1 8 International migration what is migratio: tion is the movement of people from one region to a Ma, emay be permanent oF temporary and may be an ithin one country internal migration) or from one ‘other (international migration) country t0 a" ligation can also be classified as voluntary or involuntary (of forced) movement. International migration is the movement of people from one country to another. It is often from developing countries to developed countries, but does also occur from developed countries to developing countries. A person who moves from one region or country to another is called an immigrant to the place where they sete Aperson who leaves one region or country and settles in another is called an emigrant from the original region or country. Voluntary migrants are those who migrate to join weativs orto find a better quality of life for themselves and their children Involuntary or forced migration occurs when a country ' ©iperiencing oppression or natural disaster and the Population moves away, often to preserve their lives, to *e25 where they think that life will be safer and better. Why people migrate __— : le migrate for many reasons, but there are (wo broad ategories to ‘scape from circumstances in their home country Pause they ate attracted by the opportunities offered another country, th Fact O'S can be influence a decision Migrate acting at once to i | Reasons for permanent international migration @ Push and pull factors If people are driven, for whatever reason, to escape the circumstances in their own country, the factors are push factors. The opportunities in another country that attract people to the country of destination are pull factors. Push factors include: © political discrimination © victimisation © unemployment © lower incomes © limited opportunities for personal progression. Pull factors include: © political tolerance © freedoms © employment opportunities © higher incomes © opportunities for success. b Insearch of employment In the Caribbean, where unemployment hovers at around 20% of the labour force, many people have emigrated to metropolitan areas such as London, New York and Toronto in search of jobs. Caribbean nationals are accepted abroad for their skills, with factors such as education job experience and prearranged employment facilitating movement abroad Generally, unemployment, low standards of living. lack of social services and slow economic growth rates have promoted this outward or push movement. However, many developed countries are restricting the numbers of immigrants they accept. One reason is to secure jobs and maintain adequate services for their own nationals. The Caribbean region is one of the areas of the world with the highest migration rates for people with tertiary-level education, Because of the struggle to find jobs at home, many university graduates and other job-seekers prefer to go abroad to look for employment.Migration represents an opportunity for career development, a chance to earn a higher salary and to secure the family in a more comfortable environment Figure 18.1 Haiti: many of the population leave in search of employment abroad, a common reason for migration (ohn A.M. Rahil) € The attraction of higher earnings Many people in developing countries are attracted by the higher earnings offered in the more developed countries and the higher spending power of the GB pound or the US dollar. They are dissatisfied with their standard of living and their chances of promotion in their existing jobs and believe that a developed country offers more opportunities, However, restrictions are often placed on the number of people who can enter these developed countries Immigrants are attracted by higher salaries and better opportunities to work in a chosen field of employment. Emigration rates of skilled labour are high in small countries and small island nations. Guyana, Haiti, Grenada and Jamaica have each lost more than 80% of their skilled workforce. The influx of skilled workers in destination countries contributes to their economic growth. The USA. the United Kingdom and Canada have been recruiting people with skills in fields such as teaching, health-care and computer technology. Skilled, qualified people migrate to fill a void in the work-force in the destination country. The poor and the unskilled are the least likely to be accepted as migrants into countries within the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, which comprise thirty of the world’s richest nations. 