and software readily accessible at all times.
 An additional cost benefit is that the magnetic disk can be erased and reused many times.
 The magnetic disk is less vulnerable to data corruption due to careless handling or unfavorable
temperature and humidity conditions.
Limitations of Magnetic Disk

 Although magnetic disk can be used for both types of applications (random as well as
sequential data processing applications), the use of the magnetic disk is less efficient for
sequential applications.
 It is more difficult to maintain the security of information stored on the magnetic disk.
 It is less portable.
 It must be stored in a dust-free environment.
Hard Disk
The hard disk is a magnetic disk that is used as secondary memory for mass storage of data
permanently. It stores programs, data, operating system, compilers, assemblers, application
programs, and database. The term hard disk is used to distinguish it from a soft disk, or floppy disk.
Hard disk holds more data and is faster than floppy disk according to data access rate.
A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads,
one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they can move
independently. It is generally made up of aluminium and is coated on both sides with the special
iron oxide to store data in the form of magnetized dots. The standard size of the disk is the 3.5-inch
diameter. The platter is mounted on a stack on a spindle driven by the motor connected to the
spindle. It rotates at a very high speed between 3600 rpm to 15000 rpm (revolutions per minute) or
more. Its track and bit densities are much higher than that of the floppy disk. A hard disk may have
more than 10000 tracks per surface and a bit density or 15000 bits per inch of a track. The average
access time is about 15ms.
Figure 5.10: Showing the upper part and lower part of the hard disk
Floppy Disk
A floppy disk (also known as diskette), is a removable round, flat piece of Mylar plastic, that stores
data and programs as magnetized spots. More specifically, data is stored as electromagnetic charges
on iron oxide film that coats the Mylar plastic. Data are represented by the presence or absence of
these electromagnetic charges, following standard patterns of data representation (such as ASCII).
The disk is contained in a square paper envelope or plastic case to protect it from being touched by
human hands. Diskette is sometimes called floppy because the disk within the envelope or case is
flexible, not rigid. It is a removable disk and used for small scale data transfer from one computer to
another. Its access time is about 150-250ms. There are two sizes of the floppy disk: 3½ and 5¼ inch
disk.
Table: Differences between 3½ inch and 5¼ inch Floppy Disk

3½ inch disk 5¼ inch disk
1. Capacity-1.44 MB 1. Capacity-1.2MB
2. 80 tracks per surface 2. 80 tracks per surface
3. 18 sectors per track 3. 15 sectors per track

4. 135 tracks per inch 4. 96 tracks per inch
Table: Differences between Hard Disk and Floppy Disk

Hard disk Floppy disk
1. It uses metallic circular disk or plate. 1. It uses Mylar plastic disk.
2. It usually contains multiple patters for 2. It contains only a single Mylar plastic
storing data. disk.
3. It is a reliable memory. 3. It is not reliable as hard disk.
4. It has the larger storage capacity up to few 4. It has the limited storage capacity up to
TB. 1.44 MB.
5. It is cheaper as cost per area. 5. It is expensive as cost per area.
6. The rpm of disk is 3600-15000. So, it is 6. The rpm of disk is 300-350. So, it is slower
faster for read/write operation. for read/write operation.
7. It is the most popular secondary memory 7. It is rarely or not used at present.
at present.
8. It contains both data storing and 8. It requires additional hardware like
read/write components in a single unit. floppy drive for its operation.
So, it does not require any additional
hardware for its operation.
Magnetic Tape
The magnetic tape used for the computer is made from the same material used for audio tape and
video tape. It is a thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be magnetized. Data are
represented by the magnetized or non-magnetized spots. Today, it is used mainly to provide backup
or duplicate storage. It is a sequential access type storage device which is suitable for backup storage.
The high speed magnetic tape is employed for hard disk backup. It is also used for transporting data
from one computer to another. Its main drawback is to store data sequentially. With addition to this,
it needs a complex mechanism to keep its speed constant, and to start and stop the tape without
breaking it.
A magnetic tape is made of Mylar plastic coated with magnetic material (iron oxide) only on one side
of the tape. The magnetic tape is available in ½ inch, ¼ inch, 8mm and 3mm wide. At present, it is
available in cassette form, which is called cartridge tape. The storing capacity can be 500 MB, 2 GB, 4
GB or higher. Data density is 120 Kbit per inch. Speed is 200 inches per second and data transfer rate
is 240 KB/sec.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape

 Its storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many tapes as required can be used for
storing large data set.
 With low cost of tape reels and cartridges and high data recording densities, cost per bit of
storage is very low.
 Magnetic tape is portable.
 Huge amount of data can be stored in a small storage space.
Figure: Magnetic tape
Limitations of Magnetic Tape

 Due to its sequential access nature, it is not suitable for storage of data that are accessed
randomly.
 It must be stored in a dust-free environment because the small particle of dust can cause tape-
reading errors.
 It must also be stored in an environment with controlled temperature and humidity levels,
otherwise it may be twisted due to warping, resulting in loss of stored data.
Magnetic Drum
The magnetic drum is a magnetic data storage device which was the early form of computer’s
memory. It was widely used in the 1950s – 1960s. It was invented by Gustav Tauschek of Austria in
1932.
For many machines, it was used as main working memory with data and programs being loaded on
to or off the drum using media such as paper tape or punched cards. It was so commonly used for
the main working memory that, those computers were often referred to as drum machines. It was
later replaced as the main working memory by magnetic core memory and a variety of other
systems, which were faster as they had no moving parts. It lasted until semiconductor memory was
developed.
The magnetic drum is coated with magnetic oxide (iron oxide) on the drum. It is basically used to
store a large amount of binary information. Each track in the drum is controlled by one read/write
head. As the drum rotates, the binary data can be stored along the tracks of the drum, or the data can
be read from the tracks. Out of the tracks available one track is taken as timing track through which
reading and writing related operations are controlled.
Optical Disk
At present, optical disk technology is well known and most common among most people. It is a
removable disk on which data is written and read through the use of laser beams. A laser beam is a
concentrated narrow beam of light, focused and directed on a particular location to read or write
data. It is used as backup memory. Its advantage is that it has very high storage capacity and is
relatively cheaper.
Advantages of Optical Disk

 Cost-per-bit of storage for the optical disk is very low because of their low cost and high storage
density.
 Use of a single spiral track makes the optical disk an ideal storage medium for reading large
blocks of sequential data such as audio or video.
 It does not have any mechanical read/write heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface.
This makes optical disks more reliable storage medium than magnetic tape or magnetic disk.
 Since data once stored on this disk becomes permanent, the danger of stored data getting
inadvertently erased or overwritten is not there.
 Due to its compact size and light weight, it is easy to handle, store, and carry from one place to
another.
Limitations of Optical Disk

 CD-ROM and WORM are read-only (permanent) storage medium. Data once recorded, cannot
be erased. Hence, they cannot be reused.
 Data access speed for the optical disk is slower than the magnetic disk.
 It requires more complicated drive mechanism than magnetic disk due to the need to have the
laser generating source and detection lens that requires precision engineering and careful
handling.
 Since it is a removable media, it is prone to scratches, dust, sticky prints (including fingerprints)
while handling. Hence, it needs careful handling.
Types of optical storage devices: CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW, BD-ROM,
BD-R, and BD-RW
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

The best known type of optical disk is the CD-ROM. It is an optical disk that is used to store text,
graphics, sound and video. Read-only means the disk cannot be written on or erased by the user. The
users can only read the data imprinted by the disk's manufacturer. So, it is suitable for storing the
data, which is not to be changed.
It is non- volatile optical data storage medium. It is readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.
It consists of aluminum coated plastic, which reflects light differently for lands or pits which are
smooth and rough areas respectively. Data are stored in the form of lands and pits. A land reflects
the laser light into the sensor and pit scatter (diffuse) the light. The light reflected from the land is
detected by a photo cell that converts them into electronic signals.
To read stored information, the CD player passes a laser beam over the tracks. When the laser passes
over a flat area (land) in the track, the beam is reflected directly to an optical sensor on the laser
assembly. The CD player interprets this as a 1. When the beam passes over a pit, the light is bounced
away from the optical sensor. The CD player recognizes this as a 0.
Reading the information back is a matter of reflecting a lower powered laser off the aluminium film.
A receiver or a light receptor notes where light is strongly reflected or where it is absent or diffused.
Diffused or absent light is caused by the pits made in the CD. Strongly reflection of the light
indicates no pit that is called land. The individual pit on a CD is 0.12 micron deep and 0.6 micron
wide (1 Micron=1/1000000 of a meter).
CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable)

CD-R is a CD format that allows you to write data onto a specially manufactured disk, which can
then be read by a standard CD-ROM drive. It is once writable CD, i.e. the change of state is
permanent, so it is also called WORM (Write Once Read Many) media. CD-R once written, changes
to CD-ROM. It is coated with a photosensitive organic dye that has the reflective properties. The
photosensitive organic dye within this disc changes from a reflective state to a non reflective state
when it is exposed to the laser recording beam of a CD-R drive. The reflective state acts as land and
non-reflective state acts as pit in a CD-ROM.
CD-RW (CD-Rewritable)
CD-RW disc can be reused by erasing the content of the CD and again writing data on it. Using a
CD-RW drive, user can write data onto the special re-writable compact disk (CD-RW disk), then over
write it with new data. In other words, a user can change the contents of this disk in the same
manner as a floppy disk. It has the same capacity as standard compact disk, and most can be over
written up to 100 times. It, however, may not play on every CD-ROM drive.
DVD (Digital Versatile/video Disc)-ROM

DVD is the most popular optical disc storage technology at present. It's essentially a high capacity,
faster CD that can hold video as well as audio and computer data. It aims to encompass home
entertainment, computers, and business information with a single digital format, eventually
replacing audio CD, videotape, laserdisc, CD-ROM, and perhaps even video game cartridges. As it
has a much greater capacity than CD and initial discs contained video data, it was mistakenly taken
to stand for Digital Video Disc. This is not so; as indicated above, DVD stands for Digital Versatile
Disc.
It's important to understand the terminology used in this emerging technology. Like CD, DVD is the
generic term given to the disc. We need to understand the difference between DVD-Video and DVD-
ROM. A DVD-Video is the disc that holds video programs and is played in a DVD player connected
directly to a TV monitor; or via a music centre. A DVD-ROM is the disc that holds computer data
and is read by a DVD-ROM drive in a computer. The difference is similar to that between Audio CD
and CD-ROM. To complicate manners slightly, a DVD-Video can actually be played in a DVD-ROM
drive by adding extra hardware in the form of an MPEG-2 decoder into the computer. A DVD-ROM
drive maybe able to read a DVD-Video, it's the MPEG-2 decoder that makes sense of it. As
computers get more powerful, MPEG-2 decoding will become possible in software; but not yet.
DVD-R
The DVD-R is a DVD recordable format. A DVD-R typically has a storage capacity of 4.7GB. Like
CD-R, a DVD-R system lets the user to record data onto a special recordable digital video disk, using
a special drive. Once user record data onto this disk, user can’t change it. The CD-R has 700 MB
storage capacity and a DVD-R has 6.4 times the capacity of a CD-R.
DVR-RW
A DVD-RW (DVD-Rewritable) disc is a rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-
R, typically 4.7 GB. The format was developed by Pioneer in November 1999 and has been approved
by the DVD Forum. Unlike DVD-ROM, it is playable in about 75% of conventional DVD players. The
smaller Mini DVD-RW holds 1.46 GB, with a diameter of 8 cm.
The primary advantage of DVD-RW over DVD-R is the ability to erase and rewrite to a DVD-RW
disc. According to Pioneer, DVD-RW disc may be written to about 1,000 times before needing
replacement, making them comparable with the CD-RW standard. DVD-RW discs are commonly
used for non-volatile data, such as backups or collections of files. They are also increasingly used for
home DVD video recorders. One benefit to using a rewritable disc is if there are writing errors when
recording data, the disc is not ruined and can still store data by erasing the faulty data.
Blu-ray Disk (BD)

BD is the name of the new generation optical disk. It is developed to enable recording, rewriting and
play back of high definition video (HD), as well as storing large amount of data. This disk offers
more than five times the storage capacity of present DVDs. It can hold up to 25GB on a single layered
disk and 50 GB on a dual layered disk. The current optical disk technology such as DVD-R, DVD-
ROM and DVD-RW uses red laser to read and write data, the new disk, BD uses blue-violet laser
beam, hence the name Blu-ray used. The benefit of using blue-violet laser (405nm) is that it has a
shorter wavelength than a red laser (650nm used in DVD and 780nm used in the CD), which makes it
possible to focus the laser with even greater precision. This allows data to be packed more tightly
and in less space, so it is possible to fit more data on the disc even though it has the same size as a
CD/DVD. Similar to CD and DVD, it also has different variations. Such as, BD-R (Blu-ray disk
recordable), BD-ROM (Blu-ray disk read only memory), and BD-RW (Blu-ray disk re-writable).
Other External Storage Devices

