1.

SLOPE ANALYSIS
a. Percentages
i. 0-1% [Too Flat]
1. Drains too poorly
2. Appropriate for open space or conservation
ii. 1-5% [Ideal for Development]
1. 1% - for lawns and grasses
2. 2% - athletic fields, terraces, and patios
3. 3% - noticeably not ‘flat’
iii. 5-10% [Developable]
1. Might need rails/steps
2. 10% maximum for walks
iv. 10-15% [Rolling]
1. Problems with erosion
2. Try to minimize cut/fill
v. 15+% [Too Steep]
1. Environmental and monetary costs usually prohibit
b. Development choices
i. Ridge vs Valley
1. Roads and development on ridges
2. Agriculture, recreation, or conservation for valleys
c. Spatial Awareness
i. Viewing ratios
1. Less than 1:1 is too close for comfort
2. 1:1, 2:1, 3:1 described as ‘intimate’
3. Between 2:1 and 3:1 is ideal
4. 6:1 described as ‘public’
ii. Viewing distances
1. <80’ – horizontal distance = visible detail or human face
2. 80-450’ – grand urban spaces
3. 450’ – maximum distance to see human body action and movement
iii. Pathways
1. No movement at corners
2. Don’t place central feature in middle of courtyards
2. Materials
a. Reflection
i. Concrete reflects about 55% of sunlight
ii. Vegetation reflects about 25% of sunlight
b. Differentiation
i. Paths
1. Straight path from point A to point B = strong relationship
2. Meandering path = incidental relationship
ii. Color/texture
1. Separations in materials = implied activity differences between spaces
2. Similar/same materials = implied activities are same in spaces
c. Scale
i. Larger space = sense of ample scale
ii. Smaller space (tighter patterns) = sense of intimacy
d. Features
 i. Stairs
1. Risers
a. Min – 4”, Max – 6.5”
b. At least 2 or 3 risers
c. Max ht. between landings – 4’ unprotected, or 6’ protected
2. Treads
a. Min – 11”
3. Riser/Tread relationship
a. 2xRiser+Tread = 26”
b. Ie: 6” riser & 14” tread = 26” [(2x6)+14]
ii. Handrails
1. 32-36” above nose of tread
2. Extend 18” beyond top and bottom treads
3. For large stair expanses, place 20-30’ intervals
iii. Ramps
1. Not exceed 12:1 (8.33%) for ADA
2. 5’ landing every 30’
3. Railing 32-36” above floor surface
iv. Seat walls
1. 18” tall preferred (16-20” allowable)
2. 12” deep
e. Water
i. Feature
1. Reflective literally and figuratively of surroundings
2. Visible characteristics dependent on: slope, container shape/size/texture, temperature,
wind, light
ii. Pool
iii. Pond
1. Appears larger with shallow slopes
2. Appears smaller with steeper slopes
3. Inventory & Analysis
a. Ideal Functional Diagram – Identify best and most appropriate relationships that should exist between
major proposed functions and spaces. Gain insight for which functions and elements should be
associated and which should be separated.
Non-site related should show
i. Major site functions / spaces as simple bubbles
ii. Relative distance or proximity to one another
iii. Type of enclosure for each space (ie. Open or enclosed)
iv. Barriers or screens
v. Significant views into and from
vi. Points of entering / exiting
vii. Interior functions / spaces as well as proposed exterior functions / spaces
viii. Notes
b. Site Related Functional Diagram – show same as Ideal Functional Diagram except
i. Functions / spaces should relate to actual site conditions
ii. Functions / spaces should be drawn at approx. scale
c. Concept Plan
i. More detailed than site related functional diagram (in content and graphic)
ii. Specific shapes / forms should NOT be studied
 iii. Notes identify height, material space
d. Form Composition Study
e. Preliminary Master Plan
4. Ecological Services Analysis
a. Identify vegetative communities
b. Presence of native and nonnative species
c. Presence of invasive exotic species
d. Biological diversity
e. Habitat, seasonal and year round
f. Presence of colonial birds
g. Erosion protection services
h. Stream / wetland protection services
i. Local climate
i. Wind breaks
ii. Temperature modification
j. Hydrology
i. Surface water presence
ii. Water purification services
iii. Flod buffers
iv. Seasonal hydrology
v. Wetlands
vi. Riparian functions
vii. Ground water recharge
k. Soils
i. Nutrient transfer
ii. Permeability
iii. Structure
iv. Productivity (tilth)
5. Environmental Site Assessment (ESA)
a. Identifies recognizable environmental contamination and describes further solutions
b. Questions
i. Has the site been filled in the past?
