Module-Ii Conformal Transformations and Complex Integration: Upon Completion of This Module, Students Will Be Able To

RV Institute of Technology & Management ®
MODULE-II
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND COMPLEX INTEGRATION
Topic Learning Objectives:
Upon Completion of this Module, students will be able to:
 Understand the existence, uniqueness and basic concepts of complex function.

 To provide an insight into applications of complex variables.
 To develop the basic theory of complex variables as a tool in science and engineering and
then apply it to the solution of problems.
Conformal Transformation:
Conformal (Same form or shape) mapping is an important technique used in complex analysis
and has many applications in different physical situations.
If the function is harmonic (i.e. it satisfies Laplace's equation) then the transformation of such
functions via conformal mapping is also harmonic.
So equations pertaining to any field that can be represented by a potential function (all
conservative fields) can be solved via conformal mapping.
If the physical problem can be represented by complex functions but the geometric structure
becomes inconvenient then by an appropriate mapping it can be transferred to a problem with
much more convenient geometry.
Fig. 2.1. Transformation
IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 1 | 32

A mapping w=f(z) is said to be conformal if the angle between any two curves 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 in z-plane
intersecting at the point 𝑧0 is equal in magnitude and direction to the angle between their images
𝑐′1 , 𝑐′2 in the w-plane at the point 𝑤0 which can be seen in the Fig.2.1.
I. Discussion of conformal transformations 𝒘 = 𝒛𝟐

Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
Therefore 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦---------(1)
Case 1: let us consider, 𝑥 = 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 is a constant.
The set of equations (1) become 𝑣 2 = −4𝑐12 (𝑢 − 𝑐12 )
This is a parabola in the w-plane symmetrical about the real axis with its vertex at (𝑐12 ,0) and
focus at the origin. It may be observed that the line x=𝑐1 is also transformed into the same
parabola.
Case 2: let us consider, 𝑦 = 𝑐2 , 𝑐2 is a constant.
The set of equations (1) become 𝑣 2 = 4𝑐22 (𝑢 + 𝑐22 )
This is a parabola in the w-plane symmetrical about the real axis with its vertex at (-𝑐22 , 0) and
focus at the origin. It may be observed that the line y=−𝑐2 is also transformed into the same
parabola which can be seen in the Fig. 2.2.
𝑥 = 𝑐1
𝑣 2 = −4𝑐12 (𝑢 − 𝑐12 )
𝑦 = 𝑐2 (-𝑐22 ,0)
u
(𝑐12 ,0)
𝑣 2 = 4𝑐22 (𝑢 + 𝑐22 )
Z-Plane W-Plane
Fig. 2.2. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 2

Case 3: Any line parallel to v – axis, i.e. u = a map into x 2  y 2  a which is a rectangular
hyperbola. Similarly, any line parallel to u – axis, i.e. v = b maps into 2 xy  b, i.e. xy  b / 2,
which is also a rectangular hyperbola.
Hence a pair of lines u = a & v = b parallel to the axes in the w – plane, map into pair of
orthogonal rectangular hyperbola in the z – plane as shown in the Fig.2.3.

[ xy  c & x 2  y 2  c1 are rectangular hyperbola orthogonal to each other.]
dw
Also, since  2 z  0 for z = 0, therefore it is a critical point of the mapping.
dz
 w  z 2 is conformal everywhere except at z = 0.
Case 4: In polar co-ordinates z  rei , w  Rei
w  z 2  Rei  r 2e2i  R  r 2 &   2 .
i) A circle r  a in z – plane maps into R  a 2 in w - plane

Thus, circles with centre at the origin maps into circles with centre at the origin.
ii) If   0,   0  real axis in z – plane maps into real axis in w – plane.
If    / 2,     +ve imaginary axis in z – plane maps into negative real axis in w – plane.
Hence the first quadrant in z – plane 0     / 2 maps into upper half of w – plane 0    
 upper half of the z – plane 0     transform into the entire w – plane 0    2 . (Same is
true for lower half)
II. Discussion of conformal transformations 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛 :

Consider 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)
Therefore 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 ---------(1)

Let us eliminate x and y separately from (1)

Squaring and adding we get 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑥 ----(2)
𝑣 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
Also, by dividing we get 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦----(3)
Case 1: Let 𝑥 = 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 is a constant.

equations (2) become 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟 2 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
This represents a circle with centre origin and radius r in the w-plane.
Case 2: Let 𝑦 = 𝑐2 , 𝑐2 is a constant.
𝑣
equations (3) become 𝑢 = tan 𝑐2 = 𝑚 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
Therefore 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑢
This represents a straight line passing through the origin in the w-plane as shown in the Fig.2.4.
v
y
𝑥 = 𝑐1
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑐2 900 𝑃
u
x 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑟 2
Z-Plane W-Plane
Fig. 2.4. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧

𝒂𝟐
III. Discussion of conformal transformations 𝒘 = 𝒛 + , 𝒛 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒛
𝑎2
Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 + , 𝑧≠0
𝑧
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟 𝑟
𝑎2 𝑎2
Therefore 𝑢 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑣 = (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃-------(1)
𝑟 𝑟
We shall eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (1)

To eliminate 𝜃 let us put (1) in the form

𝑢 𝑣
𝑎2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑎2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(𝑟+ ) (𝑟− )
𝑟 𝑟
Squaring and adding we obtain

𝑢2 𝑣2
2 + 2 = 1, 𝑟 ≠ 𝑎-------(2)
𝑎2 𝑎2
(𝑟+ ) (𝑟− )
𝑟 𝑟
To eliminate 𝑟 let us put (1) in the form

𝑢 𝑎2 𝑣 𝑎2
= (𝑟 + ) , = (𝑟 − )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟
Squaring and subtracting we obtain
𝑢2 𝑣2
(2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
− (2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 = 1 -------(3)
Since 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , |𝑧| = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧 = 𝜃

|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 .
This represents a circle with centre origin and radius r in the z-plane when r is a constant.
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧 = 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑦⁄𝑥).
This represents a straight line in the z-plane when 𝜃 is constant.
Case 1: Let r = constant.
Equations (2) is of the form
𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑎2 𝑎2
+ 𝐵2 = 1, where A=(𝑟 + ), B=(𝑟 − )
𝐴2 𝑟 𝑟
This represents an ellipse in the w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0).