Winchester Disk
Winchester technology disk was developed by IBM in order to overcome some problems associated
with established disk technology. It is now made by many different manufacturers. Winchester disk
as fixed disk in hermetically sealed disk units and have robust mechanical features. It has toughened
surfaces and read write heads that move even closer to the disk’s surfaces. The heads actually land
on the disk’s surface when the disk finally stops. It can operate in adverse environments that are
dusty or humid, has greater reliability and also has greater storage capacities in comparison with the
earlier technology disks of the same size.
Figure: Winchester disk showing internal pattern (left) and its units
Zip Disk
A Zip drive is a small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and archiving personal
computer files. The trademarked Zip drive was developed and is sold by iomega Zip Corporation.
Its drives and disks come in two sizes. The 100 megabyte size actually holds data equivalent to 70
floppy diskettes. There is also a 250 megabyte drive and disk. The iomega Zip drive comes with a
software utility that lets user to copy the entire contents of hard drive to one or more Zip disks.
Figure: ZIP disks and zip disk drive
Jaz Disk
It is also a removable hard disk drive developed by Iomega Corporation in late 1995. Jaz was fairly
popular in its role, and 2GB drives were introduced in 1997. In 2003, Iomega stopped production of
new drives, but continued to provide support.
Figure: Jaz disk with Jaz disk drive
Super Disk
The super disk is a storage technology developed by imation Corporation, which supports very high
density diskettes. Unlike, other removable disk storage such as zip drive, super disk is backward
compatible with older diskettes. This means that the same super disk drive can be used to read and
write the older 1.44MB diskettes as well as the new 120 MB super disk diskettes.
Figure: Super disk with drive
Flash Memory
Flash memory is used in small portable computers. Flash memory, or flash RAM cards, consists of
circuitry on credit-card-sized cards that can be inserted into slots connecting to the motherboard.
Unlike standard RAM chips, flash memory is nonvolatile. That is, it retains data even when the
power is turned off. Flash memory can be used not only to simulate main memory but also to
supplement or replace hard disk drives for permanent storage.
Pen Drive
The pen drive is a portable USB flash memory device that can be used to quickly transfer audio,
video, and data files from the hard drive of one computer to another. With a construction that is
small enough to fit into a pocket, the pen drive derives its name from the fact that many of these USB
drive devices resemble a small pen or pencil in size and shape.
It is equipped with a large amount of memory capacity. It is considered to be an improvement on
both the older floppy drive disks and the more modern compact disks that is often used from/to
copy data the files on a various storage device. Even a pen drive with a relatively low storage
capacity tends to provide plenty of space for a number of files.
Utilizing a pen drive is a simple task; one end of the drive is equipped with a USB connector. The
connector is inserted into the USB port of the computer. Once the pen drive is in place, it is possible
to drop and drag files into the memory of the drive, or forward the files to the drive. The process is
no more difficult than attaching files to an email or copying files onto a disk.
Figure: Pen Drive
Solid-state Drive
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of storage devices used in computers. It uses integrated
circuit assemblies to store data persistently, typically using flash memory, and functioning as
secondary storage in the hierarchy of computer storage. It is also sometimes called a solid-state
device or a solid-state disk, even though SSDs lack the physical spinning disks and movable read-
write heads used in hard drives ("HDD") or floppy disks.
SSDs replace traditional mechanical hard disks by using flash-based memory, which is significantly
faster. Older hard-disk storage technologies run slower, which often makes our computer run slower
than it should. SSDs speed up computers significantly due to their low read-access times and fast
throughputs.
Compared with the electromechanical drives, SSDs are secured from physical shock, run silently,
and have quicker access time, lower latency, and light weight. SSDs can store data in semiconductor
cells with high memory density.
The new solid-state drives work completely differently. They use a simple memory chip called
NAND flash memory, which has no moving parts and near-instant access times.
SSD technology was used occasionally in the military and aerospace sectors, but it wouldn’t be used
in consumer devices until the 1990s. Due to SSD prices to drop, the lifespan and size were increased.
It would be start to use more reliably and to provide high access speeds.
SSDs have specific advantages in the following areas:
1. Business: Companies working with huge amounts of data (such as programming environments
or data analysis) often rely on SSDs, as access times and file-transfer speeds are critical.
2. Gaming: Gaming computers have always pressed the limits of current computing technology,
justifying relatively expensive equipment for the benefit of gaming performance. That is
particularly true for storage, as modern blockbuster games constantly load and write files (e.g.
textures, maps, levels, characters).
3. Mobility: SSDs have low power requirements, thus contributing to better battery life in laptops
and tablets. SSDs are also shock resistant, which reduces the chances of data loss when mobile
devices are dropped.
4. Servers: Enterprise servers need SSDs to get fast reads and writes in order to properly serve
their client PCs.
1.2.7 Input Devices

The input unit is used for entering data and program into the computer system for processing. An
input device converts input data into suitable form acceptable to a computer. It is a medium of
communication between the user and the computer.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Trackball, Track pad, Joystick, Light pen, Touch screen, Scanner, Bar
code reader, Optical character reader(OCR), Magnetic Ink character reader (MICR), Microphone.
Keyboard
The keyboard is the most common means of hardware by which user will input the data. It looks like
an electronic typewriter keyboard but contains keys for specific purposes. It is quite similar to the
keyboard of the typewriter (QWERTY) but contains some additional keys.
Figure: Keyboard
Most keyboards have the following keys.

 Alphanumeric keys (letters and number)
 Punctuation Keys (comma, semicolon and so on)
 Special Keys (function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps lock key and so on)
Some types of standard keyboards
 XT (Extended Technology): 83 Keys
 AT (Advanced Technology): 101 Keys
 Enhanced Technology: 103 Keys or more (multimedia)
When the user pressed a key, a tiny chip called the keyboard controller notes that a key has been
pressed. The keyboard controller places a code into part of its memory, called the keyboard buffer,
to indicate which key was pressed. (A buffer is a temporary storage area that holds data until it can
be processed). The keyboard controller then sends a single to the computer’s system software,
notifying it that something has happened at the keyboard.
Direct-Entry Input Devices

Some of the most interesting kinds of input systems don't use a keyboard. Direct entry means that
data is not entered into the computer through a keyboard. Some common direct-entry devices used
to input data into computer-usable form are as follows:
 Pointing devices: mouse, trackball, joystick, touch screen, light pen, digitizing tablet, and pen-
based system
 Scanning devices: bar-code reader, mark and character-recognition devices, fax machine,
imaging system
 Voice-recognition devices
Mouse
Mouse is a small hand held pointing and clicking input device used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen. It is a small plastic box with two or three buttons on the top. Two rotating
wheels inside the mouse detect the movement and the direction of the movement. By pressing the
button of the mouse, the user communicates his/her choice to the computer.
Types of Mice
 Mechanical mouse
 Opto-mechanical mouse
 Optical mouse
The mechanical mouse consists of a ball on its underneath, that translates the mouse movement into
digital signals. This mouse contains 1-3 buttons. Depending on the software, these buttons are used
for common or special functions, such as clicking and dragging. Opto-mechanical mouse is similar to
the mechanical mouse but uses optical sensors to detect motion of the ball. Optical mouse uses laser
beam with no any mechanical moving parts. It responds better than mechanical and opto-mechanical
and is more expensive.
Figure Mouse
Trackball
Trackball is another form of pointing device. It is a variant on the mouse. It has a movable ball on top
of a stationary device that is rotated with the fingers or palm of the hand. The trackball looks like a
mouse turned upside down. Instead of moving the mouse around on the desktop, the trackball is
moved with the tips of the finger. Trackball is suited to portable computers, which are often used in
confined places, such as on laptops.
Figure: Trackball
Touch Pad Kiosk

It is one of the latest pointing devices. It looks like the small grey window, about two inches wide.
The user slides his finger tip across the window to move the cursor on the screen. When the window
is tapped, it works as the clicking of mouse button. It is used in latest laptops.
Figure: Touch pad
Joystick
A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle like a gearshift lever mounted on a
base with one or two buttons. Named for the control mechanism that directs an airplane's forward
and backward as well as from side to side movement. It is used principally in video games and in
some computer-aided design systems. As the handle is moved around, the movement is translated
into binary signals with the help of electronic contacts in its base.
Figure: Joystick and their Different Forms
Joystick elements:
1. Stick
2. Base
3. Trigger
4. Extra Buttons
5. Auto Fire Switch
6. Throttle
7. Hat Switch (POV Hat)
8. Suction Cup
Light Pen
The light pen is a light-sensitive stylus, or pen-like device, connected by a wire to the computer
terminal. The user brings the pen to a desired point on the display screen and presses the pen button
which detects the light emitted from the screen and generates electric pulses, which are transmitted
to a processor that identifies the particular pixel (point). It enables a user to select options, write
words or draw pictures directly into the computer. It is useful for graphics work like CAD package
and is mainly used by engineers, graphic designers and illustrators.
Touch Screen
A touch screen is a video display screen that has been sensitized to receive input from the touch of a
finger or some pointed object. It is a screen with touch sensitive points or program icons. When a
specific point is touched by finger tips, related program is activated. It is a modern and advanced
technology applied in laptops, cameras, mobile phones and lot more modern electronic devices.
There are three types of touch screen technology (i) Capacitive screen (ii) Infrared screen
(iii) Pressure sensitive screen.
Figure: Touch screen
Digitizing Tablet
A digitizing tablet consists a tablet connected by a wire to a stylus or puck. A stylus is a pen-like
device with which the user sketches an image. A puck is a copying device with which the user copies,
or traces an image. When used with drawing and painting software, a digitizing tablet and stylus
allows shading and many other effects similar to those artists achieve with pencil, pen or charcoal. It
is mainly used design and engineering.
Figure: Digitizing tablet and showing its uses in engineering

Digital Camera
Digital still and video camera are used to capture picture and video which is in the digitized form
and can be stored in computers. It can take the photo and load them directly from the camera
digitally to a main storage or secondary storage device.
Figure: Digital Camera
Scanner
The scanner is an input device which is used to enter text, images, and graphs printed on paper
directly into the computer. It provides faster and more accurate data entry. It digitizes an image by
dividing it into a small grid of boxes and representing each box with either zero or one, whether the
box is filled or not. Some of the popular scanners are Compact Desktop scanners and Flatbed
scanners. The compact desktop scanner is popular, due to its low cost and easy to use with PC.
Flatbed scanner is expensive but flatter, provides high resolution color scanning and is more
accurate.
Figure: Scanner
Bar Code Reader (BCR)

Bar code reader is a photo-electric scanner that reads bar codes. Bar code is an identification code
printed in the form of light and dark bars with coded spacing and thickness which contains
identification of an item such as price, quality, manufacturer. It is mostly used in the supermarket,
bookshop, library.
Figure: Bar code (left) and Bar code reader (right)
Anatomy of Bar Code Bar Code Reader
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

The OCR reads printed characters directly, converts them into appropriate codes and stores them in
a computer. When light source is passed over a document, written or typed character reflects less
light than the background area. Thus, the shape of the character is determined. Each character is
scanned several times and an electronic picture of it is built up. Nowadays, advanced OCR system
can also read handwritten text.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

The OMR is a device that reads pencil marks or shades and converts them into computer usable
form. It is mainly used to read answer sheets of multiple choice questions and survey form, Graduate
Record Examination (GRE) etc.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

The MICR is an input device, which reads the characters printed using magnetic ink. Magnetic ink is
a special type of ink containing iron-oxide particles, which is used to write characters. The MICR is
mostly used in the bank for processing cheque.
Smart Card
A smart card looks like a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chip. It can be used
for using public telephone, bank card, as well as for carrying their medical histories on them.
Figure: The Smart card with smart card reader
Microphone
The microphone is an input device used for recording voice or sound. It is widely used for the sound
input to the computer for voice mail, videoconferencing, video chat.
Figure: Microphone
1.2.8 Output Devices

Output Unit consists of devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form that
humans can understand. The computer-processed information consists of 0s and 1s, which needs to
be translated into words, numbers, or pictures that people can understand.
The two principal kinds of output are:
 Hardcopy output
 Softcopy output
Softcopy refers to data that is shown on a display screen or sound produced by the speaker. This kind of
output is untouchable. It is temporary in nature. For example, contents displayed on a screen or
words spoken out by a voice response system are soft copy output.
Hardcopy refers to printed output printed on the paper or some material that can be touched and
carried for being shown to others. It is permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be
looked later when the person is not using the computer. For example, outputs produced on paper by
printers or plotters are hardcopy output i.e. printouts in the form of whether text or graphics.
The commonly used output devices are VDU (Visual Display Unit), printer, plotter, and speaker.
Softcopy Output Devices

