Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analyses 91

Assuming that the pressure ratio is the same in both the compressor and the turbine;
the following relationships hold using the pressure ratio in the compressor:

T1
ηideal = 1 − (2-7)
T2

and using the pressure ratio in the turbine:

T4
ηideal = 1 − (2-8)
T3

In the case of the actual cycle, the effect of the turbine compressor (ηc ) and the
efficiencies of expander (ηt ) must also be taken into account, to obtain the overall
adiabatic thermal cycle efficiency between the firing temperature Tf and the ambient
temperature Tamb of the turbine. This relationship is given in the following equation:
 
Tamb r
( γ γ−1 )  
ηt Tf − p
 
ηc 1
ηcycle = 
 
 1 − (2-9)

!
( γ −1
)
 
γ −1
γ

rp −1  γ
rp

Tf − Tamb − Tamb ηc

Figure 2-2 shows the effect on the overall adiabatic thermal cycle efficiency of
the increasing pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The increase in the pressure
ratio increases the overall efficiency at a given firing temperature; however, increasing
the pressure ratio beyond a certain value at any given firing temperature can actually
result in lowering the overall cycle efficiency. It should also be noted that the very
high-pressure ratios tend to reduce the operating range of the turbine compressor. This
causes the turbine compressor to be much more intolerant to dirt build up in the inlet
air filter and on the compressor blades and creates large drops in the efficiency and

55 2400 °F(1316 °C)

50 2200 ° F(1204 °C)
2000 °F(1094 °C)
45
Cycle efficiency (%)

40 1700 °F(927 °C)

35
30 1500 °F(815 °C)
25
20
15
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Pressure ratio

Figure 2-2 Overall cycle efficiency as a function of the firing temperature and pressure ratio.
Based on a compressor efficiency of 87% and a turbine efficiency of 92%
92 Design: Theory and Practice

performance of the adiabatic thermal cycle. In some cases, it can lead to compressor
surge, which in turn can lead to a flameout or even serious damage and failure of the
compressor blades and the radial and thrust bearings of the gas turbine.
To obtain a more accurate relationship between the overall adiabatic thermal cycle’s
efficiency and the inlet turbine temperatures, overall pressure ratios, and output work,
consider the following relationships. For the maximum overall adiabatic thermal cycle
efficiency, the following equation gives the optimum pressure ratio for fixed inlet
temperatures and efficiencies of the compressor and turbine:
 
1
(rp )ecopt = T1 T3 ηt
T1 T3 ηt − T1 T3 + T12
q   γ γ−1
− (T1 T3 ηt )2 − (T1 T3 ηt − T1 T3 + T12 )(T32 ηc ηt − T1 T3 ηc ηt + T1 T3 ηt )
(2-10)

The above equation for no losses in the compressor and turbine (ηc = ηt = 1)
reduces to:
  γ γ−1
T1 T3
(rp )eopt = (2-11)
T12

The optimum pressure ratio for maximum output work for a turbine taking into
account the adiabatic thermal efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine expander
section can be expressed by the following relationship:
 γ γ−1
T3 ηc ηt
 
1
rpwopt = + (2-12)
2T1 2

Figure 2-3 shows the optimum pressure ratio for maximum adiabatic thermal effi-
ciency or work per pounds (kilogram) of air. The optimum pressure ratio based on
work occurs at a lower pressure ratio than the point of maximum adiabatic thermal
efficiency at the same firing temperature.
Thus, a cursory inspection of the adiabatic thermal efficiency indicates that the
overall adiabatic thermal efficiency of a cycle can be improved by increasing the pres-
sure ratio or by increasing the turbine inlet temperature and the work per pounds (kilo-
gram) of air can be increased by increasing the pressure ratio, by increasing the turbine
inlet temperature, or by decreasing the inlet temperature.

Regeneration Effect
In a simple gas turbine cycle, the turbine exit temperature is nearly always appreciably
higher than the temperature of the air leaving the compressor. Obviously, the fuel
requirement can be reduced by the use of a regenerator in which the hot turbine exhaust
Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analyses 93

3000
Firing temperature (°F)

2500
Based on max work
2000 Based on max efficiency
1500

1000

500

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Pressure ratio

Figure 2-3 Pressure ratio based on maximum efficiency or work at various firing
temperatures. Based on a compressor efficiency of 87% and a turbine efficiency of 92%.