Case 2: Let 𝜃 = constant.
Equations (2) is of the form
𝑢2 𝑣2
− 𝐵2 = 1, where A=2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, B=2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴2
This represents a hyperbola in the w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0).

𝑎2
Fig. 2.5. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 + ,𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑧
Hence, we conclude that the circle with constant radius in the z-plane maps onto an ellipse in the
w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0) and also the straight line passing through the origin in the z-plane
maps onto a hyperbola in the w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0) as shown in the Fig.2.5.
Problems:
1. Find the images in the w-plane corresponding to the straight lines
𝑥 = 𝑐1 , 𝑥 = 𝑐2 ; 𝑦 = 𝑘1 , 𝑦 = 𝑘2 , under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 . Indicate the region with
sketches.
Solution: the parabolas corresponding to 𝑥 = 𝑐1 , 𝑥 = 𝑐2 ; 𝑦 = 𝑘1 , 𝑦 = 𝑘2 are respectively the
pairs
𝑣 2 = −4𝑐12 (𝑢 − 𝑐12 ); 𝑣 2 = −4𝑐22 (𝑢 − 𝑐22 )
and 𝑣 2 = 4𝑘12 (𝑢 + 𝑘12 ); 𝑣 2 = 4𝑘22 (𝑢 − 𝑘22 )
are shown in the Fig.2.6.


−𝜋 𝜋
2. Find and sketch the image of the region −1 < 𝑥 < 1, <𝑦< under 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 :
2 2
Solution: Given 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
i.e 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 & ∅ = 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
i) −1 < 𝑥 < 1 ⇒ 𝑒 −1 < 𝑅 < 𝑒 ii) − 2 < 𝑦 < ⇒ − 2 < ∅ < 2 , are shown in the
2
Fig.2.7.
y v
y=π/2 r𝑒
1
x = -1 𝑐2 x =1
x 𝑒 −1 u
y=-π/2
z-plane w - plane
Fig. 2.7. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧
3. Determine the region of the w-plane into which the following regions are mapped by the
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 . Sketch the region bounded by 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.
Solution: Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
Therefore 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦---------(1)
Case 1: consider, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑦

𝑣2 𝑣
𝑢 = 1− , 𝑦 =
4 2
𝑣 2 = −4 (𝑢 − 1)
This is a parabola in w-plane with vertex (1,0) and symmetric about 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Case 2: consider, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑣 = 2𝑥
𝑣2 𝑣
𝑢= − 1, 𝑥 =
4 2
𝑣 2 = 4 (𝑢 − (−1))
This is a parabola in w-plane with vertex (-1,0) and symmetric about 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Case 3: consider 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − (1 − 𝑥)2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥(1 − 𝑥)
1+𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥 =
2
1 1
Therefore 𝑣 reduces to 𝑣 = 2 (1 − 𝑢2 ) ⇒ 𝑢2 = −2 (𝑣 − 2)
Represents a parabola in w-plane with vertex (0, 1/2) and symmetric about 𝑣 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 as shown in
the Fig.2.8.

1
4. Find the image of the circles |𝑧| = 1 and|𝑧| = 2 under the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 , 𝑧 ≠ 0.
1
Solution: Consider 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 , 𝑧 ≠ 0
1 1 1
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑖𝜃
= (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑟

1 1
Therefore 𝑢 = (𝑟 + 𝑟 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑣 = (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃-------(a)
We shall eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (a)

To eliminate 𝑟 we get
𝑢2 𝑣2
− = 4 … … … . (1)
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
To eliminate 𝜃 we get
𝑢2 𝑣2
+ = 1 … … … . . (2)
1 2 1 2
(𝑟 + 𝑟 ) (𝑟 − 𝑟 )
i) |𝑧| = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 1
from equation (a) 𝑢 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑣 = 0
⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2
Therefore, the circle |𝑧| = 1 maps onto the segment of real axis from -2 to 2 in w-plane.
i) |𝑧| = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =2
𝑢2 𝑣2
from equation (2) 5 2
+ 3 2
=1
( ) ( )
2 2
Therefore, the circle |𝑧| = 2 maps onto an ellipse in w-plane as shown in the Fig.2.9.
y v
𝑟=1
x -2 2 u
𝑟 =2
z-plane w - plane
1
Fig. 2.9. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 , 𝑧 ≠ 0
Bilinear Transformation (BLT):

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are real/ complex constants such that 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠
0 is called a bilinear transformation (Mobius Transformation).

Note:
𝑑𝑤 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
1. the condition 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 ensures the conformal property of the BLT. We have = ,
𝑑𝑧 𝑐𝑧+𝑑2
𝑑𝑤
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 implies ≠ 0 and hence the transformation is conformal.
𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 −𝑧 )(𝑧 −𝑧 )
2. The cross ratio of a set of 4 points (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 ) is defined by (𝑧1 −𝑧2)(𝑧3 −𝑧4 )
2 3 4 1
3. Invariant points: If a point z maps onto itself, that is w=z under the bilinear transformation
then the point is called an invariant point or a fixed point of the bilinear transformation.
4. The cross ratio of a set of four points is preserved under a bilinear transformation.
5. Every bilinear transformation map circles or straight lines in the z-plane into circles or straight
lines in the w-plane.
Working procedure
1. Given w1, w2, w3 corresponding to z1, z2, z3 we assume the bilinear transformation in the form
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
2. We substitute the given set of points to obtain a set of three equations in four unknowns a, b,
c, d.
3. We deduce a pair of equation in any three unknowns and solve by the rule of cross
multiplication to obtain a proportionate set of values for the three unknowns.
4. These values are used to find the fourth unknown.
5. All these four values when substituted in the assumed form of w will gives us the required
bilinear transformation.
Problems:
1. Find the bilinear transformation which maps z1 = -1, z2 = 0, z3 =1 into w1 = 0, w2 =i, w3 =3i.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Solution: Let 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 be the required bilinear transformation.
−𝑎+𝑏
z1 = -1, w1 = 0; 0 = −𝑐+𝑑
-a + b = 0…..(1)
0+𝑏
z2 = 0, w2 = i; i= 0+𝑑
b - id = 0…..(2)
𝑎+𝑏
z3 = 1, w3 = 3i; 3i= 𝑐+𝑑
a + b - 3ic – 3id = 0…..(3)