Monitor
The monitor is the display screen that is used to display the text and graphics, allowing users to view
the result of the processing. It is the most common and popularly used output device for producing
soft copy output. It displays the generated output on a television like screen.
Classification of Monitor on the Basis of the Colors Displayed

1. Monochrome Monitor: It displays only one color such as green or white against a contrasting
background which is usually black. This monitor is used for text only displays. It basically
possesses only two colors, one for the foreground and one for the background.
2. Grayscale Monitor: Grayscale monitor is a special monochrome monitor such that it can show
the varying intensity of gray (from light gray to black) against a white or off-white background.
3. Color Monitor: This type of monitor can display 16 colors to several million colors. Color CRT
in graphics system is designed as RGB monitor. Color graphics system can be designed by
several types of CRT display device. Some inexpensive home computer systems and video
games are designed for use with a color TV set.
Classification of Monitor on the Basis of their Display Technique

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
CRT operates much like a television set. A single electron gun (negatively charged heated metal) in a
monochrome CRT sends a beam of electrons towards (the positively charged) phosphor coated
(phosphorescent) screen surface. The screen’s phosphor coating in organized into a grid of dots. The
smallest phosphor dot that an electron gun (gun which is composed of three primary colors red,
green and blue) can focus on is called a pixel. When the electrons strike the phosphor-coated screen,
it emits visible light. The electron gun systematically aims at every pixel on the screen, starting at the
top-left corner and scanning to the right edge, then dropping down a tiny distance and scanning
another line. Varying the intensity of the beam produces screen images. The color CRT system uses
three electron guns to scan dots of Red, Green and Blue. So color monitors are sometimes called RGB
monitors.
Figure: CRT monitor (left) and anatomy of CRT monitor (right)
Merits of CRT monitor

 It is comparatively cheaper than other monitors.
 It has better brightness.
 It has the larger viewing angle of almost 180 degrees.
 It has better graphics quality.
 It is comparatively durable.
Demerits of CRT monitor
 It is larger power requirement.
 It is larger and heavier.
 It cannot be used in portable computing devices.

 It is not better for the human eye due to larger radiation.
Flat Panel Monitor

There are several types of flat panel monitor such as LCD, LED and Plasma Display.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor

LCD is one of the common flat-panel monitor. It creates images with a special kind of liquid crystal
that is normally transparent but becomes opaque when charged with electricity. The liquid
crystalline material is sandwiched between two glasses or plastic plates. The front plate is
transparent and the back is reflective. LCD is lighter in weight, not bulky but expensive compared to
CRT monitors. It consumes low voltage and power consumption. The user should sit in front to
monitor, if he sits with the angle, contents are not visible. It does not emit light as in CRT, so there is
no enough contrast between the image and the background. It is widely used in laptops, computers,
digital cameras, digital clocks, digital watches, microwave ovens, CD players.
Figure: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor
Merits of LCD monitor

 It is smaller and lighter.
 It can be used in portable computing devices.
 It has low power requirement as compared to CRT monitor.
 It is better for the human eye due to its low brightness and low radiation.
Demerits of LCD monitor
 It has limited the viewing angle compared to other monitors.
 It is expensive than CRT monitor.
 It has low brightness. So, it is difficult to view in a brighter environment.
LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor

LED monitor contains an array of light emitting diodes as a video display. These diodes are turned
on or off to display the output. Initially, it was used only for simple digital display like in the
calculator, digital watch. At present it is the popular monitor for television set, desktop PC, laptop,
mobile phones, tablet PC.
Merits of LED monitor
 It has low power requirement.
 It is better for human eye similar to LCD monitor.

 It provides better brightness as compared to LCD and plasma monitor.
 It has the larger viewing angle of almost 180 degrees.
Demerits of LED monitor
 It is an expensive monitor.
 It has low brightness compared to CRT monitor.
 It is difficult to maintain.
Gas-Plasma Display
The gas-plasma display is like a neon bulb, in which the display uses a gas that emits light in the
presence of an electric current. That is, the technology uses predominantly neon gas and electrodes
above and below the gas. When electric current passes between the electrodes, the gas glows.
At present, gas-plasma technology is more expensive and thus not used as often as LCD and LED
technology. Arrangement of transistors in the screen can be —active-matrix or passive-matrix. Flat-
panel screen are either active-matrix or passive-matrix displays. In an active-matrix display, each
pixel on the screen is controlled by its own transistor. Active-matrix screen is much brighter and
sharper than passive-matrix screen, but they are more complicated and thus more expensive. In a
passive-matrix display, a transistor controls a whole row or column of pixels. The advantage is that
passive-matrix display is less expensive and uses less power than active-matrix display.
Merits of Plasma monitor

 It has low power requirement.
 It is better for human eye similar to LCD and LED monitor.
 It has a larger viewing angle of almost 180 degree.
Demerits of Plasma monitor
 It is an expensive monitor.
 It has low brightness compared to LCD monitor.
Characteristics of Monitor
1. Size: The most important aspect of a monitor is its screen size. Like television, screen size is
measured in diagonal inches, the distance from one comer to the opposite corner diagonally.
A typical size for small VGA monitors is 14 inches. It means 14 inches size from the lower left to
the upper right corner.
2. Resolution: The resolution of a computer monitor is expressed by the number of pixels on the
screen, expressed as a matrix. For example, a resolution of 640×480 means that, there are 640
pixels horizontally across the screen and 480 pixels vertically down the screen. The resolution of
a monitor indicates how densely the pixels are packed. Many suppliers of video adapters
provide greater resolution and more colors.
Table: Type of Adapter and its Pixels

Type of adapter Pixels
VGA 640 x 480
SVGA 800 x 600
XGA 1024 x 768
SXGA 1280 x 1024
UXGA 1600 x 1200
3. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of computer monitor means the range of signal frequencies that can
be handled by the monitor. This determines how much data it can process and therefore how
fast it can refresh at higher resolutions. The better the bandwidth better is the pictorial quality.
4. Refresh Rate: The data shown on the screen of the monitor seem to be stationary but actually
the picture on the screen is not stationary. The picture is being drawn time to time by the
monitor so fast that our eyes can't see the drawing process and the picture seems to be
stationary. Refresh rate means the number of times per second the screen is refreshed or
redrawn.
5. Dot pitch: Dot pitch is the amount of space between each pixel. The smaller the dot pitch,
sharper the image. The dot pitch of color monitor for personal computer ranges from about 0.15
to 0.30 mm.
6. Convergence: Each pixel is composed of three dots: a red, blue and green one. Convergence is
the sharpness of each pixel. In graphics, convergence refers to how sharply an individual color
pixel on a monitor appears.
Video Standard
1. VGA: Perhaps the most common video standard today, VGA, for video graphics array, will
support 16 to 256 colors, depending on resolution. At 320 X 200 pixels it will support 256 colors;
at the sharper resolution of 640 X 480 pixels it will support 16 colors.
2. SVGA: SVGA, for super video graphics array, will support 256 colors at higher resolution than
VGA. SVGA has two graphics modes: 800 X 600 pixels and 1,024 X 768.
3. XGA: Also referred to as high resolution display, XGA, for extended graphics array, supports
up to 16.7 million colors at a resolution of 1,024 X 768 pixels. Depending on the video display
adapter memory chip, XGA will support 256, 65,536, or 16,777,216 colors.
For any of these displays to work, video display adapters and monitors must be compatible. Your
computer's software and the video display adapter must also be compatible. Thus, if you are
changing your monitor or your video display adapter, be sure the new one will still work with the
old.
Voice Output Device (Sound Output Device)

Sound output device produce digitized sounds ranging from the beep, chirp to music. All these
sounds are nonverbal. To output sound, both the necessary software and the sound card or digital
audio circuit board are required. The sound card plugs into an expansion slot in the computer.
A sound card is also required in making computerized music.
Hard Copy Output Devices

Printer
The printer is a peripheral device used to print text, picture, illustration, figure and image. It is used
to produce hardcopy output i.e. in the permanent readable form. There are two types of printers:
Impact printer and Non-impact printer.
An impact printer has the mechanism resembling that of a typewriter. That is, an impact printer
forms character or image by striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel against an inked
ribbon, leaving an image on paper. Dot Matrix printer, Daisy-wheel printer, and Line printers are the
examples of impact printer.
Characteristics of the impact printer:
 It prints by physically touching the printing material.
 It uses mechanical method for printing.
 It is noisy.
 It is slower for printing.
 The printing quality is not good as from non impact printer.
 It is usually single colored.
 It can produce multiple copies at a same time by using carbon paper.
 It uses ink ribbon for printing.
 It is rarely used at present.
Non-impact printer is faster and quieter than the impact printer because they have fewer moving
parts. It forms characters and images without making direct physical contact between printing
mechanism and paper. It is faster than an impact printer. It can also print in different fonts—that is,
styles and sizes. The disadvantage of the non-impact printer is that, it produces single copy of the
text whereas the impact printer can produces multiple copies of text by using carbon paper. Two
examples of non-impact printer often used with microcomputer are the laser printer and ink-jet
printer. The more expensive model can print in different colors. A third one, the thermal printer is seen
less frequently.
Characteristics of the non-impact printer:
 It prints by spraying liquid or powder ink.
 It uses electromagnetic or electrostatic mechanism for printing.
 It produces low noise.
 It is faster for printing.
 The printing quality is better than the impact printer.
 It can be either single or multi-colored.
 It cannot produce multiple copies at a same time.
 It uses liquid or powder ink for printing.
 It is popularly used at present.
Table: Differences between Impact and Non-Impact Printer

Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
1. Impact printer uses electromechanical 1. Non-impact printer does not use electro
mechanism that causes hammers or pins mechanical printing rather it uses the
to strike against a ribbon and paper to thermal, chemical, electrostatic, laser
print the text. beam or ink jet technology for printing the
text and images.
2. The efficiency of the impact printer is less 2. It has higher efficiency because electrical
as compared to non-impact printer energy is not wasted.
because it uses electrical energy (external
force) which is further converted into heat
and sound.
3. It is slow while printing. 3. It is fast while printing.
4. It uses force for printing and produces 4. It does not use force and hence produces
more sound while printing. less sound while printing.
5. It printer cannot print graphics perfectly. 5. It can print graphics perfectly.
6. It can produce multiple copies at the same 6. It cannot produce multiple copies at the
time using carbon paper. same time. Each paper has to be printed
out separately.
7. It is usually single colored. 7. It can be single or multi colored.
8. It uses ink ribbon for printing. 8. It uses liquid or powder ink for printing.
9. It is rarely used at present. 9. It is popularly used at present.
10. Example: Dot Matrix printer, Electronic 10. Example: Ink jet printer, Laser printer,
typewriter, Daisy Wheel Printer, Line Thermal printer.
printer.
The printer can also be classified by how they print and how fast they operate. They are
 Character printer
 Line Printer
 Page Printer
1. Character printer prints one character at a time. It is the low-speed printer with the printing
speed in the range of 30-600 characters per second depending upon the type of the printer. It is
used with the personal computer for low volume printing work. Characters to be printed are
sent serially to the printer. Example: Dot Matrix printer, Letter Quality printer.
2. Line printer prints one line at a time. It uses impact mechanism. It composes one line at a time
i.e. the character to be printed in each position is known to the printer before it prints the line.
Example: Drum printer, Chain printer.
3. Page printer prints one page at a time. An entire page is processed and printed at a time.
Example: Laser printer.
The quality of the printer depends upon the following factors:
 Printing speed of the printer.
 Printing quality (resolution). The sharpness of the printed text or images. Print resolution is
measured in dots per inch (dpi).
 Memory of the printer.
 Color of the printed text or images.
 Cost of the printer and its ink.
Dot Matrix Printer

A more common type of microcomputer impact printer is the dot-matrix printer, which contains a
print head of small pins that strikes an inked ribbon forming characters or images. Print heads are
available with 9, 18, or 24 pins, with the 24-pin head offering the best print quality. It operates at two
or three speeds, lower the speed better the printing quality. The dot-matrix printer can print draft
quality, a coarser-looking 72 dots per inch vertically, or near to letter-quality, a crisper-looking 144
dots per inch vertically.
It is noisy and not good for continuous printing but it can print multi-pages i.e. it is possible to use
carbon papers to get extra copies of the same document. It is flexible, it does not have fixed character
font. As the font is not fixed, a dot matrix printer can print any shape of a character.
Figure: Dot Matrix printer
Merits of Dot Matrix Printer