6 5

2 3 4
Turbine
Combustor
W
Compressor

T
4

3
6

Figure 2-4 The regenerative gas turbine cycle.

94 Design: Theory and Practice

gas preheats the air between the compressor and the combustion chamber. Figure 2-4
shows a schematic diagram of the regenerative cycle and its performance in the T–S
diagram. In an ideal case, the flow through the regenerator is at constant pressure. The
regenerator effectiveness (ε) is given by the following relationship:

T3 − T2
ε reg = (2-13)
T5 − T2

Thus, the overall adiabatic thermal cycle efficiency for this system can be written as:

(T4 − T5 ) − (T2 − T1 )
ηRCYC = (2-14)
(T4 − T3 )

Increasing the effectiveness of a regenerator calls for more heat-transfer surface

area, which increases the cost, the pressure drop, and the space requirements of the
unit.
Figure 2-5 shows the improvement in cycle adiabatic thermal efficiency because
of heat recovery with respect to a simple open-cycle gas turbine of 4.33:1 ratio pres-
sure and 1200 ◦ F inlet temperature. Cycle adiabatic thermal efficiency drops with an
increasing pressure drop in the regenerator.
There are two types of heat exchangers, namely regenerative and recuperative. The
term “regenerative heat exchanger” is used for a system in which the heat transfer
between the two streams is affected by the exposure of a third medium alternately
to the two flows. The heat flows successively in and out of the third medium, which
undergoes a cyclic temperature. These types of heat exchangers are widely used where
compactness is essential. The automotive regenerators consisted of a large circular

30
Cycle thermal efficiency (ηTH)

ΔPG
0
20 1
2

10

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Heat exchanger thermal ratio
ΔPG heat exchanger gas-side pressure drop (lb/psi)

Figure 2-5 Variation of a gas turbine cycle efficiency with heat exchanger performance.
Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analyses 95

drum with honeycombed ceramic passages. The drum was rotated at a very low rpm
(10–15 rpm). The drum surface was divided into two halves by an air seal. The hot air
would pass through one-half of the circular drum heating the honeycombed passages
the air would encounter, and then the cooler air would pass through the same passages
and as the drum was rotated, it would be heated.
In a recuperative heat exchanger, each element of heat-transferring surface has a
constant temperature and, by arranging the gas paths in contraflow, the temperature
distribution in the matrix in the direction of flow is that giving optimum performance
for the given heat-transfer conditions. This optimum temperature distribution can be
achieved ideally in a contra-flow regenerator and approached very closely in a cross-
flow regenerator.
The matrix permitting the maximum flow per unit area will yield the smaller regen-
erator for a given thermal and pressure drop performance. A material with a high heat
capacity per unit volume is preferred, since this property of the material will increase
the switching time and tend to reduce carry-over losses. Another desirable property of
the arrangement is low thermal conductivity in the direction of the gas flow. All leak-
ages within the regenerator must be avoided. A leakage of 3% reduces the regenerator
effectiveness from 80% to 71%.

Increasing the Work Output of the Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine

The way to enhance the power output of a gas turbine can be achieved by intercooling
and reheating.

Intercooling and Reheating Effects

The net work of a gas turbine cycle is given by:

Wcyc = Wt − Wc (2-15)

and can be increased either by decreasing the work of the compressor or by increasing
the work of turbine; these are the purposes of intercooling and reheating, respectively.
Multi-staging of compressors is sometimes used to allow for cooling between the
stages to reduce the total work input. Figure 2-6 shows a polytropic compression pro-
cess 1–a on the P–V plane. If there is no change in the kinetic energy, the work done is
represented by the area 1–a–j–k–1. A constant temperature line is shown as 1–x. If the
polytropic compression from State one to two is divided into two parts, 1–c and d–e,
with constant pressure cooling to Td = T1 between them, the work done is represented
by area 1–c–d–e–I–k–1. The area c–a–e–d–c represents the work saved by means of
the two-stage compression with intercooling to the initial temperature. The optimum
pressure for intercooling for specified values P1 and P2 is:
p
POPT = P1 P2 (2-16)