Now (1)-(2) gives

-a + di = 0 …..(4)
Let us solve (2) and (4) by writing them in the form
0a + b - id = 0 ….(2)
-a + b + id = 0 ….(4)
Applying the rule of cross multiplication, we have
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑑
= =
1 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 0 1
| | | | | |
0 𝑖 −1 𝑖 −1 0
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑑
= =
𝑖 −𝑖 1
∴ 𝑎 = 𝑖, 𝑏 = 𝑖, 𝑑=1
With these values (3) becomes i +i -3ic – 3i =0
1
∴ 𝑐=−
3
Substituting the values of a, b, c, d the assumed bilinear transformation becomes
𝑧𝑖 + 𝑖
𝑤 = −𝑧
+1
3
3𝑖(𝑧 + 1)
𝑤=
−𝑧 + 3
Thus, the required BLT.
2. Find the bilinear transformation which maps z1 = ∞, z2 = i, z3 =0 into w1 = -1, w2 = -i, w3 =1.
Also find the fixed points of the transformation.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Solution: Let 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 be the required bilinear transformation.
z1 = ∞, w1 = -1; the BLT is to be written in the form

𝑎+𝑏/𝑧 𝑎+0
𝑤 = 𝑐+𝑑/𝑧 ; −1 = 𝑐+0
a + c = 0…..(1)
𝑎𝑖+𝑏
z2 = i, w2 = - i; −𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖+𝑑
ai +b - c + di = 0…..(2)
0+𝑏
z3 = 0, w3 = 1; 1 = 0+𝑑
b – d = 0…..(3)
Now (1) + (2) gives
(1+i)a + b + id = 0 …..(4)
Let us solve (3) and (4) by writing them in the form

0a + b - d = 0 ….(3)
(1+i)a + b + id = 0 ….(4)
Applying the rule of cross multiplication, we have
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑑
= =
1 −1 0 −1 0 1
| | | | | |
1 𝑖 1+𝑖 𝑖 1+𝑖 1
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
= = 𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑖 + 1 1 + 𝑖 −(1 + 𝑖) 1 −1 −1
∴ 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1, 𝑑 = −1
With these values (1) becomes a = -c
∴ 𝑐 = −1
Substituting the values of a, b, c, d the assumed bilinear transformation becomes
𝑧−1
𝑤=
−𝑧 − 1
1−𝑧
𝑤=
1+𝑧
Thus, the required BLT.
Further, the invariant points are obtained by taking w = z
1−𝑧
𝑧=
1+𝑧
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 − 1 = 0
𝑧 = −1 ± √2
Thus, the invariant points are −1 + √2, −1 − √2.
3. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points z  1, i,  1 to w  i, 0,  i. Hence find
(1) image of z  1 (2) The invariant points of this transformation.
az  b
Solution: Let w  be the required bilinear transformation.
cz  d
Let the points z1  1, z2  i, z3  1 and z4  z map onto the points
w1  i, w2  0, w3  i and w4  w .
Since the cross ratio remains unchanged under a bilinear transformation, we have
( w1  w2 )( w3  w4 ) ( z1  z2 )( z3  z4 )

( w1  w4 )( w3  w2 ) ( z1  z4 )( z3  z2 )
(i  0)(i  w) (1  i)(1  z ) (i)(i  w)  (1  i)(1  z )
i.e.   
(i  w)(i  0) (1  z )(1  i) (i  w)(i)  (1  z )(1  i)
( w  i ) ( z  1)(1  i )
or  , solving for w,
( w  i ) ( z  1)(1  i )

w  i)( z  1)(1  i)  (w  i)( z  1)(1  i)

i.e. w[( z  1)(1  i)]  i[( z  1)(1  i)]  w[( z  1)(1  i)]  i[( z  1)(1  i)]
i.e. w [( z  1)(1  i )  ( z  1)(1  i )]  i[( z  1)(1  i )  ( z  1)(1  i )]
i.e. w [ z  1  iz  i  ( z  1  iz  i )]  i[ z  1  iz  i  z  a  iz  i ]
 i( z  i)  iz  1 1  iz
 w(2iz  2)  i(2 z  2i)  2w(iz  1)  2i( z  i)  w   
iz  1 iz  1 1  iz
1  iz
w . which is the required bilinear transformation.
1  iz
(i) To find the image of z  1
1  iz
Consider the bilinear transformation w 
1  iz
w 1 1 w
 1  iz  w(1  iz) or z (i  iw)  w  1  z  i
i(1  w) 1  w
i(1  w) 1 w
 z 1 1 i 1 i 1 w  1 w
1 w 1 w
 11  w  1  w ( i  1)
 1  (u  iv)  1  (u  iv)  (1  u )  iv  (1  u )  iv
(1  u ) 2  v 2  (1  u ) 2  v 2  2u  2u  4u  0  u  0
u  0 is the image of z  1
Hence the interior of the circle x  y  1( given z  1, z  x  iy) in the z – plane is mapping
2 2
onto the entire half of the w – plane to the right of the imaginary axis.
1  iz
(ii) To find invariant points of the bilinear transformation, put w = z in w 
1  iz
1  iz
i.e. z   z (1  iz)  1  iz  z  iz2  iz  1  0  iz2  (i  1) z  1  0
1  iz
 (i  1)  (i  1) 2  4i (1  i )   1  1  2i  4i (1  i )   6i
z   
2i 2i 2i
1  i (i  1)  i 6i 
 