 It can print both images and text of any size or fonts.
 It is cheaper and has low operating cost.
 It can print multiple copies at a same time using carbon paper.
 It is appropriate for small volume printing.
Demerits of Dot Matrix Printer
 It is noisy and slower. Figure: Daisy Wheel Printer’s Head
 It has low printing quality.
 It is single colored.
Daisy Wheel Printer
It is an older type of impact printer used with
microcomputers, which has a removable print wheel-the
flower-like daisy wheel-consisting of spokes. Each spoke
ends with a raised character, which is turned to align the
desired letter and then struck with a hammer.
It is Letter quality impact character printer. Daisy wheel
printer usually gives a better quality of print but is more
expensive than the dot matrix printer. It has a speed of about 90 characters per second. It is noisy and
slow. It has a fixed font and cannot print graphics.
Merits of Daisy Wheel Printer
 It has better printing quality than dot matrix printer.
Demerits of Daisy Wheel Printer
 It is noisy and slower.
 It has low printing quality compared to non impact printers
 It cannot print images. It can print only text of fixed size and font.
 It is not appropriate for large volume printing.
Line Printer
It is another type of impact printer. Earlier large computer installations and at present even
microcomputers use high-speed line printers, which print a whole line of characters at once rather
than a single character at a time. Some of these can print up to 3,000 lines a minute. It can print only
text of fixed size and font. It is appropriate for continuous printing such as printing mark-sheet, bank
statement, bill, receipt.
Some of the line printers are:
 Chain printer, which contains characters on a rotating chain.
 Drum printer, which contains characters on a rotating drum.
Merits of Line Printer
 It can print a complete line of text at time. So, it is faster for printing.
 It is appropriate for continuous printing.
Demerits of Line Printer
 It is noisy and slower.
 It has low printing quality compared to non impact printers
 It cannot print images. It can print only text of fixed size and font.
 It is usually expensive.
Figure: Ink Jet Printer
Inkjet Printer
It is a Non-impact character printer. Like dot-matrix
printer, ink-jet printer also form images with little dots,
but the dots are much smaller and more numerous. It
sprays small, electrically charged droplets of ink from
four nozzles through holes in a matrix at high speed onto
paper. Most color printing is done on ink-jet because the
nozzles can hold four different colors, CYMK (Cyan
(blue-green), Yellow, Magenta (purple-red), and Black),
other colors are derived by the combination of these four
colors. Moreover, ink-jet printer can match the speed of

dot-matrix printers (120-240 characters per second or 1-4
pages per minute). It is even quieter than the laser
printer and produces and equally high-quality images.
A variation on ink-jet technology is the bubble-jet printer, which uses miniature heating elements to
force specially formulated inks through print heads with 128 tiny nozzles. The multiple nozzles print
fine images at high speeds. This technology is commonly used in portable printers.
Merits of Inkjet Printer
 It produces low noise and is faster for printing compared to impact printer.
 It is cheaper to buy.
 It is appropriate for low volume printing.
 It can be single or multi colored.
 It has better printing quality.
 It can print images and text of any size or font.
Demerits of Inkjet Printer
 It has expensive operating cost due to expensive ink.
 It cannot print multiple copies at a same time.
 It is not appropriate for continuous printing.
Laser Printer
Laser printer is a non-impact, page printer. An entire page is processed at a time. It produces high
quality print. Print resolution ranges from 300 to more than 2400 dpi. It is more expensive than other
printers.
Similar to a photocopying machine, a laser printer uses the principle of dot-matrix printers in
creating dot-like images. However, these images are created on a drum, treated with a magnetically
charged ink powder known as toner, and then transferred from drum to paper.
There are good reasons why laser printers are the most common type of non-impact printer. They
produce sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics. They are quieter and faster than dot-matrix
printer. They can print 4-20 pages per minute for individual microcomputers (and over 120 pages
per minute for mainframes).
Figure: Laser Printer
Merits of Laser Printer

 It has low operating cost.
 It is appropriate for large volume printing.
Demerits of Laser Printer
 It is expensive to buy.
Thermal Printer
Thermal printer uses colored waxes and heat to produce images by burning dots onto special heat
sensitive paper. It can provide the highest-quality desktop color printing available. However, they
are expensive and require expensive paper. Thus, they are not generally used for high-volume
printing.
Merits of Thermal Printer
Demerits of Thermal Printer
 It has expensive to buy.
 Its printing cost or running cost is high.
Plotter
A plotter is a specialized output device designed to produce high-quality graphics in a variety of
colors. Plotter is especially useful for creating maps and architectural drawings, although they may
also produce less complicated charts and graphs.
It uses ink pen or inkjet mechanism to draw graphics or drawings. Either single or multicolor pens
can be employed. The pens are driven by motor. Drawings can be prepared on paper or plastic
sheets. Pen plotter is slower than inkjet plotters. The graphics and drawings produced by pen plotter
are uniform, precise and it is good quality. It is used for low to medium volume job. Plotter is much
more expensive than printers. The different types of plotters are Drum plotter, Micro-grip plotter, Flat-
bed plotter, and Inkjet plotter.
Figure: Plotter
1.2.9 Hardware Interfaces

A hardware interface/port is a socket on the outside of the system unit that is connected to an
expansion board on the inside of the system unit. A port allows connecting a peripheral device such
as a monitor, printer, or modem, so that it can communicate with the computer system.
Functions of Hardware Interface
 connecting peripheral devices
 transmitting data to and from peripheral devices
 Providing electrical power to those devices having low power requirement such as mouse,
keyboard, pen drive.
Some of the popular hardware interfaces are:
Parallel Port
A parallel port allows lines to be connected that will enable 8 bits to be transmitted simultaneously,
like cars on an eight-lane highway. Parallel lines move information faster than serial lines do, but
they can transmit information efficiently only up to 15 feet. Thus, parallel ports are used principally
for faster speed devices such as connecting printers.
Figure: Parallel Port
Serial Port
A serial port, or RS-232 port, enables a line to be connected that will send bits one after the other on a
single line, like cars on a one-lane highway. Serial lines are used to link slow speed devices and
equipment that is not close by. Serial ports are used principally for communications lines, modems,
and mice. They are frequently labeled COM for communications.
Figure: Serial Port
Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a serial bus standard to connect devices to a host computer. It was
designed to allow many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket and
to improve plug and play capabilities that is by allowing devices to be connected and disconnected
without rebooting the computer or turning off the device. Other convenient feature includes
providing power to low-consumption devices, eliminating the need for an external power supply
and allowing many devices to be used without requiring manufacturer-specific device drivers to be
installed.
USB is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel ports. It can connect computer
peripherals such as mouse, keyboard, PDA, gamepad, joystick, scanner, digital camera, printer,
personal media player, flash drive, external hard drive. For many of those devices, USB has become
the standard connection method.
The USB 1.0 specification was introduced in 1994. USB was created by the core group of companies
that consisted of Intel, Compaq, Microsoft, Digital, IBM, and Northern Telecom. The USB 2.0
specification was released in April 2000 and was standardized by the USB-IF at the end of 2001.
Hewlett-Packard (HP), Intel, Lucent, Microsoft, NEC, and Philips jointly led the initiative to develop
a higher data transfer rate, 480 Mbit/s than the 1.0 specification of 12 Mbit/s. The USB 3.0
specification was released on November 17, 2008 by the USB 3.0 Promoter Group. It has a transfer
rate of up to 10 times faster than the USB 2.0 version and has been dubbed the Super-Speed USB.
Figure: USB Device
IEEE 1394 Interface (Fire Wire Port)

The IEEE 1394 interface is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communication and
isochronous real-time data transfer, frequently used by personal computers as well as in digital
audio, digital video and aeronautics applications. It replaced parallel SCSI in many applications,
because of lower implementation cost and a simplified, more adaptable cabling system.
Figure: Fire Wire Socket, Fire Wire Card and Fire Wire Cable
SCSI port
The SCSI pronounced "scuzzy" (and short for Small Computer System Interface), an SCSI port provides
an interface for transferring data at high speeds for up to eight SCSI-compatible devices. These
devices include external hard disk drives, magnetic-tape backup units, and CD-ROM drives.
Figure: SCSI Port and SCSI Cable
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Slot

Conventional PCI (often shortened to PCI) is a computer bus for attaching hardware devices in a
computer. These devices can take either the form of an integrated circuit fitted onto the motherboard
itself, called a planar device in the PCI specification or an expansion card that fits into a socket. PCI
slot is in PC to connect devices like network cards, sound cards, internal modems.
Figure: PCI Slots
HDMI
HDMI refers to High Definition Multimedia Interface. It is a connector and cable capable of
transmitting high-quality and high-bandwidth streams of audio and video between devices. The
HDMI technology is used with devices such as an HDTV, Projector, Game consoles, Camera, DVD
player, or Blu-ray player.
The length of HDMI cables varies significantly. They can run from one foot up to 50 feet, though it's
not recommended that users buy more than a 25 foot cable as it may result in signal degradation or
loss.
HDMI Connectors are of following types:
1. HDMI Connector Type-A: The plug (male) connector outside dimensions is 13.9 mm × 4.45
mm, and the receptacle (female) connector inside dimensions is 14 mm × 4.55 mm. There are 19
pins, with bandwidth to support all SDTV, EDTV and HDTV modes. It is electrically
compatible with single-link DVI-D.
2. HDMI Connector Type-C: This Mini connector is smaller than the type– A plug, measuring
10.42 mm × 2.42 mm but has the same 19-pin configuration. It is intended for portable devices.
The differences are that all positive signals of the differential pairs are swapped with their
corresponding shield, the DDC/CEC Ground is assigned to pin 13 instead of pin 17, the CEC is
assigned to pin 14 instead of pin 13, and the reserved pin is 17 instead of pin 14.The type C Mini
connector can be connected to a type A connector using a type A-to-type C cable.
Expansion Slot
An expansion slot is a connection or port inside a computer on the motherboard, alternatively
known as a bus slot or expansion port. It provides an installation point for a hardware expansion
card to be connected. For example, if we want to install a new video card in the computer, we
purchase: a video expansion card and install that card into the compatible expansion slot.
The common expansion slots used at present are AGP, PCI and PCI express. The devices that can be
connected to the expansion slot include the devices used for: sound, graphics, network connection,
TV and radio tuning, SSD, security devices, RAM and ROM.
 Points to Remember
 A computer can be defined as a programmable digital automatic machine, which takes input from the
user, processes it, and gives the output (information) in the desired form to the user and stores it if
necessary in high speed.
 The characteristics or features of the computer are: high processing speed, accuracy, word length,
automatic, diligence, reliability, versatility, and large storage capacity.
 Evolution of the computer is a study of the development of the computer. It is the study of the gradual
improvement of accuracy, speed and efficiency of computers through generations.
 Some of the well-known contribution persons in the history of computers are: John Napier, William
Oughtred, Pascal, Leibniz, Jacquard, Charles Babbage, Lady Ada, George Boole, Herman Hollerith,
and John Von Neumann.
 In 1833 AD, Charles Babbage constructed an Analytical Engine. The idea of the Analytical Engine was
considered the most significant step of today’s computer. That's why he was considered as the "Father
of modern day's computer."
 John Von Neumann gave the idea of a stored-program in the computer. So, he is called the “Father of
Stored program.”
 Some of other well-known earlier computers are MARK-I(1937-44), ABC(1939-42), Colossus(1941-44),
ENIAC(1943-46), EDVAC(1946-52), EDSAC(1947-49), Manchester Mark-1(1948), UNIVAC-1 (1951),
IBM-701(1952) and IBM-650(1953).
 Generations of computers can be defined as the development of the computer on average period of
time in which old computer technology is replaced by newer one.
 Different generation of computers are: first, second, third, fourth and the fifth generation. The
computer of these generation: vacuum tube, transistor, IC (Integrated Circuit), microprocessor
respectively as the main technology. Fifth generation are supposed to use bio-chip and will be based
on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
 Classification of computer on the basis of speed/size: Super Computer, Mainframe Computer, Mini
Computer, and Micro Computer.
 Super computer is the fastest in terms of processing speed.
 Mainframe computer is the largest computer on the basis of size.
 Minicomputer is smaller in size than mainframe.
 Microcomputer is the smallest computer on the basis of size.
 The microcomputer in the non-portable category are: Personal Computer (PC) and Workstation
Computer (WC).The microcomputer in the portable category are: Laptop, Notebook, Tablet PC, Palm
top, and PDA (Personal Digital Assistant).
 Classification of computer on the basis of working principle: Analog Computer, Digital Computer and
Hybrid Computer.
 Analog computer works with natural or physical values or continuous data.
 Digital computer work with digits or discrete data.
 Hybrid computer is the special purpose computer that combines the best features of analog and digital
computers.
 Mobile computing is a term used to describe the ability to use technology while moving.
 Computer architecture is defined as the design, arrangement, construction or organization of the
different parts of a computer system.
 A computer system consists of four major functional components such as input unit, storage (main
memory/auxiliary storage) unit, CPU, and output unit.
 The input unit provides an interface between the user and machine, for inputting data and instruction
into the computer memory.Example of input devices: keyboard, Mouse, scanner, microphone, Light
Pen, and Joystick.
 The memory unit is responsible for storing data and instructions either for a short or longer period of
time. There are two types of memory devices: Primary memory (main memory) and Secondary storage
device (auxiliary memory).
 Primary Memory is the main memory used for storing data and instructions during processing.
Example: RAM, ROM, Cache Memory.
 Secondary Memory/Storage is the additional back-up memory used for storing huge amounts of data
for future use. Example: Hard disk, DVD, CD, Pen drive.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) is like the brain of a computer. Its primary function is to organize and
execute the instruction.
 ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the speed of those operations.
 CU controls the entire operation of the computer. It controls and coordinates the flow and
manipulation of data and information. Hence, it acts as the nerve system of the computer system.
 Registers are used to hold data and information on a temporary basis. A CPU contains multiple
registers to process data during operation.
 The output unit provides the result after processing the data to the users. It converts the output into a
user understandable format before providing it to the users.
 The output generated by the computer is of two types or forms: Softcopy output, and Hardcopy
output. Softcopy output is generated by the monitor, speaker and projector. Hardcopy output is
generated by the printer and plotter.
 A microprocessor is a programmable, electronic component, fabricated on a single IC chip, capable of
performing Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) operations and communicating with the other
components. It is regarded as brain of the computer.
 Bus is a collection of wires, chips and slots inside the computer through which data, control signal and
memory address is transmitted from one part of the computer to another, in and out from peripheral
devices. There are three types of bus: Data Bus, Address Bus and Control Bus.
 The control bus carries the control signal. The address bus carries a memory address within the device.
The data Bus transfers data from one component to another
 RAM is used to store data and instruction and running applications. The types of RAM are: SRAM and
DRAM.
 ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is a type of storage medium that permanently stores program
required to run the computer and other electronic devices. It is non-volatile memory.
 There are three types of ROM: PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory) and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory).
 Cache memory is a high speed memory present in between RAM and CPU. It is used for storing data
and instructions which are frequently required by CPU for processing.
 Secondary memory stores operating system, data, and application programs permanently. The hard
disk, tape drive, CD, DVD is secondary storage devices.
 From the technological point of view, memory can be classified as: Semiconductor memory, Magnetic
memory, Optical memory.
 Flash memory is the semiconductor memory. It is used as the main storage device of the small
computing devices as well as for transferring data from one computer to another.
 A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of secondary storage devices used in computers. It uses an
integrated circuit to store data persistently, typically using flash memory.
 The monitor is the display screen that is used to display the text and graphics, allowing users to view
the result of the processing.
 Classification of Monitor on the Basis of their Display Technique: CRT Monitor, Flat Panel Monitor
(LCD, LED, Gas-Plasma Display).
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor is a large bulky sized monitor. It has larger power requirement and
larger radiation.
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor is one of the common flat-panel monitor. It is lighter in weight,
not bulky but expensive compared to CRT monitors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor contains an array of light emitting diodes as a video display.
These diodes are turned on or off to display the output.
 Voice Output Device (Sound Output Device) produces digitized sounds ranging from the beep, chirp
to music. All these sounds are nonverbal.
 The printer is a peripheral device used to print text, picture, figure and image. It is used to produce
hardcopy output i.e. in the permanent readable form. There are two types of printers: Impact printer
and Non-impact printer.
 An impact printer forms character or image by striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel
against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper.
 Non-impact printer is faster and quieter than the impact printer. It can print character and image
without making direct physical contact between printing mechanism and paper.
 Plotter is a specialized output device designed to produce high-quality graphics in a variety of colors.
Plotter is especially useful for creating maps and architectural drawings.
 Hardware Interfaces or port is a socket on the outside of the system unit that is used to: connect the
external peripheral devices with the computer, transfer data to and from the computer and provide
electrical power supply to those connected devices which has low power requirement.
 HDMI refers to High Definition Multimedia Interface. This connector or cable is capable of
transmitting high-quality and high-bandwidth streams of audio and video between devices. There are
of two types: HDMI Connector Type-A and HDMI Connector Type-C.
 Exercises
Short Answer Questions