ii. Is there any knowledge it could contain hazardous or petroleum waste products?
iii. Is the site currently or historically used for industrial / commercial uses?
iv. Is the property zoned for industrial or commercial?
v. Are adjacent properties used for industrial or commercial?
vi. Is there any indication hazardous materials were used or stored?
vii. Do adjacent properties drain onto site?
viii. Are there reasons to suspect the quality of the runoff from adjacent parcels?
ix. Are there transformers on the property?
x. Is an on-site well required for water supply?
6. Characteristics of quality community
a. Sense of place
b. Human scale
c. Self-contained neighborhoods
d. Diversity
e. Transit-friendly design
f. Trees
g. Alleys and parking lots
 h. Humane architecture
i. Outdoor rooms
j. Maintenance and safety
7. Development
a. Small lot development
i. Projects with 6-12 units per acre
b. Traditional density
i. Projects with 1-4 units per acre
c. Cluster Development
i. Allows same number of units in smaller space for more open space
ii. Reduces visual impact on existing community
iii. Allows for open space buffers between incompatible uses
iv. Preserves important natural functions of landscape
v. Contributes to total character of area
vi. Is sensitive to character of site
vii. Establishes benchmark for future projects
d. Better residential site design
i. Narrower, shorter streets
ii. Smaller lots with less restrictive setbacks and lot width requirements
iii. Increase allowable lot coverage
iv. Use effective stream buffers
v. Increase infiltration of storm water
vi. Use grass lined swales instead of pipes and paved gutters
e. CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design)
f. Urban
i. Street trees
1. Life expectancy = 10 years
2. Lack of drainage = tree mortality
ii. Structural soils
1. 4 parts stone (0.5-1.5”) to 1 part soil (25% silt, 25% organic, 50% sand)
g. Hydraulic alterations
i. Increase to all:
1. Runoff volume
2. Imperviousness
3. Flow frequency
4. Duration peak runoff rate
ii. Reduced infiltration (groundwater recharge)
iii. Flow pattern modification
iv. Loss of storage
8. Terms
a. Ridge
i. Elongated raised form at narrow end of form. Contours point in downhill direction
b. Valley
i. Elongated depression that forms space between two ridges. Contours point in uphill direction
c. Concave slopes
i. Contour lines are spaced at increasing distances in downhill direction
ii. Slope is steeper at height of slope, progressively flatter at lower elevation
d. Convex slopes
i. Contour lines are spaced at decreasing distances in downhill direction
 ii. Slope is flatter at height of slope, steeper at lower elevation
e. Interpolation
i. Process of computing intermediate values between related known values
ii. Calculation: d/D = e/E
1. d = distance from point A to contour line
2. D = total distance between contour / grid intersections
3. e = elevation change between point A
4. E = total elevation change between contour / grid intersections
iii. Interpolation between contours
1. (Distance from point to contour) / (Total distance between contours) x (contour
interval) = elevation difference
f. Impervious surfaces
i. Pavements / roofs, channelization of streams, floodplain encroachment (typically in urban and
suburban areas)
1. Lowered water totals
2. Increased fluctuation of water levels in streams, ponds and wetlands
3. Increased potential flooding hazards
ii. Flooding is a threat to safety, health and well-being
g. Frost
i. Freezing = soil expansion
ii. Thawing = soil saturation
h. Water quality in streams
i. Degradation of quality in streams occurs when impervious cover within drainage area
approaches approx. 20%
ii. Sediment – by volume is the largest non-point water pollutant
1. Erosion from construction
a. 5 times that of agricultural land
b. 10 times that of pasture land
c. 250 times that of forest land
i. Green Construction
i. Cost competitive for capitol projects
ii. More cost-effective from pint of operations
iii. Increases construction costs 2-11%