2
1
 
   (1  i)  6i , which are the required invariant points.
i  2
4. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points z = 1, i, -1 into the points w = 0, 1,  .
Solution: Let the points z1  1, z2  i, z3  1, z4  z map onto the points
w1  0, w2  1,
w3  , w4  w
Since the cross ratio remains unchanged under a bilinear transformation
( w1  w2 )( w3  w4 ) ( z1  z2 )( z3  z4 )

( w1  w4 )( w3  w2 ) ( z1  z4 )( z3  z2 )

(0  1)(1) (1  i)(1  z ) 1 (1  z )(1  i)

i.e.   
(0  w)(1) (1  z )(1  i) w (1  z )(1  i)
(1  z )(1  i)  (1  i) z  (1  i)
w 
(1  z )(1  i) (1  i) z  (1  i)
i(1  z )
5. Show that the transformation w  maps the circle z  1 into the real axis of the w –
1 z
plane & the interior of the circle z  1 into the upper half of the w – plane.
Solution: We have to find the image of z  1 in the w – plane.
i(1  z ) iw
Given w   w(1  z )  i(1  z )  z (w  i)  i  w  z 
1 z iw
iw
Now z  1   1  i  w  i  w  i  (u  iv)  i  (u  iv)
iw
  u  i (1  v)  u  i(1  v)  u 2  (1  v) 2  u 2  (1  v) 2
 2v  2v  4v  0  v  0
 The circle z  1 is mapped onto the real axis (i.e. v = 0) the interior of the circle z  1 is
mapped onto v  0, which is the upper half of the w – plane.
Note: Standard transformation:

1
𝑤 = 𝑧 = 𝑐 is translation, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 is rotation, 𝑤 = 𝑧 is inversion.
A bilinear transformation can be considered as a combination of these transformations.

Theorem: A bilinear transformation maps circles into circles.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏 𝑎(𝑧+𝑑/𝑐)+𝑏−𝑎𝑑/𝑐 𝑎(𝑧+𝑑/𝑐) 𝑏−𝑎𝑑/𝑐
Proof: By division 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 = = + 𝑐(𝑧+𝑑/𝑐)
𝑐(𝑧+𝑑/𝑐) 𝑐(𝑧+𝑑/𝑐)
𝑎 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 1
=𝑐+ . 𝑧+𝑑/𝑐
𝑐2
𝑑 1 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 𝑎
Put 𝑤1 = 𝑧 + 𝑐 , 𝑤2 = 𝑤 , 𝑤3 = 𝑤2 . Then 𝑤 = 𝑐 + 𝑤3
1 𝑐2
Thus, the bilinear transformation of can be considered as a combination of 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 and𝑤
passing from z – plane to 𝑤1- plane, from 𝑤1- plane to 𝑤2 - plane, from 𝑤2 - plane to 𝑤3 - plane
and finally from 𝑤3 - plane to w – plane.
1
Here 𝑤1, 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 and w are the standard transformations of the form 𝑤 = 𝑧 = 𝑐, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧, 𝑤 = 𝑧
and under these, a circle always maps into a circle. Hence the bilinear transformation maps
circles to circles.
Theorem: A bilinear transformation preserves cross – ratio of four points.

Proof: Let the points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 of the z – plane map onto the points 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 , 𝑤4 of the
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
w – plane respectively under the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
(𝑤 −𝑤 )(𝑤 −𝑤 ) (𝑧 −𝑧 )(𝑧 −𝑧 )
We have to prove that (𝑤1 −𝑤2 )(𝑤3 −𝑤4 ) = (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )(𝑧3 −𝑧4 )
1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2
𝑎𝑧1 +𝑏 𝑎𝑧 +𝑏 (𝑎𝑧1 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)−(𝑎𝑧2 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)

Now 𝑤1 − 𝑤2 = − 𝑐𝑧 2+𝑑 =
𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑 2 (𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
𝑎𝑐𝑧1 𝑧2 +𝑏𝑐𝑧2 +𝑎𝑑𝑧1 +𝑏𝑑−(𝑎𝑐𝑧1 𝑧2 +𝑏𝑐𝑧1 +𝑎𝑑𝑧2 +𝑏𝑑
= (𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
𝑎𝑑(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )−𝑏𝑐(𝑧1 −𝑧2 ) (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )
= = (𝑐𝑧
(𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑) 1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧1 −𝑧2 )
∴ 𝑤1 − 𝑤2 = (𝑐𝑧
1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧3 −𝑧4 )
Similarly, by symmetry we have ∴ 𝑤3 − 𝑤4 = (𝑐𝑧
3 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧4 +𝑑)
(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧1 −𝑧4 ) (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧3 −𝑧2 )

𝑤1 − 𝑤4 = (𝑐𝑧 and 𝑤3 − 𝑤2 = (𝑐𝑧
1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧4 +𝑑) 3 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
1 2 (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧 −𝑧 ) (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧 −𝑧 )
3 4
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤4 ) (𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑) . (𝑐𝑧3 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧4 +𝑑) (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧4 )
∴ = =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤4 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤2 ) (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧1 −𝑧4 ) . (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧3 −𝑧2) (𝑧1 − 𝑧4 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )
(𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧4 +𝑑) (𝑐𝑧3 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)
Thus, the cross ratio of four points is invariant under the bilinear transformation.
Note: This property is very useful in finding a bilinear transformation. If one of the points, say,
𝑧1 → ∞ then, the quotient of those two differences which contain 𝑧1 is replaced by 1. i.e
(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧4 ) 𝑧3 − 𝑧4
=
(𝑧1 − 𝑧4 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) 𝑧3 − 𝑧2
Exercise:
Find the bilinear transformation that transforms the points
i) 0, 𝑖, ∞ onto the points 1, −𝑖, −1 respectively.
ii) 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 on to the points w  0,1, 
iii) 𝑧 = −1, 𝑖, 1 on to the points𝑤 = 1, 𝑖, −1. Also find invariant points.