1. Why the computer is known as versatile and diligent device? Explain.
2. What are the application areas of the computer? Explain in brief.
3. Why is Charles Babbage known as ‘Father of the Computer’?
4. Describe at least five ways in which information technology can help students studying subjects
other than computing.
5. Why is John Von Neumann a remarkable name in the history of the computer?
6. Write brief note on the achievement of the following computer scientists:
a. Howard Aiken
b. Herman Hollerith
c. Lady Ada
7. Explain the evolution of the computer describing the technologies used in different generations.
8. What do you mean by generation of computers? Explain the characteristics of third generation of
computers.
9. Compare and contrast between first and second generations of computers.
10. Differentiate between second and third generation of computers.
11. Describe the major characteristics of fourth generation of computers.
12. Explain the technologies used in different generations of computers.
13. Compare the distinctions between third and fourth generations of computers.
14. Pentium I computers are fourth generation computers. Why?
15. What are the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes?
16. Convert the following:
a. 45 GB = (?) MB b. 230 MB = (?) bytes
c. 12.5 GHz = (?) Hz d. 2400 MHz = (?) EHz
17. Write short notes on:
a. Charles Babbage b. AI
c. EDVAC d. Abacus
e. Evolution of the computer
18. Compare and contrast Analogue and Digital computers with appropriate examples.
19. Briefly define the hybrid computer with its application areas.
20. What are super computers? Explain their applications in real life situation.
21. Why is a supercomputer not easily available like other computers?
22. Describe the major features of the super computer.
23. Describe the Mainframe computer in detail.
24. What are the advantages and limitations of mainframes over the minicomputer?
25. Differentiate between Mini and Mainframe computer.
26. What is mobile computing? Explain.
27. List out the major features of mobile computing.
28. Explain the advantages of mobile computing.
29. Explain the importance of mobile computing.
a. Microcomputer b. Super Computer
c. Analog computer d. IBM PC and IBM Compatibles
e. Digital Computers f. Workstation
g. Mobile computing
31. Distinguish among the terms, ‘hardware’, ‘software’ and ‘firmware’.
32. Explain the functions of the CPU.
33. Explain the work done by control unit and the ALU of the computer.
34. What is memory? Differentiate between primary and secondary memory.

35. What is the importance of primary and secondary memory in a computer system?
36. What is memory? Explain main memory and secondary memory.
37. What do you mean by ‘Volatility’? Explain RAM and ROM with the concept and term.
38. Differentiate between RAM and ROM.
39. Differentiate between Static RAM and Dynamic RAM. Write full form of PROM, EPROM and
EEPROM.
40. What do you understand by storage media? Why is CD-ROM more reliable than the floppy disk?
41. What is a cache memory? Why is it useful in computer system?
42. What do you mean by data sequencing? Differentiate between random access and sequential access.
43. Explain briefly the functions of input unit and control unit of a computer.
44. What is the role of input and output devices in a computer system? Name some of the input and
output devices used with computers and explain two of them.
45. Write short notes on touch pads and light pens.
46. What is the printer? Differentiate between softcopy and hardcopy output.
47. Differentiate between Impact printer and Non-impact printer.
48. What is an output? Distinguish between CRT monitor and LCD monitor.
49. What is a BUS in computer architecture?
50. Describe the differences between serial and parallel interfaces.
51. What do you mean by microprocessor? Write the name of some popular microprocessors.
52. Describe the Impact Printers with the examples.
53. Describe Non-Impact Printers with the example.
a. Mouse b. Keyboard c. MICR
d. Joystick e. Scanner f. Light pen
g. VDU h. OCR i. Touch Screen
j. Plotter l. Cache Memory m. LCD Monitor
n. Laser printer o. USB port p PCI slot
q. HDMI
Long Answer Questions
1. Define computer system? Explain the characteristics of a computer?
2. What are the application areas of the computer? Explain in detail. Discuss about how the
development of the PCs (Personal Computers) has extended the use of the computer at present days.
3. Explain the different generation of computers.
4. What do you mean by generation of computer? Explain the technology used in different generation
of computers.
5. What are the different types of computer on the basis of size/speed and working principle? Explain
them in brief.
6. Explain the different microcomputers which are portable in nature.
7. What do you mean by computer architecture? Describe each functional component of computer
architecture with the typical diagram.
8. Discuss the term computer architecture. Draw block diagram and explain the main components of a
computer system.
9. Define the term computer peripheral. Discuss about different types of printers with their merits and
demerits.
10. What are the different types of memories used in a computer system? Explain them in brief.
11. Explain the different softcopy output devices.
12. What is the CPU? Explain the major units of the CPU.

UNIT
Number System and

Conservation Boolean Logic
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
 know the concept of number system
 know the importance of binary number system in computer system
 know the different types of number system ( binary, octal, decimal, hexadecimal)
 know the concept of conversion of different types of number system
 perform binary addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
 Know one’s and two’s complement of binary number and subtraction using one’s and two’s complement
number.
 Know the concept of logic function and Boolean algebra
 Know the concept of Boolean values, truth table, Boolean expression, and Boolean function
 Know the differences between Ordinary algebra and Boolean algebra
 Know the logic gates
 Know the definition, truth table and logic symbol of OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR
 Know the Laws of Boolean algebra – Boolean identities, Complement Laws, Identity, Commutative,
Associative and Distributive
 Know the concept of De Morgan’s Theorem (first theorem and second theorem)
 Know the concept of Venn diagram and Venn diagrams of different logic gates
2.1 Number System and Conversion

A number system is a set of values used to represent different quantities and other special characters. The
number system is a system of number that deals with the numbers and their representation (base and exponent
or radix) in different systems.
Number systems have been around for thousands of years. We can see the diversity of several
systems in our present day of civilization. The common system is the existing system based on
number ten i.e. decimal number system also called a denary number system. Apart from this number
system, there are in use the Arabic system, binary (base 2), ternary (base 3), quaternary (base 4),
quinary (base 5), octal (base 8), due-decimal (base 12), hexadecimal (base 16) and others
All these number systems can be used to count, measure or label of the mathematical notation or
object, such as number of students in a class, number of viewers watching a certain TV program.
The number system can be categorized into two board categories:
1. Non-Positional Number Systems
2. Positional Number Systems
1. Non-Positional Number Systems

In ancient people used to count on their ten fingers. When these fingers became insufficient for
counting, then stones, pebbles, or sticks were used to signify the values. This method of counting is
known as the Non-Positional Number Systems. It was very difficult to perform an arithmetic operation,
and it had no symbol for zero. The most common non-positional number system is the Roman
Number System. In this number system, only a few characters are used to represent the numbers.
The characters that are used in this number system are I, V, X, L (for fifty), C (for hundred), D (for
thousand). Furthermore, it is very difficult to perform the arithmetic operation, logical operation as
well as positional techniques.
2. Positional Number Systems

In positional number systems, the value of each digit in a number is defined not only by the symbol
but also by the position of symbol. Positional number systems have a base or radix. The first
positional number system was invented by the Babylonians. They used a base 60 system. The
positional number system, which is being used nowadays, is known as the decimal number system.
This system is base 10 system that contains 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). Apart from the decimal
number system, there are some other positional number system such as binary number system (0,1),
ternary number system (0,1,2), quaternary number system (0,1,2,3), quaternary number system
(0,1,2,3,4), quinary (0,1,2,3,4,5), octal number system (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7), due-decimal (12), hexadecimal
(16) etc.
Finally, the digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in binary numbers: 0 and 1.
It includes audio, graphics, video, text, and number. Actually, to a computer, everything is a number.
Numbers are numbers, letters are numbers, sound and pictures are also numbers. Even the computer’s
own instructions are numbers. The computer represents alphabets in ASCII code (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange) for e.g. capital ‘H’ is represented by binary 1001000 and small ‘h’ by
binary 1101000.
Base of a Number System

The base or radix of a number system is defined as the number of different digits used to represent the number
system. For e.g. decimal number system uses ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) so, its base is 10. The base of
the number system is indicated by a subscript and followed by the value of the number.
For example:
1. (1101)2 is of base 2 number system.
4. (190F)16 is of base 16 number system.
2.1.1 Types of Number System

There are different types of number systems. We will be taught only four types of number systems.
Depending upon the base of the number, number systems are categorized into the following types:
1. Decimal or Denary Number System
2. Binary Number System
3. Octal Number System
Chapter 2 NUMBER SYSTEM AND CONSERV ATION BOOLE AN LOGIC 101
4. Hexadecimal Number System
1. Decimal or Denary Number System

A decimal number system is believed to be founded by a Hindu Philosopher. It is the most popular
numbering system used in our daily life. It can contain 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). So, it is
also called the base-10 number system. It is subscripted by 10 or D. For example, (123)10or (123)D.
2. Binary Number System

It is the number system of the computer i.e. the mother language of the computer. It can consist of 2
digits (0 and 1). So, it is also called the base-2 number system. It is subscripted by 2 or B. For example
(101)2 or (101)B.
3. Octal Number System