4 The desire to live abroad: aequiring spony, ‘P ge Another motivating factor is the desire to lve in with al the attractions that they offer. Cities suc York, London or Toronto offer improved livin and thousands of Caribbean nationals have citizenship in developed countries. Some ha sponsored by spouses or by elderly parents, have been admitted even with little formal e few skills, nti 1B Stand, acquirey ve been, While oe ducation ang Emigration is a common desire among young, e People. In a survey conducted at Camperdown Hig in Kingston, Jamaica, many students expressed th, to live abroad. In 2006, a survey of 50 students in Street, San Fernando, Trinidad, produced a similar The International Monetary Fund (IMF) indicates th of Caribbean people who have been educated be secondary school level have migrated intemation: ~ generally to the countries of the OECD. yond # Figure 18.2 The Statue of Liberty, symbol of the USA? ‘major emigration target for people from the Caribbeat € Religious tolerance Some governments may sometimes deny their peoPle the freedom to practise their own religious beliefs. "® may cause people to leave their homeland. In 1959: Mennonites from El Salvador settled in Belize to t3K¢ advantage of the religious freedom the country offe® There was a policy of planned immigration. The Lew took up farming and, since their arrival, have conto) significantly to agricultural development in Belzpeltcal asylum or political freedom some counties. FNBES IM BOVEMNMENE may cause sorters ofthe previous Fegime to leave ther af esdence of politcal asylum in anther ca Country and Magee movements across national borders are riecddel and abrupt lyin 1980. Belize. with a small population, began to poeience an influx of refugees from Central America, tal! Salvador. International financial capital was made paiable to Belize to help develop the country and, at the ‘onetime, to help provide a permanent home for some of she refugees freed international migration The report of a United Nations Commission on Human fights in 2005 indicated that young Haitians fearing goltial persecution, political and economic instability and economic poverty were being smuggled into the Dominican gepublic to work as child prostitutes or were forced into other degrading occupations. 2 Reasons for temporary international migration Migration for seasonal work Some people from the Caribbean work on a seasonal basis on farms in Canada and the USA during the harvesting seison, Under a Canadian Federal Programme, temporary Migrants are involved in harvesting and doing other work that ew Canadians will take on. Managed international migration for seasonal work is C&ssed 2s temporary migration. It is 0 organised 7 wet of workers from the Caribbean and is smu nite workers from the Caribbean as well 25 se homes are in the target countries. Temporary Dent workers seek employment not only on farms but 2S0in hotels and other seasonal industries with labour Srtages = Within the Caribbean, temporary migration IS nec eng With seasonal labour shortages. Hatin WONT tie p2*4 On sugarcane plantations and other fms dug fas ontsting season in the Dominican Repub. Bats Ib wy labour from the Eastern Caribbean th its sugarcane harvest. 3 Voluntary international migra Natural hazards and disasters Natural disasters and environmental degradation provide @ strong motive for international migration. Climate change and hazardous natural phenomena mean that the number Of people seeking to migrate is increasing. In the past. the Populations of areas at risk Irom environmental problems such as hurricanes, volcanic activities, flooding and drought would not have had the opportunity to migrate and to safeguard their lives, but cheap. efficient transport has made such movements common. The need for such movements will continue if climate change develops in the way scientists predict. Consequences of international migration : Migration can have both positive and negative consequences. 1 Positive consequences a Employment opportunities Many immigrants are able to find employment, earn money, in the form of wages or salaries, and raise their standard of living. They are able to acquire their own homes and provide better futures for their children, in terms of education and the availability of public and social services. Migration is only a temporary method of solving unemployment problems in the developing world. Outward migration helps to restrict the natural rate of increase of the population. b Remittances Immigrants often send money, or remittances, to their families in their home countries. In this way, immigrants are able to assist their families who may be financially dependent upon them. This also provides vital foreign exchange in the home countries. ‘According to an industrial development bank report, two- thirds of the Caribbean workers who have emigrated send money to their families on a regular basis “The importance of remittances reflects the reality of the job shortages in the Caribbean. Remittances are a vital source f income for thousands of Caribbean families. The money that they receive helps to alleviate poverty and is vitalto the survival of individual families. Within a couple of yeats, the money sent home by graduates and professionals pays for the cost of their education. It also constitutes a major source of foreign exchange. Remittances not only assist in aspects of national development, such as