complex integration
Why complex integration?
 Existence of higher order derivatives?
 Properties of analytic functions of higher order
 In finding Laplace Transform, Fourier Transforms and Z-Transforms in applications.
 Digital filters are designed by looking the locations of zeroes and poles in the complex plane.
Method of Complex Integration was first introduced by B. Riemann Fig. 2.10.
Fig. 2.10. B Riemann

Complex Line Integral
Consider a continuous function f(z) of the complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined at all points of a
curve C extending from a to b. Divide the curve C into N parts. Let 𝛼𝑘 be any point on the arc of
the curve and let ∆𝑧𝑘 = 𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1 where 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, … 𝑁. Then lim ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑓(𝛼𝑘 )∆𝑧𝑘 where
𝑛→∞
max |∆𝑧𝑘 | → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑁 → ∞ is defined as the complex line integral along the path C in the
Fig.2.11.
It is denoted by ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧. y
 N b  zN
C z N 1
3 n zn
2 z3 …
1 z1
z2
…
a  z0
x
Fig. 2.11. Complex line integral along the path C

Properties of Complex line integral.
1. ∫𝐶 𝑘𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, 𝑘 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2. ∫𝐶 [𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧)]𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
3. ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the union of the smooth curve
1 2
𝐶1 and 𝐶2
4. ∫−𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = − ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where –C denotes the curve having the opposite orientation of C.
Problems
2+𝑖
1. Evaluate ∫0 𝑧̅2 𝑑𝑧 along (i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥/2 ii) the real axis to 2 and vertically to 2+i.
Solution: From the Fig.2.12.
i) Along OA: 𝑥 = 2𝑦.
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 = (2 + 𝑖)𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 = (2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦
𝑧̅ = (2 − 𝑖)𝑦
𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1.
2+𝑖 1
∫0 𝑧̅2 𝑑𝑧=∫0 (2 − 𝑖)2 𝑦 2 (2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦.
1
1 𝑦3 5
= 5(2 − 𝑖) ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 5(2 − 𝑖) [ 3 ] = 3 (2 − 𝑖).
0
Fig. 2.12. Paths from 0 to 2+i along OA and OBA

2+𝑖
ii) Let ∫0 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑂𝐵 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐵𝐴 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧……………….(a)
Along OB: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2.

Along BA: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧̅ = 2 − 𝑖𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦 and
𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1.

2+𝑖 2 1
2 2
∫ 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ (2 − 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
After integration we get

2+𝑖
14 + 11𝑖
∫ 𝑧̅2 𝑑𝑧 =
0 3
2+𝑖
2. Evaluate ∫0 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 along i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥/2, ii) the real axis to 2 and then vertically to 2 + 𝑖.
Solution:
𝑥
i) From the Fig.2.13 given path is the line 𝑦 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
Here, 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑦; 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1.
2+𝑖 1
∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ {[(2𝑦)2 − 𝑦 2 ] + 2𝑖(2𝑦)𝑦} [2𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦]
0 𝑦=0
1
= (2 + 𝑖) ∫ (3𝑦 2 + 4𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦
0
1
1
= (2 + 𝑖)(3 + 4𝑖) ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = (2 + 11𝑖)
0 3
Fig. 2.13. Path from 0 to 2+i along OA

2+𝑖
ii) ∫0 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑂𝐴 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
From the Fig. 2.14, Along OB:

𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0; 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 2
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Along BA:

𝑥 = 2, 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = (2 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖 𝑑𝑦
2+𝑖 2 1
∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ (2 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
1
= 3 (2 + 11𝑖)
OA= OB+BA y
A (2,1)
0 B (2,0) x
Fig. 2.14. Path from 0 to 2+i along OBA

2+𝑖
3. Evaluate ∫1−𝑖 (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 along the two paths i) 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1,
𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1. ii) the straight line joining (1 − 𝑖)& (2 + 𝑖).

Solution: Given: 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 2.
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 + 1 = 1 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0.
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡 + 1 = 2 ⇒ 𝑡 = 1.
Also 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦.
Let I be the given integral.
1
𝐼 = ∫ {2(𝑡 + 1) + 𝑖(2𝑡 2 − 1) + 1}{𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖4𝑡 𝑑𝑡}
𝑡=0
1 25𝑖
= ∫0 (2𝑡 + 2𝑖𝑡 2 + 3 − 𝑖)(1 + 4𝑖𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 4 + .
3
ii) Equation of the straight-line joining (1, −1)& (2,1) (Fig.2.15) is given by
𝑦 + 1 1 − (−1) 𝑦 + 1
= ⇒ =2
𝑥−1 2−1 𝑥−1
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥 − 2
⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑥

2
𝐼 = ∫ {2𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) + 1}{𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖. 2𝑑𝑥}
𝑥=1
2
= (1 − 3𝑖) ∫1 {−2𝑥 + (1 + 2𝑖)}𝑑𝑥 = 4(1 + 2𝑖).
Fig. 2.15. Path from 1-i to 2+i along AB

2+3𝑖
4. Evaluate ∫1−𝑖 (𝑧 2 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 along the line joining the point (1, -1) and (2, 3).
Solution: Equation of the line joining the points (1, -1) & (2,3) is
𝑦+1 3+1
= ⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = 4(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥−1 2−1
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = 4(𝑥 − 1) ⇒ 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 5 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑑𝑥&
x varies from 1 to 2.
So, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 & 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(4𝑥 − 5) = (1 + 4𝑖)𝑥 − 5𝑖
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = [(1 + 4𝑖)𝑥 − 5𝑖]2 + (1 + 4𝑖)𝑥 − 5𝑖
= (1 + 4𝑖)2 𝑥 2 + (5𝑖)2 − 2(1 + 4𝑖)𝑥. 5𝑖 + 𝑥 + 4𝑖𝑥 − 5𝑖
= (1 − 16 + 8𝑖)𝑥 2 − 25 − 10𝑖𝑥 + 40𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4𝑖𝑥 − 5𝑖
= (−15 + 8𝑖)𝑥 2 + (41 − 6𝑖)𝑥 − (25 + 5𝑖)
and 𝑧 = (1 + 4𝑖)𝑥 − 5𝑖 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = (1 + 4𝑖)𝑑𝑥
2+3𝑖 2
∫ (𝑧 2 + 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [(−15 + 8𝑖)𝑥 2 + (41 − 6𝑖)𝑥 − (25 + 5𝑖)](1 + 4𝑖)𝑑𝑥
1−𝑖 1
2
𝑥3 𝑥2
= (1 + 4𝑖) [(−15 + 8𝑖) + (41 − 6𝑖) − (25 + 5𝑖)𝑥]
3 2 1
8 1 4 1
= (1 + 4𝑖) [(−15 + 8𝑖) ( − ) + (41 − 6𝑖) ( − ) − (25 + 5𝑖)(2 − 1)]
3 3 2 2
−105 56𝑖 123
= (1 + 4𝑖) [ + + − 9𝑖 − 25 − 5𝑖]
3 3 2