Computer encounters difficulties when it has to deal with large binary numbers so other number
systems such as octal, hexadecimal are introduced for making numbers shorter and convenient to
use. Octal number system can consist of 8 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). It is also called the base-8
number system. It is subscripted by 8 or O. For example (126)8 or (126)0.
Table: Conversion table of octal to decimal and binary
Octal Decimal Binary
0 0 000
1 1 001
2 2 010
3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111
4. Hexadecimal Number System

It can consist of 16 symbols i.e. 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and 6 letters (A, B, C, D, E, and F),
where the value of letters A to F equivalent to 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively. It is also called
the base-16 number system. It is subscripted by 16 or H. For example (A26)16 or (A26)H.
Table: Conversion Table of Hexadecimal to Decimal and Binary
Hexadecimal Decimal Binary
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
Importance of Binary System in Digital Computers Instead of Decimal System

There are various reasons to use a binary system in computers instead of the decimal system, they
are:
1. The binary system is ideal for coding purposes for the computer because of the two state nature
of components, i.e. transistor conducting or non-conducting, an electrical pulse present or not
present, magnetic material magnetized in one direction or the other.
2. It is difficult to maintain a device capable of recognizing ten characters in a sufficiently reliable
state of operation, on the other hand, it is very easy to have a highly reliable device which is
either ‘ON’ representing 1 or ‘OFF’ representing ‘0’ .
3. Binary is much simpler that has just 0 and 1.
4. Operations are performed most rapidly.
5. High reliability of operation can be ensured in binary. Binary has 50%, octal has 12.5%, decimal
has 10% and hexadecimal has only 6.25% respectively.
But the only disadvantage is that of need many more digits and columns to express given numbers
in binary.
Conversion of Number System

1. Decimal Number System to Binary Number System
a. Divide the given number by 2. 2 43 →1Remainder
b. Write the quotient under the number. This now becomes the new 2 21 →1
number 2 10 →0
2 5 →1
c. Write the remainder on right side.
2 2 →0
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until 0 is produced as the new number. 2 1 →1
e. The 1’s and 0’s written as the remainder in reverse order 0
(i.e. Bottom to top) is the required binary number.
Example: (43)10 = (101011)2
Fractional Decimal to Binary

a. Multiply the fractional part by 2. The result contains an integer part and fractional part.
b. Write the integer number and the fractional number in their respective column.
c. Now, the fractional part becomes a new fraction.
d. Repeat step (a) to (c) until the fractional part becomes 0 or the desired place after the decimal is
obtained.
e. The 1’s or 0’s written in integer part from top to bottom is the required fractional binary
number.
Example: (0.625)10 = (?)2
Fractional Decimal Operation Product Fractional Part Integer Part
0.625 Multiply by 2 1.250 0.250 1
0.250 Multiply by 2 0.500 0.500 0
0.500 Multiply by 2 1.000 0.000 1
Hence, (0.625)10 = (0.101)2
2. Decimal Number System to Octal Number System

Remainder
a. Divide the given number by 8. 8 123 →3
8 15 →7
b. Write the quotient under the number. Now, it becomes a new number.
8 1 →1
c. Write the remainder on right side. 0
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until 0 is produced as the new number.
e. The numbers written as the remainder in reverse order (i.e. Bottom to top) is the required octal
number.
Example: (123)10 = (173)8
Fractional Decimal to Octal

b. Write the integer number and the fractional number in their respective columns.
c. Now, the fractional part becomes a new fraction.
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until the fractional part becomes 0 or the desired place after decimal is
obtained.
e. The numbers in the integer part from top to bottom is the required fractional octal number.
Example: (0.625)10 = (?)8
0.625 Multiply by 8 5.000 0.000 5
Hence, (0.625)10 = (0.5)8
3. Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

a. Divide the given number by 16. Remainder
b. Write the quotient under the number. Now it becomes a new number. 16 423 →7
16 26 →A
c. Write the remainder on right side.
16 1 →1
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until 0 is produced as the new number. 0
e. The numbers written as the remainder in reverse order (i.e. Bottom to top) are the required
hexadecimal number.
Example: (423)10 = (1A7)16
[Note: If the remainder is 10, then its equivalent value in hexadecimal number system A is used.
Similarly B for 11, C for 12, D for 13, E for 14 and F for 15%
Fractional Decimal to Hexadecimal

b. Write the integer number and the fractional number in their respective columns.
c. The fractional part becomes a new fraction.
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until the fractional part becomes 0 or the desired place after the decimal is
obtained.
e. The numbers in the integer part from top to bottom are the required fractional hexadecimal
number.
Example: (0.625)10 = (?)16

0.625 Multiply by 16 10.000 0.000 10 →A
Hence, (0.625)10 = (0.A)16
4. Binary Number System to Decimal Number System

a. Write the binary digits as the power of 2 increasing from right to left starting from 0.
b. Convert each power of two into its decimal equivalent term.
c. Add these terms to give the decimal number.
3 2 1 0
Example: (1011)2 = 1×2 +0×2 +1×2 +1×2
= 8+0+2+1
= 11
Hence, (1011)2 = (11)10
Fractional Binary to Decimal

a. Write the binary numbers as the negative powers of 2 from left to right starting from the point
as -1, -2 and so on.
b. Convert each power of two into its decimal equivalent.
c. Add all decimal equivalent numbers.
Example: (0.1101)2 = (?)10
-1 -2 -3 -4
= 1×2 +1×2 +0×2 +1×2
= 0.5+0.25+0+0.625
= 0.8125
Hence, (0.1101)2 = (0.8125)10
5. Octal Number System to Decimal Number System
a. Write the octal digits as the power of 8 increasing from right to left starting from 0.
b. Convert each power of 8 into its decimal equivalent term.
2 1 0
Example: (213)8 = 2×8 +1×8 +3×8
= 128 + 8 + 3
= 139
Hence, (213)8 = (139)10

Fractional Octal to Decimal
a. Write the octal numbers as the negative powers of 8 from left to right starting from point as -1, -
2 and so on.
b. Convert each power of 8 into its decimal equivalent.
Example: (127.54)8 = (?)10
2 1 0 -1 -2
= 1×8 +2×8 +7×8 +5×8 +4×8
= 64+16+7+0.625+0.0625
= 87.6875
Hence, (127.54)8 = (87.6875)10
6. Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System

a. Write the hexadecimal digits as the power of 16 increasing from right to left starting from 0.
b. Convert each power of 16 into its decimal equivalent term.
2 1 0
Example: (1A8)16 = 1×16 +10×16 +8×16
= 256+160+8
= 424
Hence, (1A8)16= (424)10
Fractional Hexadecimal to Decimal

a. Write the hexadecimal numbers as the negative powers of 16 from left to right starting from
point as -1, -2 and so on.
b. Convert each power of 16 into its decimal equivalent.
Example: (2B.C4)16 = (?)10
1 0 -1 -2
= 2×16 +11×16 +12×16 +4×16
= 32+11+0.75+0.015625
= 43.765625
Hence, (2B.C4)16 = (43.765625)10
7. Binary Number System to Octal Number System

Method-I:
a. Separate the given binary number into a group of three bits (from right to left, add 0 in left most
side if required).
b. Replace each group by its decimal equivalent.
Example: (10111)2 = (?)8
Now grouping into a group of 3 bits i.e. 010 and 111
Now convert these sets into its octal equivalent.
2 1 0 2 1 0
(010)2 = 0×2 +1×2 +0×2 (111)2 = 1×2 +1×2 +1×2
= 0+2+0 = 4+2+1
= 2 =7
or use the conversion table
Binary 010 111
Octal 2 7
Replace each group by its octal equivalent.

Hence, (10111)2= (27)8
Method-II:
a. Convert given a binary number to decimal.
b. Again convert this decimal number to octal number.
8. Octal Number System to Binary Number System

Method-I:
The reverse processes of binary to octal conversion:
a. Take each digit individually, assuming it to be a decimal digit.
b. Convert it into binary and place it in the combination of 3 bit each.
Example: (27)8 = (?)2
Converting each digit individually to its’ binary equivalent.
2 = 010 7 = 111
Octal 2 7
Binary 010 111
Placing it in its order (27)8 = (010111)2

Method-II:
a. Convert the octal number to the decimal equivalent.
b. Again convert the obtained decimal into binary.
9. Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

Method-I:
a. Separate the given number into a group of 4 bits (from right to left, add 0 in the left most side if
required).
b. Replace each group by its hexadecimal equivalent.
Example: (11011110111)2 = (?)16
Grouping binary digits in groups of 4 bits i.e. 0110 1111 and 0111
Now converting each group to its decimal equivalent and then to its hexadecimal equivalent
(0110)2 = (6)10 = (6)16
(1111)2 = (15)10 = (F)16
(0111)2 = (7)10 = (7)16
Binary 0110 1111 0111

Hexadecimal 6 F 7
Replacing each group by its hexadecimal equivalent (6F7)16

Hence, (11011110111)2 = (6F7)16
Method-II:
a. Convert binary to decimal.
b. Then, convert decimal to hexadecimal.
10. Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System

Method-I:
a. The reverse process of binary to hexadecimal conversion.
b. Take each digit individually.
c. Convert it into binary and place it in the combination of 4 bit each.
Example: (6F7)16 = (?)2
Converting each digit individually to its’ binary equivalent.
6 = 0110 F = 1111 7 = 0111
Hexadecimal 6 F 7
Binary 0110 1111 0111
Placing it in its order (6F7)16 = (011011110111)2

Method-II:
a. Convert a hexadecimal number to the decimal equivalent.
b. Again convert the obtained decimal into binary.
11. Octal number system to Hexadecimal number system

Method I: Convert the octal to decimal than convert decimal to hexadecimal or
Method II: Convert the octal to binary than convert binary to hexadecimal.
Example: (127)8= (001 010 111)2= (57)16
12. Hexadecimal number system to Octal number system

Method I: Convert hexadecimal to decimal then to octal.
Method II: Convert hexadecimal to binary then to octal
Example: (57)16 = (0101 0111)2= (127)8
2.1.2 Binary Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

1. Binary Addition
Rule for binary addition
0+0= 0
1+0= 1
0+1= 1
1+1= 10 (0 with carry over 1)
2. Binary Subtraction
Rule for binary subtraction Example: Binary addition
1-1 = 0 101101 minuend
−10111 subtrahend
1-0 = 1 10110 difference
0-1 = 1 (with borrowing 1)
0-0 = 0
Example: Binary multiplication
3. Binary Multiplication 1011 multiplicand
Rule for binary multiplication × 1011 multiplier
1011
1×1= 1
1011×
1×0= 0 0000××
+ 1011×××
0×1= 0
1111001 product
0×0= 0
4. Binary Division
Example: Binary Division
Rule for binary division Divide 101011 by 110
1÷1= 1 110) 101011 (111 quotient
-110
1÷0= not defined 1001
0÷1= 0 -110
111
0÷0= not defined
−110
1 remainder
2.1.3 One’s and Two’s Complement Methods of Binary Subtraction

In the computer system, subtraction is not performed directly as arithmetic subtraction. It is
performed by the technique called complement. It is the process of repeated addition.
There are two types of complements: r's complement and (r−1)'s complement.
Where r is the base of a number system.
In the binary number system, there are two types of complement: 1’s complement and 2’s
complement.
Similarly, the decimal number system has 9's complement and 10’s complement.
1’s Complement and 2’s complement

1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by subtracting each bit by 1. We can get 1’s
complement by simply replacing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1.
Example: 1’s complement of 1011= 0100
The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding binary 1 to the 1’s complement of the
number.
Example: 2’s complement of 1101101 = ?

1’s complement = 0010010
2’s complement = 0010010
+1
0010011
Hence, 2’s complement of 1101101 = 0010011
Subtraction of binary numbers using 1’s complement:
Steps
a. Make the both numbers having the same number of bits.
b. Determine the 1’s complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend).
c. Add the 1’s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
d. If there exists’ any additional bit (carry) in the result after addition, remove and add it to the
result else (i.e. if there exits’ no carry) determine the 1’s complement of the result and prefix by
a negative sign to get the final result.
Example: Subtract 1110000 from 1100000
1’s complement of 1110000 = 0001111
Adding it with minuend (i.e. 1100000) = 0001111
+1100000
1101111
Since, there exists’ no any additional bits (carry),
1’s complement of 1101111 = 0010000
Hence, the difference will be -0010000.
Example: 111000 −110000
1’s complement of 110000 = 001111
Adding it with 111000 = 001111
+111000
1000111
Since, there exists’ one additional bit,
Difference = 000111
+1
001000
Hence, difference will be 001000.
Subtraction using 2’s complement:
Steps:
a. Make the both numbers having same number of bits.
b. Determine the 2’s complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend).
c. Add the 2’s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
d. If there exists’ any additional bit (carry) in the result after addition, neglect the carry and the
remaining bits is the required answer else (i.e. if there exits’ no any carry) determine the 2’s
complement of the result and prefix by negative sign to get final result.
Example: Subtract 1110000 from 1100000
2’s complement of 1110000 = 0001111
+ 1
0010000
Adding it with minuend (i.e. 1100000) = 0010000
+1100000
1110000
Since, there exists’ no any additional bits (carry),
2’s complement of 1110000 = 0001111
+1
0010000
Hence, the difference will be -0010000.
Example: 111000-110000
2’s complement of 110000 = 001111
+1
010000
Adding it with 111000 = 010000
+111000
1001000
Since, there exists’ one additional bit,
Difference = 001000 (Neglect carry i.e. 1)
Hence, difference will be 001000.
MSB (Most Significant Bit)

The left most bit of a number is called MSB.
Example: 1010
MSB
LSB (Least Significant Bit)

The right most bit of a number is called LSB.
Example: 1010
LSB
Bit: Single binary number either 0 or 1.