house-building and paying for education, but it is estimated that 10% to 15% of such temittances contribute towards savings and investment in small businesses. Globally, migrant workers’ remittances represent the second largest international monetary trade. after petroleum. The International Monetary Fund (iMF) reported that the Caribbean is the world’s largest recipient of worker remittance in proportion to gross domestic product (GDP). Remittances in 2002 accounted for 13% of the region's GDP. Foreign direct investment (FDI) was only 6% and official development assistance (ODA) was only 1%. Although there are advantages to be gained by emigrating, itis becoming increasingly difficult to migrate to developed countries as they themselves are experiencing social and economic problems. ¢ Returning international migrants Many migrants who return to the Caribbean do so at economically active ages, having acquired skills and experience abroad. They have much to contribute to the Caribbean economy. ® Figure 18.3 Remittances sent to Latin America and the Caribbean (US$ million) Jamaica Haiti 1651-1077 _Dominican Republic Honduras a 1763 Trinidad and Tobago Nicaragua 97 Guatemala 2993 El Salvador 2830 Costa Rica 362 Ecuador 2005 Guyana In Antigua, Dominica, St Vincent and St Lucia, etiey returnees often bring with them guaranteed pension, s0 2 flow of income is assured, not only fr the returns themselves, but also for their country 2s foreign extn, d Political asylum Many immigrants are able to live a more peaceful ie when they are given politcal asylum. The oppression ang suppression in some countries. such as El Salvador in Central America, together with civil wars, encourage poy who feel threatened to escape being victimised in ther ‘own countries and to seek new lives elsewhere, Hatan migrants, for example, have sought refuge in Jamaica, ty Bahamas and the USA. Refugee movement accounts jo, half of all international migration € Religious freedom ‘immigrants sometimes choose their new country because they will be allowed the freedom of religion that was denied them in their home country. Some immigrants such as the Mennonites in Belize have even established their ‘own farming communities. 2 Negative consequences of international migration @ Poor housing conditions Some immigrants who leave their homeland, whether permanently or temporarily, find that there is huge demard for housing accommodation in their new home area. leading to high rents that new immigrants cannot afford. In addition, they are often faced with a higher cost of living than they experienced in their own countries. AS a result, they are often forced to settle for poor-quality accommodation in apartments or even less desirable accommodation such as attics or basements. Migration also places a strain on social services inthe ho countries. Unemployment rises as competition for work increases and industries are unable to absorb the influx! people. tp b Dissatisfaction with available employment: non-recognition of skills Itis often the case that skils and qualifications achieved by migrants home are not recognised in the Fos counties. This is a barrier to peaPl finding jobs commensurate with skills. They have to retrain for pos! within the careers that they ale follow. Suriname ied Some migrants prefer to take wns jobs for instant financial rewards -annot afford to undereo expens*™retraning.Courses oF search for skilled jobs. Many can only find work in the caring professions, looking after the old. the sick and the disabled. Faced with such frustrations. many opt to return home within a short time. ¢ Loss of skilled workers When skilled workers have been lost through migration more people must be trained to take up the vacancies left This involves both time and money. Labourers and service workers form a significant part of the migrant labour force and this leads to labour shortages in some agricultural areas in the home countries. Many of the migrants are young and educated and they would have been a very valuable asset for rural development had they stayed in their home countries Emigration of skilled workers causes underdevelopment. The loss of human capital has direct financial implications as the emigration of educated people drains countries of a valuable resource for development and wellbeing d Loss of trained educational and technical workers: the brain drain The migration of trained educational and technical workers is serious economic loss. Such migration is called the brain drain, and has a serious impact on countries Employers in the Caribbean are unable to compete with countries that promise bigger salaries. better working conditions and political stability so the Caribbean region is losing very large numbers of its most educated people. The brain drain deals a blow to weaker economies of the Caribbean. Not only are the best human resources lost, but so is the money spent on training them. Frequently immigrants from other countries have to be employed, at exorbitant rates. These are frequently immigrants from the USA or the UK. who are known colloquially as ‘expatriates or expats. The brain drain undermines the Caribbean's economic Browth and damages prospects for political reform. A shortage of philosophers (thinkers) and intellectuals slows Progress towards good governance, greater democracy and improved human rights. ‘The true beneficiaries of the scarce financial resources that Caribbean counties, particularly, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago spend on the education of their brightest Deople, are the richest nations who can afford to offer high incomes, € Labour shortages Labour shortages in various fields of development result when workers migrate seasonally, to work on farms or in other related jobs. The migrants represent a significant number of the ablest and most active people, and their absence from the local labour market has a negative impact on the social and economic development of the Caribbean Labour problems or labour shortages in the home country exist in © agriculture © industrial factories © construction services. Seasonal workers complain about: © health and safety violations © poor working conditions © disruption to family life © the lack of security of employment. f Poor career prospects for returning international migrants Many migrants plan to return home at some stage and many of them do eventually return home. At home, however, they are faced with limited opportunities, lower living standards, political insecurity and an uncertain future. This is why many international migrants do not return to their home country until they have retired from work and have a secure pension g Ethnic segregation Migrants tend to settle in a local environment with people of similar ethnicity. This may cause the indigenous Population to feel uncomfortable. Sometimes, ethnic disagreements take place and this may even result in physical confrontations. h Social resentment Many people in host counties feel resentment towards immigrants, especially when there are large numbers and they settle in a close community. They may feel uncomfortable in their own countries; they may think their own jobs are threatened. This means that they do ‘not readily show feelings of goodwill to immigrants. They feel that an influx of foreigners contributes towards a shortage of housing, high unemployment, an increase in foreign debt and an increased demand on the country’s social services. They fear, rightly or wrongly. the additional economic burden of supporting such immigrants.Jamaica 10000] 1599 1961 1983 1995 1997 1999 2007 1500 | ‘The Bahamas ol 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997, 1999 2001 St Vincent and the Grenadines 400) 200] i999 1991 1993 1995 1997, 1999 2001 10000 Ojg99 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Figure 18.4 Emigration from the Caribbean tothe USA, 4989-2002 Patterns and consequences of international migration for tw. Caribbean countries 1 Jamaica Some 2.5 million Jamaicans live outside Jamaica, yg under a million are in the USA. a Reasons for Jamaica’s international migration Push factors include © economic conditions - minimal employment opportunities © low earning potential © rural poverty © poor social services. Pull factors include: © better employment opportunities © higher rates of pay © good educational facilities © improved quality of life b Finaneial benefits of international migration to Jamaica Intemational migration from Jamaica has brought 2 flow of remittances. These are now the largest sourcect foreign exchange in Jamaica, As a percentage of Jamaics GDP. remittances exceed the traditional foreign cuency earners, bauxite and sugar. In 2005 Jamaica received US$ 6 billion in remittances from the LISA and the UK € Jamaican Government policy The Jamaican Government recognises the importance the Jamaican migrants overseas. The Returning Resider® Facilitation Unit was established in 1993 and, in 1998 it was upgraded to the Jamaica Overseas Department * 2002, it was given ministerial recognition. Jamaican residents in the USA can be asked to lobbY °° behalf of Jamaica. They are a potential and significant force for lobbying the US Government to suppor he Jamaican Government's initiatives in international The Government of Jamaica also promotes proea™™ such as the Returning of Talent Programme, Suppo" . the International Organisation for Migration to enco™™ the return of Jamaican nationals. in 1991, Jamaica received US$153 milion in emitare ‘In 1997, US$603 million was received. cp ‘In 2002, it climbed to USS1.2 billion, which epr Of Jamaica's gross national product (GNP): Jamaica received over US$1.4 billion i9 and in 2005 US$1.6 billion. as BRIG 12.5. Remittances sent to Jamaica ~ select!@ Returning immigrants and national development ‘Some returning migrants contribute to national development through their skills and their educational and ofessional experience. Others contribute through their cial capital. in the form of investment, or through retirement income consequences of international migration Jamaica has lost 52,288 highly skilled als to North America alone. This represents the output of Jamaica's educational system aie ugh the loss of skilled professionals is very ‘to Jamaica, the loss of rural workers through also important. Migration can lead to : workers on farms and the labour shortages cultural development to suffer. ‘slowdown in economic development ‘and educated people - the brain drain n adverse effect on the Jamaican economy, th. To make things worse, many ‘to use their skills in their host victims of occupational sands of people are unable to find ‘expertise so they reluctantly take up. population of the host todo. ts are highly educated, they rs and night-shifts, forming a kind of ‘Many work as street vendors, te security services and as road the poorest country in the Americas. Most of its 9 eople eam less than US$2 a day. ut 75% of the population of 9 million live in rural where the average population density is estimated above 300 people per square kilometre. The overall tion density is said to the highest in the western Since the 1950s, the annual population h rate in Port-au-Prince in Haiti has been 3.5%. arding to the Organisation of American States (OAS), lion illegal Haitian immigrants are believed in factories, sugar plantations and cattle Dominican Republic. About 15 000 immigration visas for the USA are to Haitians yearly and, since 1999, some 75.000 US immigration visas have been issued to Haitians from Port au-Prince, the capital, alone. ued Haitians seek employment, legally or illegally. It is estimated that, since 1981, some 100 000 illegal immigrants (boat people) from Haiti have arrived undetected in Florida, USA. b US policy on Haitian immigration Itis US policy to reduce immigration from Haiti. The USA is offering help to Haiti through its economic growth programmes. These focus on credit for micro-businesses and marketing and aim to help small farmers and artisans. ¢ Forces driving migration Fear of political persecution and poverty ma people want to leave. Many Haitians depart crammed into rickety fishing boats, seeking political and economic stability elsewhere. They often enter their destination country illegally ome There was great instability in Haiti after the over throw of President Aristide in November 1991 and many Haitians sought political asylum in Jamaica, the Bahamas and the USA, Some Haitians even took to the seas. trying to reach the USA. From December 1990 to June 1992. a tota ‘of 38 000 Haitians made their way illegally to the USA. although most were repatriated, as asylum-seekers have to show evidence of political or social persecution Ilegal Haitian migrants were also detained by the Jamaican authorities as they arrived from Haiti, One thousand Haitian migrants have been detained in Jamaica since the year 2000. Their fate was to be transferred to a detention centre, before being deported back to their home country. Remittances and their consequences © Remittances from migrants provide an infusion of foreign capital into the Haitian economy. © Remittances support thousands of Haitian families © In 2004, Haiti received US$! billion in remittances Remittances are not, however, without disadvantages, Which include the loss through migration of skilled professional workers and skilled workers from rural areas. € After the earthquake of 12 January 2010 The earthquake that devastated Haiti caused huge loss of life and massive damage to buildings and infrastructure twill take many years for life to return to normal. Unemployment was high before the earthquake; many jobs have disappeared. raising unemployment levels even higher. This will be a major push factor for migration. as people. desoerate for a better life, seek to leaveMigration: key facts ____——~ © Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, within the same country or from one country to another. Rural residents often migrate to urban areas in search of employment © Migration is age and gender selective, consisting mainly of young men © Migrants are often the best educated and fittest of the population, those that their home countries cannot afford to lose. © Migrants often take up heavy or menial jobs that the existing population do not want. © Remittances are sums of money sent by migrants from abroad to their families in their own country. Remittances are a benefit of migration. Problems of migration People who work illegally: © receive low wages © may pay exorbitant rent for accommodation © face unnecessary charges, such as Payment for Social Security cards © have no entitlement to sickness benefits or to legal aid Driving forces of migration Push factors Pull factors Rural poverty Environment | | Decline in rural incomes Higher wages | Poor living conditions Higher standard of living Surplus labour Higher quality of urban jobs |