−210 + 112𝑖 + 369 − 54𝑖 − 150 − 30𝑖

= (1 + 4𝑖) [ ]
6
9 + 28𝑖 1 1
= (1 + 4𝑖) ( ) = [9 − 112 + 𝑖(28 + 36)] = (−103 + 64𝑖)
6 6 6
5. Given the flow (𝑧) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
cos 𝑧 , compute the circulation and net flux across C, where C is the
square with vertices 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 𝑖, 𝑧 = −1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = −𝑖.
Solution:
We must compute ∫𝐶 ̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 and then take the real and imaginary parts of the
integral to find the circulation and net flux, respectively.
The function cos 𝑧 is analytic everywhere, and
̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑑𝑧 = ∫ cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 by Cauchy’s theorem.
so ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝐶
Thus, the circulation and net flux are both zero which can be seen in the Fig.2.16.
Fig. 2.16. Net flux across C

6. Given the flow 𝑓(𝑧) = (1 + 𝑖)𝑧, compute the circulation around, and the net flux across, the
circle 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1.
Solution:
̅̅̅̅̅̅ = (1 − 𝑖)𝑧̅ , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Here 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (1 − 𝑖) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
𝐶 0
2𝜋
= (1 + 𝑖) ∫ 1 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋(1 + 𝑖).
0
The circulation around C is 2π, which is the real part of the complex line integral.
The net flux across C is 2π, which is the imaginary part of the complex line integral (Fig. 2.17).

Fig. 2.17. Circulation around C

Cauchy’s theorem
Statement: If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain R, then ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0 for any
simple closed curve C lying entirely within R.
Proof:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Then∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦) − − − − − (𝑖)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
We have Green’s theorem in the plane stating that if M (x, y) and N (x, y) are two real valued
functions having continuous first order partial derivatives in a region R bounded by the curve C
then
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅
Applying this theorem to the two-line integrals in the RHS of (i) we get
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ (− − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic, we have Cauchy-Riemann equations:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕𝑦 ; 𝜕𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑦
Hence, we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅
This proves Cauchy’s theorem.

Simply Connected Region
i) A “simply-connected” region means that there are no “holes” in the region. (Any closed path
can be shrunk down to zero size, Fig.2.18).
ii) A domain which is not simply connected is said to be multiply connected region.
z0
Fig. 2.18. Simply connected region

Consequences of Cauchy’s theorem
𝑄
 If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two points in it, then∫𝑃 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is
independent of the path joining P and Q (Fig.2.19).
R  a simply - connected region
y
C2
C1
Fig. 2.19. Simply connected curve

 If 𝐶1, 𝐶2 are two simple closed curves such that 𝐶2 lies entirely within 𝐶1 and if 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑖s
analytic on 𝐶1, 𝐶2 and in the region bounded by 𝐶1, 𝐶2 (Fig.2.20) (known as annular region),
then∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧.

1 2

y
R  a multiply - connected region
C2 C1
x
Fig. 2.20. Multiply connected region
 If 𝐶 is a simple closed curve enclosing non-overlapping simple closed curves 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … 𝐶𝑛 and
if f(𝑧) is analytic in the annular region between C and these curves(Fig.2.21), then
∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + … . + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧.

1 2 𝑛
The function f is analytic inside this

region.
C4
C1
C2
C3
Fig. 2.21. Simple closed curves

Problems
1. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 over the boundary of the triangle with the
vertices (0, 0), (1,0) and (0,1).
Solution: From the Fig.2.22
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑂
Along OA:
𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1

𝑦−0 1−0 𝑦
Along AB: = 0−1 ⇒ 𝑥−1 = −1
𝑥−1
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑑𝑥) ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = (1 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
Along BO:
𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦; 𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0.
1 0 0
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑥 + 1)]2 (1 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑥=0 𝑥=1 𝑦=1
1 𝑖 1 𝑖
= − − + =0
3 3 3 3
Hence the Cauchy’s theorem is verified.
Fig. 2.22. Simple closed path
2. Evaluate ∫𝐶 |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 where C is the square having vertices (0,0), (1,0), (1,1) and (0,1) and
check whether Cauchy’s theorem is verified, justify your answer.
Solution: Here, |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
From the Fig.2.23 ∫𝐶 |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑂𝐴|𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐴𝐵|𝑧|2 1𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐵𝐶|𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶𝑂|𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧

1 1 0 0
= ∫𝑥=0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦=0 1 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + ∫𝑥=1(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦=1 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
1 4𝑖 4 𝑖
= + − − = −1 + 𝑖
3 3 3 3
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is not analytic, so Cauchy’s theorem is not satisfied for this function.


3. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 from 2 along |𝑧| = 2, 𝑦 ≥ 0, to -2.
Solution:
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 is analytic.
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 6𝑧 5 − 12𝑧 3 is continuous.
By Cauchy’s theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 = 0
From the Fig.2.24 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐵𝐴 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

Along AB:
2
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 )𝑑𝑧
𝐴𝐵 𝑧=−2
2
𝑧7 3𝑧 5 4 3
= [7 − ] = 26 [7 − 5]-------------(1)
5 −2
Along BA:
𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (26 𝑒 6𝑖𝜃 − 3. 24 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 )2𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐵𝐴 𝜃=0
4 3
= 26 [− 7 + 5]-------------(2)
y
Adding (1) and (2), we get ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
Hence the Cauchy’s theorem is verified.
A B
(−2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x

Cauchy’s integral formula

Significance: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is known to be analytic on the simple closed curve C, then the
values of the function and all its derivatives can be found at any point of C.
Also, an analytic function possesses derivatives of all orders and these are themselves all
analytic.
Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point
1 𝑓(𝑧)
within C, then 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧.
𝑧−𝑎
Proof:
Since ‘a’ is point within C, we shall enclose it by a circle
C1 with 𝑧 = 𝑎 as centre and r as rdius such that C1 lies
entirely within C (Fig.2.25).
Fig. 2.25. Simple closed curves

𝑓(𝑧)
The function 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular region between C and C1.
As a consequence of Cauchy’s theorem,
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ---------(i)
𝑧−𝑎 1 𝑧−𝑎
The equation of C1 (circle with centre ‘a’ and radius r) can be written in the form |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟.
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Also 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
Using these results in RHS of (i), we have
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0 𝑟𝑒
𝐶
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶
This is true for any 𝑟 > 0 however small.

Hence as 𝑟 → 0 we get,

2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶
1 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶
Generalized Cauchy’s integral formula

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ′𝑎′ is a point within
C, then
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
Proof:
We have Cauchy’s integral formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ----------(i)
𝑧−𝑎
Applying Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign, we have
1 𝜕 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) { } 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝜕𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) {(−1)(𝑧 − 𝑎)−2 (−1)}𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶
1! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 -------------(ii)
(𝑧−𝑎)2
Applying Leibnitz rule once again for (ii) we have

2! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)3
Continuing like this, after differentiating 𝑛 times we obtain
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧.
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1
Problems
𝑒 −𝑧
1. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧| = 3.
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑧 is analytic function within and on|𝑧| = 3.
Here, |𝑧| = 3 is a circle with centre (0,0) and radius 3 units.
From the Fig.2.26, 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 are the points lies within |𝑧| = 3.
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Consider = + +
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)2

Solving by partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1, 𝐶 = 1

1 1 −1 1
∴ = + +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)2 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)2
𝑒 −𝑧 −𝑧
1 −1 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑒 [ + + ] 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)2 𝐶 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)2
= 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(1) − 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(2) + 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 ′ (1) By Cauchy’s integral formula.
2𝜋𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑒 −1 − 𝑒 −2 − 𝑒 −2 = (𝑒 − 2).
𝑒2
Fig. 2.26. |𝑧| = 3

𝑧 2 −3𝑧+4
2. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where C is a) |𝑧| = 1 and b) |𝑧| = 3.
𝑧−2
Solution:
Here, let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4 is analytic within and on |𝑧| = 1 and |𝑧| = 3 as it is a polynomial.
a) |𝑧| = 1 is a circle with centre at origin and radius is 1 unit.
The point 𝑧 = 2 lies outside C.
∴ By Cauchy’s theorem, we have
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+4
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑧−2
b) |𝑧| = 3 is a circle with centre at origin and radius is 3 units.

The point 𝑧 = 2 lies inside C.
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(2)
𝐶 𝑧−2
2
As 𝑓(2) = 2 − 3(2) + 4 = 2, we have

𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 (2) = 4𝜋𝑖.
𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑧 𝑑𝑧
3. Evaluate ∫𝐶 where C is the circle given by |𝑧| = 2.
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9)
Solution:
1 1
=
(𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 9) (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 − 3)
The points 𝑧 = 3, −3 lie outside C.
The points 𝑧 = 𝑖, −𝑖 lie inside C.
𝑧
Let 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 −9.
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑔(𝑧)
Then ∫𝐶 = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9) (𝑧 2 +1)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Consider = 𝑧+𝑖 + 𝑧−𝑖.
(𝑧 2 +1)
1 1
By partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = − 2𝑖 , 𝐵 = 2𝑖.
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

𝑔(𝑧) 1 1
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = − 2𝑖 [2𝜋𝑖 𝑔(−𝑖)] + 2𝑖 [2𝜋𝑖 𝑔(𝑖)] = −𝜋𝑖/5.
(𝑧 2 +1)
e z
4. Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula C (2 z  i)3 dz where C is the circle | z  2 | 2.
Solution: Let f ( z )  e z is analytic within C and point z  0.5 lie inside C
 
e z e z  1   i  2 i2 
 i
dz  2  i 
dz 
2
 e 

C 2( z  )3 C  ( z  )3 
2  2 
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧 2
5. Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where C is the circle | z | 3 .
(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2)
Solution: 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 2 is analytic within the circle |𝑧| = 3 and the two singular
points of f ( z ) are z  1, 2 lies inside the circle.
1 −1 1
= 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2 (using partial fractions)
(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 2 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 2 ) ( − ) 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2) 𝐶 𝑧−2 𝑧−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (𝑍 − 2) 𝐶 (𝑍 − 1)
= 2𝜋𝑖 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 22 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 22 ) − 2𝜋𝑖 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 12 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 12 )

= 2𝜋𝑖 (0 + 1) − 2𝜋𝑖 (0 − 1) = 4𝜋𝑖 .

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧𝑑𝑧
6. Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula ∫𝐶 around a rectangle with vertices 2 ±
𝑧 2 −1
𝑖, −2 ± 𝑖 .
Solution: 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 is analytic in the region bounded by the given rectangle and the two
points a = 1 and a = -1 lie inside this rectangle (Fig.2.27).
Fig. 2.27. Rectangle with vertices 2 ± 𝑖, −2 ± 𝑖

1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑧2 − 1 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 + 1
⇒ 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑧 − 1)
⇒ 𝐴 = 1/2&𝐵 = −1/2
1 1 1 1
∴ = [ − ]
𝑧2
−1 2 𝑧−1 𝑧+1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝑧
∴∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧 −1 2 𝐶 𝑧−1 2 𝐶 𝑧+1
We have by Cauchy’s Integral formula
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
∫ = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎).
𝐶 𝑧−𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧𝑑𝑧
∫𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(1) = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 = −2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−1) = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠( − 𝜋)
𝑧−1 𝑧+1
= 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 = −2𝜋𝑖

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧𝑑𝑧 1 1
∴ ∫𝐶 = 2 (−2𝜋𝑖) − 2 (−2𝜋𝑖) = 0.
𝑧 2 −1
4𝑧 2 +𝑧+5
7. If 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧, where C is the ellipse (𝑥/2)2 + (𝑦/3)2 = 1, find the value of (i)
𝑧−𝑎
F(3.5) (ii) 𝐹(𝑖), 𝐹′ (−1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹′′(−𝑖).

4𝑧 2 +𝑧+5
Solution: (i) 𝐹(3.5) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧. 𝑓(𝑧) = 4𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5
𝑧−3.5

is analytic in C: (𝑥/2)2 + (𝑦/3)2 = 1,

But a = 3.5 lies outside the ellipse C.
∴ By Cauchy’s theorem
4𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝐹(3.5) = 0
𝐶 𝑧 − 3.5
(ii) 𝑓(𝑧) = 4𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5 is analytic within C & 𝑎 = 𝑖, 𝑎 = −1&𝑎 = −𝑖 all lie within the ellipse
C,
𝑓(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s theorem ∫𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)
4𝑧 2 +𝑧+5
∴ 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖(4𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 5)
𝑧−𝑎
𝐹 ′ (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖(8𝑎 + 1)&𝐹11 (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 × 8 = 16𝜋𝑖

Hence 𝐹(𝑖) = 2𝜋𝑖(4𝑖 2 + 𝑖 + 5) = 2𝜋𝑖(−4 + 𝑖 + 5) = 2𝜋𝑖(1 + 𝑖) = 2𝜋(𝑖 − 1) 𝐹 ′ (−1) =
2𝜋𝑖(8 × (−1) + 1) = 2𝜋𝑖(−8 + 1) = −14𝜋𝑖
𝐹 ′′ (−𝑖) = 16𝜋𝑖.
Exercise
Evaluate the following:
𝑑𝑧
i) ∫𝑐 (𝑧 2−4) over, i) 𝑐 :|𝑧| = 1 ii) 𝑐 :|𝑧 + 2| = 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑧 2
iii) ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 where c is the circle |𝑧| = 3 by Cauchy’s integral formula.
𝑒𝑧
iv) ∫𝑐 𝑧 2 +4 𝑑𝑧 where c is the circle |𝑧 − 1| = 2 by using Cauchy’s integral formula.
𝑒 2𝑧
v) ∫𝑐 (𝑧+1)3 𝑑𝑧 where c is |𝑧| = 3⁄2 by using Cauchy’s integral formula.
Video links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MXMDrs6ZmA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnnnv4wt-Lw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N-zd-T17uiE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7nzLD3t4Uc

Module-Ii Conformal Transformations and Complex Integration: Upon Completion of This Module, Students Will Be Able To

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module-Ii Conformal Transformations and Complex Integration: Upon Completion of This Module, Students Will Be Able To

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RV Institute of Technology & Management ®

CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND COMPLEX INTEGRATION

Topic Learning Objectives:

Upon Completion of this Module, students will be able to:

 Understand the existence, uniqueness and basic concepts of complex function.

Fig. 2.1. Transformation

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 1 | 32

I. Discussion of conformal transformations 𝒘 = 𝒛𝟐

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 2 | 32

Fig. 2.3. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 2

w  z 2  Rei  r 2e2i  R  r 2 &   2 .

i) A circle r  a in z – plane maps into R  a 2 in w - plane

II. Discussion of conformal transformations 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛 :

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 3 | 32

Let us eliminate x and y separately from (1)

Case 1: Let 𝑥 = 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 is a constant.

Fig. 2.4. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧

We shall eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (1)

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 4 | 32

Squaring and adding we obtain

To eliminate 𝑟 let us put (1) in the form

Since 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , |𝑧| = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧 = 𝜃

This represents an ellipse in the w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0).

This represents a hyperbola in the w-plane with foci (±2𝑎, 0).

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 5 | 32

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 6 | 32

Fig. 2.6. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 2

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 7 | 32

Fig. 2.8. Transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 2

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 8 | 32

We shall eliminate r and 𝜃 separately from (a)

Bilinear Transformation (BLT):

0 is called a bilinear transformation (Mobius Transformation).

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 9 | 32

a + b - 3ic – 3id = 0…..(3)

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 10 | 32

z1 = ∞, w1 = -1; the BLT is to be written in the form

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 11 | 32

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 12 | 32

w  i)( z  1)(1  i)  (w  i)( z  1)(1  i)

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 13 | 32

(0  1)(1) (1  i)(1  z ) 1 (1  z )(1  i)

Note: Standard transformation:

A bilinear transformation can be considered as a combination of these transformations.

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 14 | 32

𝑎𝑧1 +𝑏 𝑎𝑧 +𝑏 (𝑎𝑧1 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧2 +𝑑)−(𝑎𝑧2 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧1 +𝑑)

(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧1 −𝑧4 ) (𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧3 −𝑧2 )

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 15 | 32

Fig. 2.10. B Riemann

Fig. 2.11. Complex line integral along the path C

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 16 | 32

Properties of Complex line integral.

1. ∫𝐶 𝑘𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, 𝑘 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

2. ∫𝐶 [𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧)]𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

Fig. 2.12. Paths from 0 to 2+i along OA and OBA

Along OB: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2.

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 17 | 32

After integration we get

Fig. 2.13. Path from 0 to 2+i along OA

From the Fig. 2.14, Along OB:

IV-Semester, Complex Analysis, Probability and Statistical Methods (18MAT41) P a g e 18 | 32

Fig. 2.14. Path from 0 to 2+i along OBA

𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1. ii) the straight line joining (1 − 𝑖)& (2 + 𝑖).