Nibble: Combination of 4 binary bits e.g. 1001
Byte: Combination of 8 binary bits e.g. 1001 0111
2.2 Logic Function and Boolean Algebra

2.2.1 Introduction to Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables and logical
operations. This makes it possible to transform logical statements into mathematical symbols and to calculate
the truth or falsity of related statements by using rules. It is one of the most basic methods to analyze and
design logic circuits. It was introduced by an English mathematician George Boole. In Boolean
algebra, the variables are permitted to have two values true and false usually written as 1 and 0
respectively.
In the field of computer science, binary logic is called Digital logic. Digital logic is the heart of the
operation of all modern digital computers. Today, it is the backbone of the design and analysis of
computer and other digital circuits. Modern computers understand one of the following two values:
 Logic 1 (i.e. on/yes/true/high)
 Logic 0 (i.e. off/no/false/low)
2.2.2 Introduction to Boolean values, truth table, Boolean expression,

and Boolean function.
Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra also referred to as the algebra of logic. It is a two-valued system of algebra that
represents logical relationships and operations. The two values used are 1 (true) or 0 (false).
Boolean Variable
A computer is a binary digital system. Such a system operates on an electronic signal, which has only
two possible states: High or 1 and Low or 0. A signal that does not change its state with time is
known as constant signal. The value of constant signal always remains the same: either 1 or 0
whereas, a variable signal changes its state with time. The value of the variable signal may be 1 at
some point of time and 0 on another. Thus the variables that have only two values 1 and 0 are called
Boolean variables or logic variables. These variables are denoted by A, B, X, Y...
Logic Function (Boolean Function)

A Logic function is an expression formed by binary variables, binary operators OR, AND, unary
operator NOT, parenthesis, and equal sign. For a given value of the variables, the function can be
either 0 or 1.
Example: Consider the Boolean function in an algebraic expression
F = X.Y.Z’+X.Y
X, Y, Z are Boolean variables. The right hand side of the above equation is known as expression.
Each occurrence of a variable or its complement in an expression is called literal. In the above
expression, there are three variables (X, Y and Z) and five literals (X, Y, Z’, X, and Y).
Logical circuit
The high and low level voltage electrical signals are produced by using transistors or ICs or LSIs
(known as logical elements). The circuit composed of logical elements for a specific operation is
called logical circuit.
Differences between Ordinary algebra and Boolean algebra:

1. Boolean algebra does not have operations equivalent to division and subtraction.
2. Ordinary algebra deals with real numbers, which contains an infinite number of elements
(1, 2, 3…). But Boolean algebra has only a finite set of elements. That is, it deals with only two
elements 0 and 1.
3. In Boolean algebra, there is no coefficients or exponents involved, i.e. A+A= A and A.A= A
4. The distributive law [(A +B) . (A+C)= A + (B.C)] does not hold on ordinary algebra.
5. Unlike in ordinary algebra, there are several graphical methods of representing Boolean
expression.
Truth Table
A table that represents the input-output relationship of the binary variables for each logical gate is
called a truth table. It shows the relationship between all inputs and output in tabular form. Thus a
truth table is a table representing the results of the logical operations on all possible combinations of logical
values. In another words, we can say that a truth table is a useful tool for describing the terminal
behavior of a logic network. The number of rows in a truth table is equal to 2n (where n= no. of
variables). For example, for 3 input variables, no. of rows will be 23= 8.
Example:
Inputs Output
A B C F= A+B+C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
2.2.3 Logic Gates

A logic gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal. The logic gate is used for binary operation and is the basic component of a digital computer. It
is embodied in the Integrated Circuit (IC). Each gate has a specific function and graphical symbol.
The function of gate is expressed by means of an algebraic expression.
In a digital computer, there are three basic gates, which are:
1. AND gate
2. OR gate
3. NOT gate
Apart from the basic gates, there are other gates derived from basic gates, which are:
4. NAND gate
5. NOR gate
6. Exclusive OR (XOR) gate
7. Exclusive NOR (XNOR) gate
1. AND Gate
AND gate is an electronic circuit, which produces high (1) output when all inputs are high.
Otherwise, the output will be low (0). The output is equal to the product of the logic inputs. It can
have two or more inputs and produces a single output.
The graphical symbol, logic function, and truth table of AND gate are shown below.
Logic symbol
A F = A⋅ B
B
Logic Function (Algebraic expression):

F= A.B
Where ‘.’ stands for AND operation, A and B are inputs and F is output.
Truth table:
Inputs Output Inputs Output
A B F = A⋅B A B F = A⋅B
0 0 0 OR False False False
0 1 0 False True False
1 0 0 True False False
1 1 1 True True True
2. OR Gate
OR gate is an electronic circuit, which produces high (1) output when one of the input is high (1). If
all inputs are low (0), then the output will also be low (0). The output is equal to the sum of the logic
inputs. It has two or more inputs and produces a single output.
Logic symbol
A
F=A+B
B
Logic Function:
F= A + B
Where ‘+’ stands for OR operation, A and B are inputs and F is output.
Truth table:
Inputs Output Inputs Output
A B F= A+ B A B F= A+ B
0 0 0 False False False
0 1 1 OR False True True
1 0 1 True False True
1 1 1 True True True
3. NOT Gate
NOT gate is an electronic circuit whose output is the complement of the input. It is also called an
inverter. If we provide high input (1) to this gate, it will produce low output (0) & vice-versa. It has
only one input and output.
Logic symbol:
A F=A'
Logic Function:
F = A’ = Ā Where A is input and F is output
Truth table:
Input Output Input Output
A F = A' A F = A'
0 1 OR False True
1 0 True False
4. NAND Gate
The NAND gate is the combination of AND and NOT gate. This electronic gate produces low (0)
output, when all inputs are high (1), otherwise, the output will be high (1). It is the complement of
AND gate. It has two or more inputs and produces a single output.
Logic symbol:
A F = (A⋅B)'
B
Logic Function:
F = (A.B)'
Where A and B are inputs and F is output.
Truth table:
Inputs Output
A B A.B F = (A⋅B)'
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
5. NOR Gate
NOR gate is the combination of the OR gate and NOT gate. This electronic gate produces high (1)
output when all inputs are low (0) otherwise, the output will be low (0). It is the complement of the
OR gate. It has two or more inputs and produces a single output.
Logic symbol:
A
F = (A+B)'
B
Logic Function:
F= (A + B)' Where A and B are inputs and F is output.
Truth Table:
Inputs Output
A B A+B F = (A + B)'
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
6. Exclusive-OR (X-OR) Gate

The XOR gate produces low output (0) when both the inputs are same otherwise, the output will be
high (1). It can also have two or more inputs which produces single output.
Logic symbol:
A
F =A'⋅ B + A⋅ B'
B
Logic Function:
F = A ⊕ B = A'.B + A.B'
Truth table:
Inputs Output
A B A' B' A'B AB' F = A⋅B'+ A'⋅B
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
7. Exclusive-NOR (X-NOR) Gate

XNOR gate is equivalent to an XOR gate followed by an inverter. This gate produces high (1) output
when all inputs are either low (0) or high (1). It can also have two or more inputs and a single output.
Logic symbol:
A
F = A⋅B + A'⋅B'
B
Logic Function:
F= A B = A.B + A'.B'
Truth table:
Inputs Output
A B A' B' A'B' AB F= A⋅B + A'⋅B'
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1
2.2.4 Laws of Boolean algebra – Boolean identities, Complement

Laws, Identity, Commutative, Associative and Distributive
Laws of Boolean Algebra can be used to reduce and simplify the complex boolean expression so that
it can be implemented by using less number of logic gates.
Some of the Laws of Boolean algebra is:
1 Identity Law A+0=A A.1=A
2 Boundedness Law A+1=1 A.0=0
3 Idempotent Law A+A=A A.A=A
4 Complement Law A+A’=1 A.A’=0
5 Commutative Law A+B=B+A A.B=B.A
6 Distributive Law A+(B.C)=(A+B).(A+C) A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)
7 Absorption Law A+(A.B)=A A.(A+B)=A
8 Associative Law (A+B)+C=A+(B+C) (A.B).C=A.(B.C)
9 De-Morgan’s Law (A+B)’=A’.B’ (A.B)’=A’+B’
10 Involution Law (A’)’=A
2.2.5 Statement and Verification of Laws of Boolean algebra using

truthtable
Commutative Law
The Commutative law of Boolean algebra is expressed by:
 (A + B) = (B + A)  (A.B) = (B.A)
Proof Proof
Graphical symbol: Graphical symbol:
A B A B
A+B = B+A A⋅B = B⋅A
B A B A
Truth Table: Truth Table:

Inputs Output 1 Output 2 Inputs Output 1 Output 2
A B A+B B+A A B A⋅B B⋅A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Conclusion: Comparing the values of A+B and Conclusion: Comparing the values of A⋅B and
B+A from the truth table, both are equal. B⋅A from the truth table, both are equal.
Hence proved. Hence proved.
Associative Law
The Associative law of Boolean algebra is expressed by:
 (A + B) + C = A + (B+C)  (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
Proof: Proof:
Graphical Symbol: Graphical Symbol:
A+B A⋅B
A A A A
A+(B+C) A⋅(B⋅C)
B (A+B) +C = B B (A⋅B) ⋅C = B
C C C C
B+C B⋅ C

A B C A+B (A+B)+C B+C A+(B+C) A B C A⋅B (A⋅B)⋅C B⋅C A⋅(B⋅C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Conclusion: Comparing the values of (A+B)+C Conclusion: Comparing the values of (A⋅B)⋅C
and A+(B+C) from the truth table, both are and A⋅(B⋅C) from the truth table, both are equal,
equal, hence proved. hence proved.
Distributive Law
The Distributive law of Boolean algebra is expressed by:
 A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C  A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C)
Proof: Proof:
A A A
A
B A⋅(B+C) = B B (A+B)⋅(A+C)
A⋅B +A⋅C B A+(B⋅C) = A
C A C
B+C C C

A B C B+C A⋅(B+C) A⋅B A⋅C A⋅B+A⋅C A B C B⋅C A+(B⋅C) A+B A+C (A+B)⋅(A+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Conclusion: Comparing the values of A⋅(B+C) Conclusion: Comparing the values of A+(B⋅C)
and A⋅B+A⋅C from the truth table, they are and (A+B)⋅(A+C) from the truth table, they are
equal, hence proved. equal, hence proved.
Identity Law
The Identity law of Boolean algebra is expressed by:
 A+0= A [∵A = 1A]  A.1= A [∵A = 1A]

Proof: Proof:
A A
A 1 A = A
A = A 1 1
0 A
A

A 0 A+0 A 1 A⋅1
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
Conclusion: Hence, from the truth table the Conclusion: Hence, from the truth table the
output will be same as the input. output will be same as the input.
Complement Law
The Complement law of Boolean algebra is expressed by:
 A+A’= 1  A.A’= 0
Proof: Proof:
A
1 0
A' A'

A A’ A+A’ A A’ A⋅A’
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
Conclusion: Hence, from the truth table the sum Conclusion: Hence, from the truth table the
of an input and its complement will always be product of an input and its complement will
true (1). always be true (0).
Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

1 Identity Law A+0= A A.1= A
2 Boundedness Law A+1= 1 A.0= 0
3 Idempotent Law A+A= A A.A= A
4 Complement Law A+A’= 1 A.A’= 0
5 Commutative Law A+B= B+A A.B= B.A
6 Distributive Law A+(B.C)= (A+B).(A+C) A.(B+C)=
(A.B)+(A.C)
7 Absorption Law A+(A.B)= A A.(A+B)= A
8 Associative Law (A+B)+C= A+(B+C) (A.B).C= A.(B.C)
9 De-Morgan’s Law (A+B)’= A’.B’ (A.B)’= A’+B’
10 Involution Law (A’)’= A
De Morgan’s Theorem
First Theorem
The De Morgan’s first theorem states that “The complement of a sum equals to the product of the
complements”.
i.e. (X+Y)’ = X’.Y’
Proof:
Graphical Symbol:
X X'.Y'
X (X+Y)'
=
Y Y
Truth Table:
Inputs Output 1 Output 2
X Y X+Y (X+Y)’ X’ Y’ X’.Y’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Conclusion:
Comparing the values of (X+Y)’ and X’.Y’ from the truth table, both are equal, hence proved.
Second Theorem
De Morgan’s second theorem states that “The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the
complements”.
i.e. (X.Y)’ = X’ + Y’
Proof:
Graphical Symbol:
X'
X
X (X.Y)' X' + Y'
=
Y Y
Y'
Truth Tables:
Inputs Output 1 Output 2
X Y XY (XY)’ X’ Y’ X’+Y’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Conclusion: Comparing the values of (X.Y)’ and X’+Y’ from the truth table both are equal,
hence proved.
Simplification of Boolean Expression