j. BEES (Building for Economic and Environmental Sustainability
i. Global naming potential
ii. Acidification potential
iii. Eutrophication potential
iv. Natural resource depletion
v. Indoor air quality impacts
vi. solid waste impacts
vii. smog
viii. ecological toxicity
ix. human toxicity
x. ozone depletion
k. Soil Characters
i. Expansive soils
1. Extensive cracking of sidewalks, foundation failures, retaining wall failure, etc
2. Soil is hard, resists penetration by hand, difficult to crush when dry
3. Display cracks in more or less regular patterns
 4. When wet, very sticky and will clump to sheets in 2-4” thickness
5. A ball rolled in your hands will leave powdery residue
6. A cut surface when wet will be smooth and shinny
7. Heavy construction equipment will get coated and impede function
ii. Liquification
1. Condition in which solid ground turns mushy when soils are vibrated
2. Is associated with earthquakes
3. Conditions associated with fin to medium grained sands and silts in loosely packed
layers
iii. Quick Clays
1. Form of liquification
2. Confined to northern states and Canada
3. Very fine, flower-like clays formed as sediments in shallow waters and later raised above
sea level
l. Ordinances
i. Zoning
1. Most important piece of local information
2. Provides prescription for development to be done in community
ii. Land Development Regulations
1. Local ordinances that reflect experience, concerns and biases
m. Brownfields
i. Abandoned or underutilized properties that are environmentally contaminated or are perceived
as being contaminated from past industrial or commercial activities
ii. Strategies
1. $ - do nothing: not often an option
2. $$ - administrative / institutional controls: limiting land use / public access, carry specific
insurance for exposure, etc.
3. $$$ - engineering controls: caps for isolating / containing contaminants
4. $$$$ - on-site remedial action: pump and treat groundwater, bioremediation,
vitrification, phytoremediation
5. $$$$$ - off-site disposal / treatment: remove and dispose
n. Porosity
i. Amount of pore space in a soil and is related to grain size distribution and consolidation
o. Permeability
i. The rate at which water will freely drain through a soil
p. Soil strength
i. Ability to resist deformation
ii. Function of friction and cohesion of grain to grain contact
q. Cohesion
i. Measure of soil particles sticking together (typically clays)
r. Shear strength
i. Measure of friction resistance and cohesion of soil
s. Bulk density
i. Weight per volume of unit of soil
ii. The higher the bulk density, the greater the support for foundations
t. Plasticity index
i. Range of moisture in which soil behaves as plastic material
ii. LL – Liquid Limit
1. Soil flows and won’t retain shape
 iii. PL – Plastic Limit
1. Soil deforms plastically
u. Landscape
i. Patches: Concentration of habitat type
ii. Edges: Boundaries between different habitat types are blurred (buffers and filters)
1. Ecotones: transition zone
a. Most productive part of landscape due to containing aspects of both areas
2. Littoral Zone: between upland and open water (generally associated with oceans,
beachy areas)
iii. Connecting Corridors: Recognize elements and provide connections between them
iv. Mosaic: Overall (pattern of patches, edges, connecting corridors)
v. Rehabilitation
i. Actions taken to restore environmental functions and vitality of landscape
w. Reclamation
i. Requires construction of new landscape features to replace what was lost
ii. Typically caused by damages from development, agriculture or mining
x. Remediation
i. Mitigating conditions resulting from degraded landscape
ii. Brownfields or acid mine drainage
y. Streams
i. Graded Stream: stream in state of dynamic equilibrium
ii. Degradation: alternate deepening by snow and shallowing by deposition
iii. Aggradation: deepening or widening for capacity
z. Thalweg
i. Deepest part of stream
ii. Meanders, not center
aa. Sinuosity
i. Braided, or meandering
bb. Fascine
i. Bundle of branches 2-3’ long used with rebar in stream stabilization
cc. CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act)
i. “Superfund”: Landowners are liable for contamination on their property weather/not they did it
dd. Phytoremediation
i. Using plants to clean site contamination
ii. Phytoextraction: plants absorb materials into tissue, then plants are destroyed
iii. Phytodegradation: plant metabolizes contaminants
ee. Municipalities
i. Public investment – transportation / utility infrastructure, parks, open space
ii. Regulations – zoning / subdivision ordinances, building codes
iii. Incentives & Disincentives – Preferential taxation and zoning bonuses
iv. Land use planning – comprehensive plan and capital improvement plans
ff. Eutrophication
i. Increase in biomass of waterbody leading to infilling of basin and eventual disappearance of
open water
gg. Ericaceous plants
i. Plants prefer acidic soil (4.5-5.0 pH)
ii. Family that includes heather, rhododendron, azalea
hh. Mass wasting
i. Downhill movement of soil / rock fragments induced by gravity
 ii. Mesophytes
i. Plants that grow with moderate supply f water
jj. Hydrophyte
i. Aquatic plants grow in or near water, emergent, submergent, floating
kk. Xerophyte
i. Plant needs very little water
ll. Connected imperviousness
i. Runoff drains from impervious surfaces into drainageways
ii. Runoff is MAXIMIZED
mm. Disconnected imperviousness
i. Runoff drains from impervious surfaces as sheet flow to pervious surfaces
ii. Runoff is MINIMIZED (ideal)
9. Erosion
a. Causes
i. BAD – Poor site analysis
ii. BAD – design and site are incompatible
iii. BAD – inadequately sized facilities
iv. BAD – wrong materials specified / used
v. Site Manager – Poor installation
vi. Site Manager – poor maintenance
vii. Site Manager – Failure to compensate for seasonal differences / extreme weather conditions
b. Sediment is essentially a planned damage control
i. Efforts geared toward collecting, directing, capturing, filtering and releasing sediment laden
runoff after erosion has occurred (like what a BMP does)
c. Low-Impact Design (Green Infrastructure)
i. Water = resource (not problem)
ii. Benefits
1. Increased infiltration
2. Groundwater recharge
3. Decreased pollution loads on surface water
4. Increased biodiversity
5. Reduction in heat island effect
6. Improved air quality
7. Emotional benefits
a. Better learning environment
b. Heightened sense of personal happiness
d. NOTE: stream habitat quality drops once watershed reaches 10-15% imperviousness
e. Peak Runoff Calc
i. Q = CiA
1. Q: Peak discharge in cfs
2. C: Runoff coefficient (ratio of surface runoff : rainfall)
3. i: Rainfall intensity for storm duration equal to time of concentration
4. A: Area of basin (subshed)
f. Detention Basins
i. Typically dry basins.
ii. Delay storm water through releasing at rate mimicking predevelopment flow
g. Retention basins
i. Holds water in pool.
ii. Only outlet is emergency spillway.
 iii. Basin loses water through infiltration and evaporation
h. Bioretention – should be 5-10% of impervious area draining to it
10. Wetlands
a. Identification
i. Hydraulic soils
ii. Abundance of hydrophytic vegetation
iii. Hydrology necessary to support vegetation
b. Functions
i. Habitat
ii. Storm water collection and treatment
iii. Flood buffer
iv. Stabilization of riparian or littoral zones
v. Water treatment
vi. Recreation
11. Historic preservation fundamentals
a. Historic character / nature of site / proposed use must be compatible
b. “Time Context” of site must be developed to understand historic period of site
c. Comprehensive identification and assessment process must be completed to identify distinctive
elements of site and how elements are placed in time context of site
d. Restoration preferred over replacement of elements
e. Treatments
i. Preservation – protect / stabilize site features
ii. Rehabilitation – repair / alter property within cultural significance
iii. Restoration – accurately depict historic form / features
iv. Reconstruction – new construction through form and features for non-surviving landscape /
object