1. XY’Z’ + XY’Z’W + XZ’
= XY’Z’ (1+W) + XZ’
= XY’Z’.1 + XZ’ (Since, 1+A= 1)
= XY’Z’ + XZ’
= XZ’ (Y’ + 1)
= XZ’.1 (Since, 1+A’= 1)
= XZ’
2. AB’ + A’B’ + A’B + AB
= B’ (A+A’) + B (A’+A)
= B’.1 + B.1 (Since, A+A’= 1)
= B’ + B
=1
3. ABC + AB’C + ABC’ + AB’C’
= AC (B + B’) + AC’ (B + B’)
= AC.1 + AC’.1
= AC + AC’
= A (C + C’)
= A.1 = A
Venn Diagram
Venn diagram is the diagram in which AREAS represent OPERATIONS or PROPOSITIONS or
STATEMENTS. The area within the rectangle represents all the possible propositions and shaded
area represents the proposition under the consideration or operation.
Moreover, the pictorial (visualize) the relationships among the variables of a Boolean expression is
the Venn diagram. It is consists of a rectangle, inside of which are drawn overlapping circles, one for
each variable. Each circle is labeled by a variable and all points inside a circle as belonging to the
named variable and all points outside a circle as not belonging to the variable.
Venn Diagrams of the Logic Gates
A’
A A B
The shared area represents A. i.e. The shaded area represents A∪B or F=A
F= A + B. It is operation of OR gate.
ANDF=A.B NANDF= (AB)'
A B
A B
The shaded area represents A⋅B or A∩B.

The shared area represents (A∩B )’ i.e.
F= (A.B)’
ORF=A+B NORF= (A+B)'
A B A B
−
NOTF=A' F= A ⋅ B
A’
A B
A
XORF=A'B+AB' XNORF=AB+A'B'
A B A B
Verifying using Venn Diagram

(A + B) ⋅(A + C) = A + BC
The Venn diagram of LHS (A + B) ⋅ (A + C) The Venn diagram of RHS A + BC
A A
B B
C C
Comparing the two Venn diagrams, both are same. Hence is it proved that (A + B). (A +
C) = A + BC
 Points to Remember
 A number system is a way of representing numbers by using digits such as 0, 1, 2 ….9, A, B, …. F. It is
used to represent, use and perform calculation of numbers.
 The radix (base) is a term used to describe the number of digits used in a number system.
 Decimal Number System contains 10 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). It is a common number system
used in our daily life for counting and calculations.
 Binary Number System contains 2 digits (0 and 1). It is the mother language of computer system.
 Octal Number System contains 8 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). It is used for character representing
code system (8 bits represent a character).
 Hexadecimal Number System contains 16 digits/symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F.
Here, A is 10, B is 11, and similarly F is 16. It is used for double-character representing code system (16
bits represent two characters).
 Complement of a number system is used for numerical calculations like subtraction, division. Binary
number system uses two complements: 1’s complement and 2’s complement.
 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by subtracting each bit by 1 or we can get 1’s
complement by simply replacing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1. For example: 1’s complement of 1011 is 0100.
 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding binary 1 to the 1’s complement of the
number. For example: 1’s complement of 1001 is 0110+1=0111.
 Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic, which deals with the study of binary variables and logical
operations. It is one of the most basic methods to analyze and design digital logic circuits.
 Binary logic is called Digital logic. Digital logic is the heart of the operation of all modern digital
computers. Today, it is the backbone of the design and analysis of computer and other digital circuits.
 Boolean variables are a two-valued system of algebra that represents logical relationships and
operations. The two values used are 1 (true) or 0 (false). Thus the variables that have only two values 1
and 0 are called Boolean variables or logic variables. These variables are denoted by A, B, X, Y...
 A table that represents the input-output relationship of the binary variables for each logical gate is
called a truth table. It shows the relationship between all inputs and output in tabular form.
 A logic gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal. The logic gate is used for binary operation and is the basic component of a digital computer.
 AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate (inverter) are called the Basic gate.
 NAND gate and NOR gate are called Universal gate because it is alone sufficient to make any Boolean
expression or logic circuit.
 X-OR (Exclusive OR) gate and X-NOR (Exclusive NOR or equivalence) gate are called Exclusive gate.
 Laws of Boolean algebra can be used to reduce and simplify the complex Boolean expression so that it
can be implemented by using less number of logic gates.
 The De Morgan’s first theorem states that “The complement of a sum equals to the product of the
complements”. i.e. (X+Y)’ = X’.Y’
 De Morgan’s second theorem states that “The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the
complements”. i.e. (X.Y)’ = X’ + Y’
 Exercises
Short Answer Questions
Define the base or radix of a number system. Convert (11011.011)2 into a decimal number.
What is the binary number system? Convert (520)10 into base 16.
Convert (110111101)2 binary number into an octal number.
Why is the importance of binary number systems in digital computers?
What is number system? Convert (567)8 octal number into a hexadecimal number.
What is the binary number? Convert (111111)2 binary number into an octal number.
What is the octal number system? Convert (356)10 into base 8.
What is the octal number system? Convert (456)8 octal number into base 2 number system.
Convert 333 denary number into Hexadecimal number and back to base two number system.
What is the octal number system? Convert (BAC)16 hexadecimal into binary number system.
Convert (5634)8 octal number into a binary number.
What is the hexadecimal number system? Convert (111011)2 into base 16.
What is the hexadecimal number system? Convert (B8C)16 Hexadecimal number into base 8 number
system.
Subtract (1100)2 from (1111)2 1’s and 2’s complement method.
Subtract (1010)2 from (1011)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
Subtract (1000)2 from (1111)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
1. Subtract (11111)2 from (11000)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
2. Subtract (111)2 from (1000)2 using 1’s and 2’s complement method.
3. Subtract (10001)2 from (11011)2 using 1's and 2's complement method.
4. What is the number system? Convert (ABCD)16 hexadecimal number into the octal number system.
5. Subtract (11001)2 from (11101)2 using 1's and 2's complement method.
6. What do you mean by 2’s complement of a binary number? Using 2’s complement method subtract
a. (11011010)2 from (110110)2 b. 1011 from 1101
a. Subtract using 1’s complement :
a. 111101-101110 b. 1011101-1101111
7. Convert the following numbers according to the instructions given.
b. (240)10 into Octal number l. (11111.11)B = (?)O
c. (ABC) 16 into Binary number m. (10111101)B = (?)H
d. (456.79)10 = (?)16 n. (223.632)O = (?)D
e. (A5B)16 into decimal number o. 777.57 denary into octal
f. (637)10 into Hexadecimal p. (FACE) 16 into octal number
g. 105.6 decimal into binary q. 7456 octal into hexadecimal
h. (321)10 = (?)2 r. (BBA)16 into binary
i. (AF98.C6)16 = (?)8 s. (BCA)16 into base 8 number system
j. 1101 binary into decimal t. (BEEF)16 into binary
k. (110110.011)2 = (?)10
8. What is Boolean algebra? How is it different from Binary algebra?

9. Define truth table and Boolean postulates.
10. Define Boolean functions. Construct a truth table for AND operation of Boolean algebra.
11. State and prove the De Morgan’s theorem by using the truth table.
12. Construct the truth table of the ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ operations of Boolean algebra.
13. Write a truth table for NAND and NOR operation of Boolean algebra.
14. Define a NOR gate and draw its logic symbol.
15. What are the logical gates? Draw symbols for ‘AND’ and ’NOT’ gates.
16. Construct the truth table of XOR and XNOR operations of Boolean algebra.
17. What are the logical gates? Differentiate between ‘NAND’ and ‘NOR’ gate with truth table.
18. Why is NAND gate known as a universal gate? Explain.
19. Prove logically:
a. X+X’.Y=X+Y b. A + (B.C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
20. Define Proposition, Negation and Predicate with examples.
21. What is duality? Find the duality of the following expression:
a. X(Y+Z) =XY+XZ b. XY(Y+Z+X) +XY’
b. XY(Y+Y’Z) +X’Z d. P (QRS)’+PQ (RS)’+PQRS
22. Find the complement of the following expression:
a. XY’+X’Z b. X (Y’Z’+YZ)
c. AB’+AC+B’C d. W+ (AB+C’) (D’E+1) +G (H’+0)
23. Simplify the following expression using Boolean algebra:
a. AC’ + BC’ + A’C’ + B’C’ (Ans: C’)
b. AB’C + A’B’C + AB’C’ + A’B’C’ (Ans: B’)

c. C (B + C) (A + B + C) (Ans: C)
d. A + B (A+B) + A (A’+B) (Ans: A+B)
e. (AB’C’ + AB’C + ABC + ABC’) (A+B) (Ans: A)
24. What is Venn diagram? Use Venn diagram to verify following expressions:
a. AB + A'C + BC = AB + A'C b. (A + B). (A + C) = A + BC
c. AB + AC = A. (B+C) d. A + A’B = A + B
25. Draw the truth table of the following functions:
a. XY’+X’Y’ b. AB’+AC+B’C
26. Draw the logic circuit for:
a. A (BCD)’+AB (CD)’+ABCD b. XY’+XYZ+YZ’
c. Z = XYZ’+XYZ+X’Y+ X’Y’ d. P + Q (P+Q) + P (P’+Q)
Long Answer Question

1. What is the number system? Explain the different number systems.
2. Explain the complement of a number along with the complements of the binary and decimal number
systems. Why is the complement method important for a computer system?
3. What is a logic gate? Explain different gates with their graphical symbol, truth table, and Venn-
diagram.
4. What are associative, commutative, distributive, identity, and complement laws of Boolean algebra?
Prove these laws using the truth table.


Computer Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT

1.1 Introduction of Computer

1.1.1 Definition, Characteristics and Application of Computer

Some Other Definitions of Computer

Input (data) Processing Output (information)

Characteristics (Features) of Computer

For Computer processing,

Nowadays, computer is used in education; to teach students through multimedia, in business; to

Figure: Computer in Education

Figure: Computer in Business

Figure: Computer in Communication

6. Computer in Health and Medical Field

10. Computer in Robotics

11. Computer in Graphics

Figure: Computer in Graphics

12. Computer in Design and Research Work

13. Computer in CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacture) / CAD (Computer Aided Design)

Figur: Computer in CAM / CAD

14. Computer in Desktop Publishing System

Figure: Computer in Desktop Publishing System

15. Computers in Some Other Places

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Capabilities and Limitations of Computer

1.1.2 Evolution of Computer Technology

Figure: John Napier and Napier Bone

William Oughtred (1575-1660 AD)

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 AD)

Figure: Blaise Pascal and mechanical calculating machine

Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716 AD)

Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834 AD)

Charles Babbage (1791-1871 AD)

Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (1815-1852 AD)

George Boole (1815 - 1864 AD)

Herman Hollerith (1860-1929 AD)

John Von Neumann (1903 - 1957 AD)

Figure: The basic architecture of John Von Neumann computer

The Electro-Mechanical Era

The Mark I Computer (1937 – 1944 AD)

The Atanasoff Berry Computer (1939-1942 AD)

The Colossus (1941-1944 AD)

The Electronic Computers Era

The ENIAC (1943 - 1946 AD)

The EDVAC (1946 – 1952 AD)

The EDSAC (1947 – 1949 AD)

The Manchester Mark I (1948 AD)

The UNIVAC (1951 AD)

First Generation Computer (1945 -1956 AD)

Second Generation (1956-1964 AD)

Third Generation (1964-1971 AD)

Fourth Generation (1971 AD-Present)

 Technology in use: VLSI is introduced and used. Microprocessor based technology.

Fifth Generation (Coming Generation)

Features of the fifth generation computers will be:

Figure: Schematic Diagram of a 5th Generation Computer

User1 User2 . . . . . . . . . . . Usern

Intelligent User Interface

Knowledge Base System

Table: Generation of Computers with their main features

Magnetic disk, hard (Hard Disk, CD, storage

1.1.3 Measurement Unit of Processing Speed and Storage Unit

Its formula is:

For Computer processing,

1 Exa byte EB 1024 PB

1.1.4 Super, Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers