JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 109, B12408, doi:10.

1029/2003JB002547, 2004

Geomorphology, kinematic history, and earthquake behavior

of the active Kuwana wedge thrust anticline, central Japan
Tatsuya Ishiyama,1 Karl Mueller,2 Masami Togo,3 Atsumasa Okada,4 and Keiji Takemura5
Received 21 April 2003; revised 30 September 2004; accepted 14 October 2004; published 31 December 2004.

[1] We combine surface mapping of fault and fold scarps that deform late Quaternary
alluvial strata with interpretation of a high-resolution seismic reflection profile to develop
a kinematic model and determine fault slip rates for an active blind wedge thrust system
that underlies Kuwana anticline in central Japan. Surface fold scarps on Kuwana
anticline are closely correlated with narrow fold limbs and angular hinges on the seismic
profile that suggest at least
1.3 km of fault slip completely consumed by folding in the
upper 4 km of the crust. The close coincidence and kinematic link between folded
terraces and the underlying thrust geometry indicate that Kuwana anticline has
accommodated slip at an average rate of 2.2 ± 0.5 mm/yr on a 27
, west dipping thrust
fault since early-middle Pleistocene time. In contrast to classical fault bend folds the fault
slip budget in the stacked wedge thrusts also indicates that (1) the fault tip propagated
upward at a low rate relative to the accrual of fault slip and (2) fault slip is partly absorbed
by numerous bedding plane flexural-slip faults above the tips of wedge thrusts. An historic
earthquake that occurred on the Kuwana blind thrust system possibly in A.D. 1586 is
shown to have produced coseismic surface deformation above the doubly vergent
wedge tip. Structural analyses of Kuwana anticline coupled with tectonic geomorphology
at 103 –105 years timescales illustrate the significance of active folds as indicators of slip
on underlying blind thrust faults and thus their otherwise inaccessible seismic
hazards. INDEX TERMS: 8005 Structural Geology: Folds and folding; 8020 Structural Geology:
Mechanics; 8107 Tectonophysics: Continental neotectonics; 9320 Information Related to Geographic Region:
Asia; 9604 Information Related to Geologic Time: Cenozoic; KEYWORDS: active fault, wedge thrust fold,
tectonic landform, coseismic folding, flexural-slip fault, central Japan
Citation: Ishiyama, T., K. Mueller, M. Togo, A. Okada, and K. Takemura (2004), Geomorphology, kinematic history, and
earthquake behavior of the active Kuwana wedge thrust anticline, central Japan, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B12408,
doi:10.1029/2003JB002547.

1. Introduction 1968; Nakata, 1976; Ikeda, 1983; Ikeda et al., 2002]. Other
studies outside Japan also point to the significance of active
[2] Honshu Island, Japan, is located in an intraplate
folds and their importance as indicators of slip on underly-
tectonic environment where shortening above subducted
ing blind thrusts [Philip and Meghraoui, 1983; Rockwell et
oceanic crust is accommodated by fold-and-thrust belts that
al., 1984, 1988; Bullard and Lettis, 1993; Molnar et al.,
bound, or are located within Neogene sedimentary basins
1994; Burbank et al., 1996; Shaw and Suppe, 1996; Mueller
[Research Group for Active Faults, 1991; Okada and Togo,
and Suppe, 1997; Shaw and Shearer, 1999; Benedetti et al.,
2000; Ikeda et al., 2002; Nakata and Imaizumi, 2002].
2000, 2003; Lavé and Avouac, 2000; Champion et al.,
Following early work by Otsuka [1941] and Ikebe [1942],
2001; Shaw et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2002; Dolan et
who related deformation of fluvial terraces to active growth
al., 2003]. Tectonic landforms are thus widely recognized
of underlying folds in northeastern Japan, many other active
for their utility in providing finite strain markers and
folds have been identified throughout the archipelago by
recording growth of active folds. Understanding of their
analysis of deformed landforms [cf. Nakamura and Ota,
structural link with underlying thrusts and the geomorphic
signal of active folding caused by individual earthquakes
1 are, however, still in its infancy [Kelson et al., 1996;
Active Fault Research Center, Geological Survey of Japan, National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan.
Mueller et al., 1999; Champion et al., 2001; Hung and
2
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Suppe, 2002] and remains a focus for future work.
Colorado, USA. [3] The geometry of fault-related folds has been linked to
3
Department of Geoscience, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan. underlying thrusts since the early work of Rich [1934].
4
Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
5
Institute for Geothermal Sciences, Kyoto University, Beppu, Japan.
Although numerous models of fault-related folds have
subsequently been developed, end-member models are
Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union. commonly assigned to those that grow by fault bend
0148-0227/04/2003JB002547$09.00 [Suppe, 1983; Medwedeff, 1992; Medwedeff and Suppe,

B12408 1 of 20
B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

135˚E 136˚ 137˚

36˚N
130˚E 140˚
(b) Japan Sea Legend
(a)
45˚N

NA Active thrust faults,

NIFZ
barbs on hanging
EU
wall sides
Lake Figure 2(a)
Biwa Active strike-slip faults
Japan Sea
NG
Active faults

35˚
ench
Honshu Island approximately located
KT

n Tr
Epicenter of the 1995
ISTL

(b)
pa
Tokyo OS Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Ja Ise Bay
35˚

(Kobe) earthquake
PA Inactive MTL (MJMA7.2)
MTL Osaka
Bay MTL
ug
h Active NIFZ
kai Tro Major cities
n
Na
PHS 50 km Lake
34˚

Figure 1. (a) Regional tectonic setting of Japan. Solid lines with barbs indicate plate boundaries. Dashed
lines indicate major geologic boundaries within the Japan island arc. Abbreviations are EU, Eurasian Plate;
NA, North American Plate; PA, Pacific Plate; PHS, Philippine Sea Plate; ISTL, Itoigawa-Shizuoka
Tectonic Line; MTL, Median Tectonic Line. (b) Shaded relief map based on Geographical Survey Institute
250-m digital elevation model (DEM) showing the topography and distribution of active faults within the
Kinki region, central Japan. Locations of active faults are from Nakata and Imaizumi [2002] and Ikeda et
al. [2002]. Abbreviations are OS, Osaka; KT, Kyoto; NG, Nagoya; NIFZ, Nobi-Ise fault zone.

1997] and trishear fault propagation mechanisms [Erslev,
1991; Hardy and Ford, 1997; Allmendinger, 1998]. These
models allow appropriate restoration of deformed strata
based on quantitative relationships between fault and fold
geometry and the amount of slip on fault planes, given
conservation of bed areas during deformation. Stratigraphic
growth architecture also provides an independent and pow-
erful means of constraining fold kinematics and their growth
histories [Suppe et al., 1992; Shaw and Suppe, 1994; Suppe
et al., 1997; Allmendinger and Shaw, 2000]. Strategies for
building robust fault-related fold models [Suppe and Chang,
1983; Woodward et al., 1989; Mount et al., 1990] are based
on well defined stratal geometry (dip and thickness) imaged
in the seismic profiles, the strike and dip of strata exposed at
the ground surface and borehole data located along the cross
section. Axial surface mapping of active folds [Shaw et al.,
1994; Shaw and Suppe, 1996; Novoa et al., 1998] also
provides a means of assessing their kinematic development
and along-strike distribution of fault slip, based on the
assumption that the underlying blind thrusts propagate
laterally as they accumulate slip [Mueller and Talling,
1997].
[4] We present new structural models, maps of young
deformed landforms and older strata, and a high-resolution
seismic profile acquired for this study to define the kine-
matic evolution and geometry of Kuwana anticline along
the Nobi-Ise fault zone (NIFZ), an active, intraplate, east
verging thrust belt that extends for 110 km in central Japan
[Ikeda et al., 2002]. This paper is focused on the northern
half of the NIFZ, where we constrain rates of slip on
underlying blind thrusts since early Quaternary time.
Kuwana anticline has formed at the leading edge of a larger
system of active folds and extends northwest-southwest for
20 km along the western margin of the Nobi and Ise plains.
The central portion of Kuwana anticline is ideal for struc-
tural analysis in that its subsurface fold geometry is tightly
constrained by a high-resolution seismic reflection profile
acquired for this study [Ishiyama, 2002]. In addition,
surface folding is recorded by well preserved fluvial terraces
over the center of Kuwana anticline, providing an opportu-
nity to document deformation mechanisms that have acted
to build it since late Pleistocene time.
[5] In our view, Kuwana anticline is perhaps most sig-
nificant because it appears to have accommodated shorten-
ing during a historic blind thrust earthquake in A.D. 1586
[Sugai et al., 1998], which is expressed as a narrow kink
band in late Holocene sediments in the Nobi plain. This
structure thus joins a small group of fault bend folds known
to have grown by coseismic folding during blind thrust
earthquakes, suggesting an important link between other-
wise hidden faults and their coseismic expression on Earth’s
surface.
2. Regional Setting of Kuwana Anticline
[6] Kuwana anticline lies at the eastern end of an array of
active folds within the NIFZ that defines the eastern edge of
the Kinki region of central Japan (Figure 1). The Kinki
region is located between a Mesozoic accretionary wedge in
central and southwestern Japan and high-grade metamor-
phic rocks bounded by the Median Tectonic Line (MTL) to
the south. The region is characterized by an array of north
trending thrust sheets, separated by Neogene basins [Yeats
et al., 1997]. Shortening within the Kinki region appears to
accommodate right-lateral displacement on the MTL north-
ward, toward the Japan Sea.
[7] The northern NIFZ is defined by east vergent, thick-
skinned thrusts, based on balanced cross sections and seismic

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Figure 2. (a) Shaded relief map based on a 6-m DEM showing the locations of active thrusts in the
northern portion of the NIFZ. Barbs indicate hanging wall sides of active thrusts. (b) Generalized cross
section across the northern NIFZ [Ishiyama et al., 2002a]. Kuwana anticline comprises the leading edge
of a larger system of active folds that deform a 1.5-km-thick sequence of Pliocene-Pleistocene strata
deposited in the Nobi basin. Abbreviations are Tt, Tokai Group; Tk, Pliocene-Pleistocene Kobiwako
Group; QTc, Chikarao Formation; QTo, Owari Group.

reflection profiles [Ishiyama et al., 2002a] (Figure 2). The
Suzuka and Yoro Mountains form the stripped cores of the
two largest structures in the NIFZ and expose Triassic-
Jurassic strata that are thrust eastward over a 1.5-km-thick
sequence of Pliocene-Pleistocene strata deposited in the Nobi
basin. The Suzuka Mountains are bounded by an emergent
thrust along its eastern flank, the Fumotomura fault, while the
Yoro Mountains are underlain by a blind thrust that is
expressed as fold scarps along its eastern flank [Ishiyama et
al., 1999; Togo, 2000; Ishiyama et al., 2002b].
[8] Kuwana anticline extends from the southern termina-
tion of the central core of the Yoro Mountains (i.e., Igai
anticline) to the southwest for
20 km (Figure 3). Kuwana
anticline is an east vergent, southward plunging anticline
defined by a steeply east dipping forelimb and a more
gently dipping and broader back limb. The crest of the fold
varies from a sharp anticlinal hinge at its northern end to a
broad, gently dipping plunge panel at its southern end.
Topography across the fold coincides closely with a decrease
in structural relief from north to south, based on stratigraphic
units exposed in the core of the fold. Kuwana anticline
interferes with two active folds (Igai and Yokkaichi anti-
clines) at its northern and southern ends where they are
marked by active synclines.
3. Stratigraphic Setting of the Nobi Basin and
Kuwana Anticline
3.1. Pregrowth Stratigraphy
[9] We used stratigraphy characterized in four 1500-m-
deep, continuously cored boreholes in the Nobi basin
[Sakamoto et al., 1986; Yoshida et al., 1991] (see
locations of boreholes in Figure 3) to define the ages
of reflectors in the seismic profile [Ishiyama, 2002]. The
oldest Neogene strata in the Nobi basin include
400 m
of Miocene sandstone and mudstone [Sakamoto et al.,
1986; Yoshida et al., 1991] (Figure 4). Correlation of
these strata with reflectors in the seismic profile suggests
that these sediments underlie the Kuwana Hills, though
they have not been directly identified by deep drill
holes.
[ 10 ] Pregrowth strata of Neogene age folded by
Kuwana anticline include fluvial and lacustrine sediments
of the late Pliocene – early Pleistocene Tokai Group
[Takemura, 1985; Yoshida et al., 1991]. The Tokai Group
in the Nobi basin is
1500 – 2000 m thick [Committee
for Subsurface Structure of the Nobi Plain, 2001],
whereas in the Kuwana Hills these strata are more than
1200 m thick based on geological mapping [Yoshida,
1988]. Dating of volcanic ash layers by the fission track
method indicates that the Tokai Group was deposited
from
2.8 Ma to 1.0 Ma [Takemura, 1985; Yoshida et
al., 1991].
[11] The Tokai Group overlies Miocene strata in the Nobi
basin boreholes and is also well exposed in the core of
Kuwana anticline. Seismic reflection data presented later in
this paper suggest that reflectors correlated with Miocene to
Plio-Pleistocene sandstone and mudstone beneath the
Kuwana Hills were deposited prior to uplift of the fold.
Evidence for the pregrowth nature of these strata includes
the continuity of correlative reflectors and the consistent
thickness of units bounded by them across the anticline.

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Figure 3. Geologic map of Kuwana anticline with locations of active fault and fold scarps, modified
from Yoshida [1984] and Yoshida et al. [1991] (with permission from the Geological Survey of Japan).
Active folds comprise structurally and topographically elevated domains, defined by uplifted late
Quaternary fluvial terraces that record structural growth since their abandonment. The location of fault
and fold scarps coincides with boundaries of dip domains defined by outcrops and subsurface data.
Location of seismic section [Ishiyama, 2002] with CDP (common depth point) numbers is also shown.
Squares in the inset indicate locations of boreholes to depths of 1.5 km. Solid squares are those used to
correlate strata with reflectors in the seismic section. Abbreviations for borehole locations are MT,
Matsukage [Yoshida et al., 1991]; YT, Yatomi [Furusawa, 1990].

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN
Figure 4. Stratigraphic column of the Nobi basin with
approximate ages of deposits based on tephrochronology
and dating by the fission track method [Yoshida et al., 1991;
Sugai et al., 1999b]. Unnamed Miocene? strata are
recognized only by borehole data in the Nobi basin and
are not exposed within Kuwana anticline.
3.2. Growth Stratigraphy
[12] The youngest sediments in the Nobi basin include
300 to 400 m of late Pleistocene –Holocene deposits that
record strain across Kuwana anticline (Figure 4). Growth
strata that are folded by and record growth of the anticline
are composed of coarse-grained gravel, sand and mud of the
early Quaternary Chikarao Formation [Yoshida et al., 1991]
and the middle-late Quaternary Owari Group [Sakamoto et
al., 1986; Yoshida et al., 1991]. Recent analysis of cores
based on lithostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, and teph-
rostratigraphy suggests that the Owari Group has been
deposited during middle-late Quaternary and contains a
volcanic ash layer dated at
0.9 Ma in its lowest part
5 of 20
B12408
[Sugai et al., 1999b]. A 50-m-thick sequence of Holocene
strata (Nanyo Formation) overlies the Owari Group beneath
the Nobi basin. The uppermost section of the Nanyo
Formation overlies a marine abrasion platform (i.e., a
marine terrace) along the eastern edge of the forelimb of
Kuwana anticline, and records its growth history during the
late Holocene.
3.3. Geomorphology
[13] Late Quaternary terrace deposits above strath levels
incised into transverse channels record growth of Kuwana
anticline and provide an important means of assessing its
kinematic history. Mapping of these fluvial deposits was
undertaken (Figure 5) to locate active fold hinges and faults
at the surface and to define fold growth at intermediate
(105 years) to short (103 years) timescales. Maps were
created with 1:10,000 and 1:40,000 scale aerial photo-
graphs taken in 1940s, prior to modern urbanization and
agriculture. Modern 1:25,000 scale quadrangles with 10 m
contour intervals from the Geographical Survey Institute
were also used to create a topographic base map.
[14] Mapping of fluvial terrace risers suggest that a
flight of terrace surfaces (labeled as H, M, and L) are
preserved in modern river valleys, where they are sepa-
rated by an elevation difference of
20 m (Figure 5).
Terraces are further separated from two or three smaller,
locally spread terraces that are separated by risers
5 –
10 m high. Terrace deposits above strath surfaces are very
thin (2– 5 m) and are underlain by units of the Tokai
Group. Three groups of terraces are also differentiated by
their lithofacies. H terraces stand at the highest elevation
among other terraces and are highly dissected by dense
drainage networks. Deposits of H terraces are composed
of strongly weathered gravels of chert and sandstone
clasts with thin weathering rinds that are supported by
a matrix of reddish brown mud. M terraces are exten-
sively widespread across the fold and are less dissected
than H terraces. Deposits of M terraces are less weathered
and contain a matrix of coarse sand grains. In contrast,
L terraces are preserved along the modern transverse
channels of the Inabe and Asake River. Deposits that
compose L terrace consist of gravels whose clasts and
matrix are unweathered.
[15] Subangular gravels contained in terrace deposits
along the Inabe and Asake Rivers indicate that they were
transported shorter distances (
40 km) from the Suzuka
Mountains by these stream channels, rather than the Ibi and
Nagara Rivers where more rounded clasts have been trans-
ported greater distances (
110 km) from mountains north of
the Nobi plain.
[16] The age of individual late Quaternary terraces is only
partly known. The lowermost portion of a sequence of M2
terrace deposits covers the eastern edge of the east dipping
forelimb and is composed of thin inner bay clays, which are
correlated with strata of the lower Atsuta Formation (see the
outcrop location in Figure 5) [Yoshida et al., 1991]. Dating
of volcanic ashes by the fission track and K-Ar method
indicates that the lower Atsuta Formation was deposited
from
130 to 110 ka [Makinouchi et al., 2001]. The clays
thin westward and onlap the forelimb
500 m from its base
farther to the east, where they lie at
29 m above sea level.
The clays are overlain by 2- to 3-m-thick fluvial gravel
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ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN

Figure 5. Detailed topographic map of Kuwana anticline showing the distribution of fluvial terraces and locations of
active fault and fold scarps. Contour intervals are 50 m. Structural trends (hinge lines) of Kuwana, Yokkaichi, and Igai
anticlines are depicted. Projection lines of longitudinal topographic profiles in Figure 6 are also shown. An open star
indicates the location of borehole of Makinouchi et al. [2001]. Solid star indicated the outcrop location of the lower Atsuta
B12408

Formation. The ‘‘u’’ and ‘‘d’’ denote upthrown and downthrown sides of active faults, respectively.
B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

Figure 6. Longitudinal profiles of terrace remnants along (a) the Inabe River and (b) the Asake River.
Approximate locations of projection lines used in constructing these profiles are shown in Figure 5. Solid
lines indicate continuously mapped terraces, while dashed lines indicate terraces correlated based on
similar elevations and lithofacies of terrace deposits.

deposited above strath surfaces. These gravel deposits
contain the On-Pm1 volcanic tephra [Awata, 1997], dated
at
100 ka [Machida and Arai, 2003]. Radiocarbon anal-
yses of charcoal contained in L1 terrace deposits indicate
that they were deposited at
18 ka [Kimura et al., 1984].
4. Overview of Tectonic Geomorphology of
Kuwana Anticline
4.1. Tectonic Landforms
[17] Mapping of fold scarps that deform fluvial terraces
was undertaken to differentiate kinematic models and to
determine slip rates on the underlying blind thrust. Discon-
tinuous preservation of terraces does not allow correlation
across the entire width of the fold. However, longitudinal
profiles of individual terraces based on 1:2500 scale topo-
graphic maps with 2 m contour intervals define folding
styles at several sites since their abandonment (Figure 6).
The geometry of intermediate and higher terraces clearly
mimics that of the underlying anticline, with a steeply east
dipping forelimb and a broader gently dipping back limb
inclined to the west. Steeply east dipping forelimbs were
also identified as scarps on lower, younger terraces pre-
served along drainage channel walls incised into the interior
of Kuwana anticline. At the middle reach of the incised
channel in the Inabe River (5 – 6 km in Figure 6a and 7 –
9 km in Figure 6b), a gently east dipping dip panel is
preserved in higher terraces (H3 and H2) above the crest of
the back limb.
[18] While the overall character of tectonic landforms
across Kuwana anticline illuminates the styles of folding
that act to build it, more detailed description of landforms
allows the subsurface geometry of the Kuwana blind thrust
to be further constrained. Sections 4.2– 4.5 therefore discuss
smaller-scale structures and landforms on the forelimb, crest,
and back limb of the fold.
4.2. Forelimb Geomorphology
[ 19 ] The detailed morphology of the forelimb of
Kuwana anticline suggests that it is defined by a steeply
east dipping, continuous surface near its base that
progressively flattens upward toward its crest (see profile
B-B0 on Figure 7). Photogrammetric mapping of the M2
terrace folded across the forelimb of Kuwana anticline
[Suzuki et al., 2002] indicates that it is offset by a series
of 2 – 20 m high, north trending fault and/or fold scarps
[cf. Ikeda et al., 2002] (Figure 7). Among these small-
scale structures, four west facing scarps are preserved that
lie subparallel to each other and the strike of underlying
Neogene sediments, while the westernmost one dips
eastward. On the basis of a fault contact exposed beneath
one of the west facing scarps [Awata, 1997] we interpret
the west facing scarps as being formed by west vergent
flexural-slip faults that act to accommodate bending of
the forelimb.
4.3. Crest Geomorphology
[20] Fluvial terraces presented across the flat crest of
Kuwana anticline also constrain the location of surface
folding that is related to subsurface structure. Both H3
and M2 terraces on the crest of Kuwana anticline are
deformed by small fold scarps (Figure 6a). These include
an abrupt, steeply west dipping fold scarp that deforms the
H3 terrace (see distance 4.5– 5.0 km on Figure 6a) and a
broader arch that deforms the M2 terrace farther east (see
distance 4.0 km on Figure 6a and Figure 7). A sharp, east

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

Figure 7. Detailed topography of the forelimb of Kuwana anticline. Topographic map with 2-m contour
interval is redrawn from Suzuki et al. [2002]. Pairs of west verging fault and fold scarps deform the
forelimb terrace (M2) that is inclined to the east. East verging fold scarp on the crest of Kuwana anticline
is also identified. Solid lines indicate continuous terrace treads. The ‘‘u’’ and ‘‘d’’ denote upthrown and
downthrown sides of active faults, respectively.

facing scarp that separates the H3 and M2 terraces is
interpreted as an M2 terrace riser, because the scarp incises
older deposits that do not appear to be folded or otherwise
offset (see distance 4.2 km on Figure 6a and profile A-A0 on
Figure 7).
4.4. Back Limb Geomorphology
[21] Terraces folded across the back limb also offer
insight into the kinematics of the anticline and the slip
history on the underlying blind thrust. Longitudinal topo-
graphic profiles indicate that pairs of fluvial terraces on the

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Figure 8

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

back limb of the anticline define broad dip domains that dip
west, or upstream. The strike of the west dipping H2 and
M2’ terraces on the back limb of Kuwana anticline varies
slightly, but is parallel to the sinuous leading edge of the
fold in the Nobi basin. The morphology of the west dipping
M2’ terrace on the back limb of Kuwana anticline is also
defined by one, and perhaps two west facing kink bands
(see Figure 6b) that deform its otherwise gently west
dipping surface.
[22] Local deposition of more than 10 m of fluvial sedi-
ments across the west facing fold scarp located at the base
of the gently west dipping M2’ terrace [Ota and Sangawa,
1984] suggests that this fold scarp has been modified from
its original geometry (i.e., it was previously less subdued).
The 10-m-thick section of terrace deposits in the synclinal
axis contrasts with a thin (1 – 3 m) veneer of gravels that
commonly overlie the strath surfaces of M2’ and M1
terraces in both the west and east dipping domains.
4.5. Holocene Fold Scarps
[23] Other landforms preserved at the base of the forelimb
of Kuwana anticline include small fold scarps that deform
late Holocene sediments and are apparent on 1:10,000 aerial
photographs and 1:2500 scale topographic maps [Awata and
Yoshida, 1991; Togo, 2000; Ikeda et al., 2002] (Figures 5
and 7). The map view geometry and cross-sectional mor-
phology of these fold scarps indicate that they lie along the
forelimb of Kuwana anticline. The scarps strike parallel to
underlying bedding in the forelimb (Figure 3), similar to a
number of active folds along the leading edge of the NIFZ,
including the Yoro and Yokkaichi anticlines.
[24] Borehole transects across the fold scarps on the
forelimb of Kuwana anticline indicate 10– 15 m of struc-
tural relief across middle-late Holocene inner bay strata
buried beneath the surface of the M2 terrace [Sugai et al.,
1998]. More detailed geologic sections across several scarps
on the Yoro and Kuwana structure based on shallow corings
indicate that many of these fold scarps may have partly
formed during a well-recorded historical earthquake (Ten-
syo earthquake in A.D. 1586: M
7.7 [Usami, 2003])
[Sugai et al., 1998, 1999a; Togo, 2000; Ishiyama et al.,
2002b].
5. Subsurface Structure of Kuwana Anticline
5.1. Subsurface Structure
[25] A high-resolution seismic reflection profile was
acquired as a part of this study across Kuwana anticline to
image its subsurface geometry [Ishiyama, 2002] (Figure 8a).
Reflectors imaged on the seismic profile were tied with
strata defined in boreholes in the Nobi basin [Yoshida et al.,
1991] (see borehole locations in the inset of Figure 3),
stratigraphic contacts on the geologic maps, and volcanic
tephra exposed on both the forelimb and back limb of
Kuwana anticline. We first made line drawings of reflectors
based on the original depth section, which was oriented
obliquely to the mean transport direction inferred from
the fold axis. We then subdivided the seismic section into
10 segments and projected reflectors on these segments
onto a cross section perpendicular to the mean fold axis
oriented at N64
W (Figure 8b).
[26] Figure 8b shows the correlation of prominent reflec-
tors across the anticline, and axial surfaces and fault cutoffs
that were used to interpret the projected seismic section.
Regional (i.e., original) dip is best defined in the syncline
2 km from the southeast edge of the section (see right side
of Figure 8b) where strata are nearly horizontal. The
borehole used to correlate reflectors on the seismic section
with stratigraphic contacts of known age [e.g., Yoshida et
al., 1991] is located 4 km east of the right edge of the
section. Very strong (i.e., high-amplitude) and continuous
reflectors lie 1500 m below the ground surface, in the
syncline 2 km from the southeast end of the section.
These prominent reflectors are interpreted as the Pliocene-
Pleistocene Tokai Group, Chikarao Formation, and Owari
Group beneath the Nobi basin. The thickness of Pliocene-
Pleistocene strata imaged in the seismic section correlates
well with an existing seismic profile in the southeast Nobi
basin [Faculty of Science, Kyoto University et al., 1996].
Subhorizontal, more discontinuous reflectors with low fre-
quencies below the continuous reflectors are visible at depth
of 1500 – 1900 m in the seismic section and correspond
to Miocene strata below the Tokai Group that are also
identified in the nearby drill hole [Yoshida et al., 1991].
[27] Between common depth point (CDP) 270 and 1050
on the projected section, high-amplitude, continuous reflec-
tors are present to depths of 1200 m. These are underlain by
discontinuous, subparallel reflectors with low frequencies
barely visible on the profile. Geologic mapping of the back
limb between CDP 650 and 1050 [Yoshida et al., 1991]
indicates that the reflectors above 1200 m depth correspond
to fine-grained mudstone and sandstone of the Tokai Group.
Discontinuous reflectors with low frequencies evident
below the strong reflectors of the Tokai Group are similar
to Miocene strata imaged farther east in the Nobi basin.
Although they have not been directly identified by deep
drill holes, we argue that Miocene strata may underlie the
Tokai Group in the core of the fold.
[28] On the basis of the geometry of its forelimb and back
limb, Kuwana anticline is an asymmetric fault bend fold

Figure 8. (a) Depth-migrated seismic profile across Kuwana anticline acquired for this study [Ishiyama, 2002]. Location
is shown on Figures 3, 5, and 12. There is no vertical exaggeration. Parameters used for acquisition of seismic reflection
data are shown in inset. (b) Structural features recognized in line drawings based on the projected depth section across
Kuwana anticline used to estimate fault trajectories of the Kuwana thrust in Figure 8c. White lines are intersections of the
projection line with the seismic line. Abbreviations are A, base of upper-middle Pleistocene Owari Group; B, base of lower
Pleistocene-Pliocene Tokai Group; Kr, volocanic ash (Karegawa) identified in the borehole YT 7 km NE of the profile
[Furusawa, 1990] and within the core of the fold [Yoshida et al., 1991]; FW, footwall. Horizons A and B are identified in
the borehole MK 4 km west of the profile [Yoshida et al., 1991]. (c) Interpreted, projected depth section constrained by fault
bend fold theory [Suppe, 1983]. Values in parentheses are apparent limb widths measured on the section and are compared
with estimates of theoretical fault slip in the text.

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN
Figure 9. Sequential series of forward balanced models of
a wedge thrust fold based on fault bend fold theory. As the
amount of slip increases through Figure 9a to 9c, the width
of lower dip domain lengthens, whereas the width of upper
domain does not change.
(Figures 8b and 8c). The back limb is significantly wider
than the forelimb (1.9 km compared to 1.1 km) and has a
much shallower dip (10
Compared to 37
). The steeper dip
of the forelimb is consistent with growth of a fault bend fold
above an underlying east vergent thrust. Subhorizontal
reflectors (above the thick lines in Figure 8b) in the syncline
to the southeast are continuous with reflectors in the
southeast forelimb, confirmed by the dip and depth of the
Karegawa volcanic ash identified both in the forelimb
[Yoshida et al., 1991] and in the Nobi basin drill hole
[Furusawa, 1990] (Figures 8b and 8c). This defines a
distinctive, steeply dipping synclinal axial surface that
bisects the interlimb angles, rather than a reverse fault that
offsets strata at the base of the forelimb. Reflectors in the
forelimb are parallel to each other. Although the forelimb in
the lower part of the structure is poorly imaged, continuous
high-amplitude reflectors in the syncline, crest and back
limb suggest that the forelimb strata are contained in parallel
dip panels.
11 of 20
B12408
[29] Two small anticlines are present along the top of the
forelimb and crest of Kuwana anticline. Seismic reflectors
between CDP 300 and 500 indicate the presence of footwall
cutoffs and west vergent secondary folds within the fore-
limb. A small but distinctive anticline is also present on the
crest of the structure between CDP 550 and 640. Footwall
cutoffs apparent between CDP 550 and 640 on the seismic
profile lie beneath the small anticline at 400 to 700 m depth
in Tokai Group strata. Reflectors in the hanging wall of the
thrust marked by the footwall cutoffs dip steeply westward.
We interpret these features as defining a high-level, east
vergent blind thrust. Continuous and prominent reflectors
below the stratigraphic footwall cutoffs indicate that the
thrust ramp flattens between horizontal reflectors at depth.
[30] Moderately dipping, parallel dip panels separated by
narrow axial surfaces are indicative of simple fault bend
folds above thrust ramps [Suppe, 1983] or wedge thrust
structures [Medwedeff, 1992] and imply growth by the
mechanism of kink band migration [Suppe et al., 1992].
Wedge thrust structures are typical of frontal structures in
thrust belts [cf. Morley, 1986; Couzens and Wiltschko,
1996]. A key observation by which we differentiate these
two models is that the late Holocene fold scarp is coincident
with the synclinal axial surface at the base of the forelimb,
suggesting that it is an active axial surface. As discussed by
Medwedeff [1992], active fold growth by kink band migra-
tion is expected to occur at an active synclinal axial surface
above a wedge tip at the ground surface, whereas in a fault
bend fold the synclinal axial surface at the base of the
forelimb is expected to be inactive [Suppe, 1983]. We
attribute the lack of obvious growth architecture above the
fold limb to a low rate of sedimentation (0.3 mm/yr) relative
to uplift, the recency of the onset of growth of this anticline,
and the resolution of the seismic data. However, the
coincidence of the upward projection of the synclinal axial
surface with narrow fold scarps in Holocene deposits
suggests active fold growth by kink band migration. The
lack of subsurface or surface evidence of a decollement that
transfers slip farther eastward also supports this hypothesis.
Forelimbs defined by two dip domains and sharply angular
interlimb angles are also inconsistent with other mecha-
nisms of forelimb growth such as trishear fault propagation
folding [Erslev, 1991; Hardy and Ford, 1997; Allmendinger,
1998]. We therefore interpret Kuwana anticline as forming
as an east vergent wedge thrust structure, with a higher-level
west vergent wedge tip.
5.2. Forward Balanced Model Based on Wedge Thrust
Theory
[31] Medwedeff [1992] presented methods for building a
balanced forward model for wedge thrust structures, based
on fault bend fold theory [Suppe, 1983]. Figure 9 shows a
sequential series of balanced forward kinematic models for
the development of the wedge geometry based on quanti-
tative application of fault bend fold theory. In these models,
multibend fault bend folding [Medwedeff and Suppe, 1997]
and an initially flat-lying decollement transfer slip upward
into a wedge tip. The fold grows by increasing insertion of
the wedge which lengthens the forelimb across active axial
surfaces that deform late Quaternary deposits at the ground
surface. Dip domains across the fold include a wide, steeply
east dipping limb at deep levels and a more gently dipping
B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

37

27

36˚
36

Figure 10

limb confined to a shallower level. The geometry of the 5.3. Wedge Thrust Solution for Kuwana Anticline
forelimb of this balanced forward wedge model at the final [32] Kuwana anticline has likely formed as a wedge thrust
stage is similar to that observed in the seismic section across fold above a blind thrust with several gentle bends
Kuwana anticline (Figure 8c). (Figure 8c). Back stepping of slip at 1400 m depth at the

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

lowest portion of the Tokai Group then created an east
vergent wedge tip. Slip transferred eastward onto the
lowermost Tokai Group may be facilitated by thinly inter-
bedded tuffaceous sandstone and mudstone. The apparent
forelimb dips 37
, similar to the dip of the roof thrust above
the east vergent wedge. The model predicts that active axial
surfaces defining the dip panels are pinned to anticlinal
bends of the top of the lowest thrust ramp (Figures 8c and
9). Dips of strata in the hanging wall (37
on the lower dip
domain and 16
on the upper dip domain) and the axial
surfaces (72
and 82
) indicate that the lowest thrust ramp
dips 36
and flattens to 27
at higher levels across an
anticlinal bend in the fault. Uncertainty derived from local
variation in the strike of strata in the fold seems minimal in
our analysis. For example, in the extreme case where the
fold axis deviates 10
from the strike of bedding, apparent
fault dip on the lower ramp decreases only 0.4
from the 36

value determined by our analysis. Thus we regard uncer-
tainty in ramp dips as negligible. The geometry of the back
limb of Kuwana anticline, in particular the steeply west
dipping panel near its crest, requires further modification of
the forward model shown in Figure 9. Hindward slip on the
upper decollement is partially transferred upward along an
upper ramp. In addition, fault bend folding above the wedge
tip is partially accommodated by west vergent bedding-
parallel thrusts or flexural-slip faults within the forelimb.
[33] We measured the fault slip budget upward through
Kuwana anticline to test whether it grows as a wedge thrust
structure, or whether other mechanisms occur that may act
to control its growth (Figure 8c). We first compare the width
of the back limb to the calculated values of fault slip. On the
basis of a fault dip on the lower ramp of 36
and 750 m of
vertical structural relief on the top of the Kono Formation
measured across the fold from geologic mapping and
borehole data in the syncline, 1280 m of fault slip has
apparently been accommodated by the deeper levels of the
structure. The theoretical fault slip of 1280 m is smaller than
the apparent width of the back limb (1850 m) between CDP
750 and 1020 (Figure 8c). We interpret this difference to
partly result because the ramp at depth is oblique to the
mean fold axis. The trend of frontal active thrusts in the
NIFZ and geologic mapping (Figure 3) indicates that local
variation in the trend of the mean fold axis near the
projection line (N26
E) may deviate from the regional
E-W transport direction assumed for the fold. For this case,
slip above the ramp is defined by
S ¼ U = sin q sinðj  jo Þ
where S, U, q, j, and j0 are fault slip on the ramp, vertical
structural uplift, dip of the ramp, and the azimuth of the
local mean fold axis and of the regional mean direction of
transport, respectively [Apotria et al., 1992; Lavé and
Avouac, 2000]. Assuming that U = 750 m, q = 36
, j =
296
, and j0 = 90
, fault slip on the ramp is calculated at
this location to be
1420 m, which is closer to the apparent
width of the back limb than our previous estimate. We
therefore suggest that at least 1280 m of fault slip has been
completely consumed by folding in the upper 4 km of the
crust.
[34] We also compare the width of the lower forelimb to
the calculated fault slips. The upward flattening ramp
trajectories produce anticlinal axial surfaces across which
fault slip is consumed, based on fault bend fold theory
[Suppe, 1983]. For the 9
lower and 27
upper anticlinal
fault bends, we calculate a respective loss of about 160 and
280 m of fault slip. Subtraction of these amounts from the
slip on the lower ramp yields a value of 840 m that should
theoretically be fed into the lower wedge tip as it is inserted
onto the lowermost Tokai Group strata. Given the ramp
oblique to the mean fold axis, 930 m of slip is alternatively
calculated to be fed into the lower wedge. These theoretical
values of fault slip from the insertion of the wedge are
similar to the width of the steeper, lower dip domain in the
forelimb of 950 m (Figure 8c). We therefore suggest that at
least 840 m of fault slip is fed into the lower wedge tip. This
fault slip is much larger than that of the upper wedge
measured from the width of the steeply dipping domain at
the top of the back limb (220 m).
[35] The forward balanced wedge thrust model is able to
account for the bulk of the fault slip accommodated by the
shallower levels of Kuwana anticline, further suggesting
that Kuwana anticline has formed as a doubly vergent
wedge thrust fold (Figure 8c). Calculation of the fault slip
budget along the inferred thrust trajectory, however, sug-
gests that slip on the deeper thrust may decrease upward
into the highest levels of the structure. In section 6.2, we
discuss how this slip may be consumed by other processes
that are not apparent in our data set.
5.4. Implications of Tectonic Geomorphology for the
Forward Kinematic Model
[36] Comparison of tectonic geomorphology with the
wedge thrust fold model presented above provides further
kinematic implications for the mechanisms that work to
build Kuwana anticline (Figures 10 and 11). Axial surfaces
observed on the forelimb, crest, and back limb are inter-
preted as being pinned to bends in the underlying thrust. In

Figure 10. (a) Comparison of the projected seismic profile across Kuwana anticline with a topographic profile along the
forelimb terraces. Two flexural-slip faults that crosscut the forelimb and an active axial surface are recognized in the seismic
section and correspond with the three west verging fault scarps on the M2 terrace. The synclinal active axial surface
extending from the upper wedge tip coincides with the base of the west facing fold scarp, indicating that the west verging
upper wedge produces the tectonic landforms over the crest of Kuwana anticline. Location of the east verging fold scarp
that deforms M2 and H3 terrace also corresponds with the upward projection of the upper ramp. (b) Topographic profile of
the forelimb terrace with the interpreted active faults underneath them. The profile is the same as A-A0 in Figure 7. Note that
the apparent structural relief on the forelimb terrace is expressed as the vertical separation on the lower dip domain of the
forelimb terrace. In this profile the location of the fold scarp related to the upper ramp defines the hindward limit of the
lower dip domain. (c) Method of evaluating the amount of slip on a flexural-slip fault based on the height of a surface fault
scarp on a forelimb terrace.

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

Figure 11. Geologic cross section of Kuwana anticline constrained by the seismic section, geologic
mapping, and tectonic geomorphology of its forelimb, crest, and back limb that are linked with bends on
the underlying fault trajectory. The close links between the forelimb and back limb geomorphology and
the fault geometry support the forward wedge thrust model for Kuwana anticline. In addition, fold scarps
on the back limb may define the deeper geometry of the Kuwana thrust.

particular, frontal fold scarps at the base of the forelimb are
coincident with the projection of the synclinal active axial
surface extending upward from the propagating lower
wedge tip. The upper wedge tip is also closely coincident
with other fold scarps that deform the H3 terrace on the
crest, and a west dipping upper ramp is apparent at the
ground surface as the east facing scarp on the M2 terrace
between CDP 520 and 570 (Figure 10). Secondary west
vergent flexural-slip faults within the forelimb terminate
upward into low-amplitude west facing fault scarps on the
surface that deform the M2 terraces preserved on the
forelimb (Figure 10).
[37] Axial surface mapping [e.g., Shaw et al., 1994] of
Kuwana anticline based on tectonic geomorphology indi-
cates that it extends for 20 km along the western edge of
the Nobi plain. Mapping of the synclinal active axial
surface marked by frontal Holocene fold scarps suggests
that the wedge tip is largely parallel to axial surfaces
identified in the core of the fold from deformation of
fluvial terraces, outcrops of bedding and the seismic
profile (Figure 12).
[38] The deepest geometry of the thrust ramp may be
constrained by axial surface mapping of the back limb of
Kuwana anticline (Figures 8 and 11). Assuming that narrow
west facing kink bands that deform the M2’ terrace are
pinned to synclinal axial surfaces that intersect the ground at
CDP 1020 and 2 km west of the western edge of the seismic
profile, the back limb forms above two synclinal bends in
the main thrust ramp.
6. Discussion
6.1. Dip-Slip Rate of the Kuwana Fault
[39] The kinematic solution for Kuwana anticline and age
controls from folded terrace deposits allow slip rates to be
determined for the blind thrust beneath the fold. For a slip
rate calculated solely by the limb width measured on the
seismic section, the sinuosity of the seismic line introduces
errors as previously discussed. We therefore use the amount
of uplift on the M2 terrace deposits across the active
synclinal axial surface at the base of the forelimb, and the
dip of the shallower portion of the Kuwana thrust. A
borehole located at the mouth of the Inabe River indicates
that inner bay clays (lower Atsuta Formation) are buried at a
depth of
77– 98 m [Makinouchi et al., 2001] (see loca-
tions in Figures 5 and 12). Correlative clays exposed within
the forelimb below the M2 terrace gravels stand
21– 29 m
above sea level. Summing these values thus yields 98–
137 m of structural relief for the
130– 110 ka deposits
uplifted by slip on the lower ramp. Taking a dip of 27
for
the shallower portion of the thrust, we determined a dip-slip
rate of 2.2 ± 0.5 mm/yr at intermediate (105 years) time-

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ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN

Figure 12. Axial surface map of the northern and central portion of Kuwana anticline, based on reinterpretation of
topographic map shown in Figure 5 and geologic mapping by Yoshida et al. [1991]. Inferred tear fault is marked by offset of
active axial surface and steep west dipping back limb above the upper wedge tip. In contrast, late Holocene fold scarp tied to
B12408

the east vergent wedge tip is traced continuously and strikes parallel to underlying bedding in the forelimb.
B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN
scales. Error in this rate is derived both from uncertainty in
ages of volcanic ashes in folded strata and correlation of
clay horizons defined in boreholes.
[40] Correlated clay horizons used to calculate the slip
rate are located
3 km south of the seismic line across the
central part of Kuwana anticline. Quantitative departure
from the predicted maximum slip rate is difficult to estimate
because of poor constraints on the lateral variation in
slip along the fold. Structural relief across the fold also
decreases southward, as discussed in section 5.3. This
indicates that the slip on the underlying thrust decreases
laterally to the south. Therefore our estimate of the slip rate
obtained 3 km away from the center of the fold may be a
minimum value, particularly if slip rate has varied along its
established length at intermediate timescales.
[41] If the vertical rate of uplift (1.0 ± 0.2 mm/yr) at
intermediate timescales is constant for longer (106 years)
duration, we argue that structural growth of Kuwana anti-
cline began at 0.6 – 0.9 Ma, using 750 m of vertical
separation accommodated by the deeper levels of the
structure. This age estimation is close to that of the Chikarao
Formation and the lower part of the Owari Group (Figure 4
and 11), which we interpret as growth sediments in the
syncline east of Kuwana anticline.
6.2. Implications for the Kinematic Evolution of a
Wedge Thrust Fold
[42] Fault slip decreases upward in Kuwana anticline
and cannot be completely accounted for at the highest
levels in the structure. Our analysis relies on fault bend
fold theory that assumes that fault tips propagate very
rapidly in relation to the amount of slip. It is likely that
some slip is consumed during the earliest stages of fault
tip propagation if the complex fault trajectories were not
achieved instantly across the two wedge tips. This infer-
ence is supported by a trishear analysis [Allmendinger,
1998] we undertook of the forelimb on the seismic section;
the analysis provides a 35
dipping thrust solution, ap-
proximately similar to that determined by fault bend fold
theory, although the angular dip panels of the forelimb,
likely related to its subsequent growth as a fault bend fold,
produced a poor fit based on chi-square statistics for
forward models.
[43] Our restoration suggests that the Kuwana thrust has
formed as a leading edge of a major thick-skinned, base-
ment-involved structure, the Fumotomura thrust (Figure 2)
exposed along the eastern flank of the Suzuka Mountains to
the west. A seismic profile and tectonic geomorphology
indicate that the Fumotomura thrust is an active, east
vergent, high-angle emergent thrust which has propagated
from the lower portion of the seismogenic crust [Ishiyama et
al., 2002a]. A simple downward extrapolation of the fault
trajectories of the Kuwana thrust suggests that it soles into
the Fumotomura thrust at depths of
8 – 10 km [Ishiyama et
al., 2002a].
6.3. Role of Flexural Slip in Fault Bend Folding Above
Blind Thrusts
[44] Flexural-slip faults play an important role in
accommodating strain above blind thrusts [Yeats, 1984;
Cooke and Pollard, 1997; Roering et al., 1997; Niño et
al., 1998; Bielecki and Mueller, 2002], and include
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B12408
examples from Algeria [Philip and Meghraoui, 1983;
King and Yielding, 1984], southern California [Rockwell
et al., 1988; Klinger and Rockwell, 1989; Medwedeff,
1992] and Japan [Ota and Suzuki, 1979]. Unambiguous
identification between flexural-slip fault scarps and the
forward balanced solution for Kuwana anticline enables
us to estimate the amount of flexural slip accommodated
by the fold based on folding of the M2 terrace on the
forelimb.
[45] In the case where flexural-slip faults are responsible
for the formation of west verging fault scarps, slip on a
bedding plane is obtained as
H þ S cos q tan a
S¼
sin q
H
::: S ¼
sin q  cos q tan a
where H, S, q, and a are the height of the fault scarp, slip on
the bedding plane, dip of the fault, and dip of the east
inclined M2 terrace respectively (Figure 10c). On the basis
of the summed height of west verging scarps of 41 m
(Figure 10b) and a dip of bedding of 37
and an original
gradient of M2 terrace of 3
, total west verging slip
consumed by flexural-slip faults in the forelimb since the
abandonment of the M2 terrace is calculated to be
73 m,
while 259 ± 43 m of slip should be fed onto the lower
decollement based on the structural relief on the top of the
lower Atsuta Formation (98 – 137 m) and a dip of the thrust
(27
) as discussed earlier.
[46] It is of interest that such large amounts of slip are
consumed by flexural-slip faults within the forelimb in
the center of Kuwana anticline. In a fault propagation
fold, flexural slip commonly accommodates high shear
strains within their forelimbs [cf. Erslev and Mayborn,
1997]. Modeling by Roering et al. [1997] and Niño et
al. [1998] indicates that bedding-parallel slip in the
sedimentary cover tends to hinder the upward propaga-
tion of a low-angle fault tip because mechanical decou-
pling between layers causes stress to be transferred
across wider fold limbs. Although the quantitative rela-
tionship between the amount of bedding slip and the fold
shape were not discussed, our field observations confirm
these mechanical interpretations of flexural-slip faults
which may act to effectively impede upward propagation
of fault tips, and may act to consume slip at successively
higher levels.
6.4. Coseismic Fold Scarp Associated With an Historic
Earthquake
[47] The kinematic solution for Kuwana anticline sug-
gests that the late Holocene fold scarp with a height of

3 m is coincident with the upward projection of the active
synclinal axial surface formed above the east vergent
wedge tip (Figures 11 and 12). In the vicinity of the
seismic line, an alluvial fan deformed by the fold scarp is
buried beneath the modern alluvial plain and is fed by a
drainage channel that has not yet been incised below the
youngest terrace in Kuwana Hills (Figure 12). The seismic
reflection data we used in our analysis does not sufficiently
B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN B12408

Figure 13. (a) Detailed topographic map of late Holocene fold scarp associated with coseismic
folding of Kuwana anticline at the Higashi-Yuriage, Kuwana City, Mie Prefecture. (b) Topographic
profile across the entire extent of the fold scarp. (c) Borehole transect across the coseismic fold scarp
[Sugai et al., 1998]. The frontal coseismic fold scarp is continuous with the fold scarp across the
seismic line that coincides with the upward projection of the active synclinal axis extending from the
wedge tip.

resolve Holocene strata to compare the detailed geometry
of the relatively small fold scarps with the active synclinal
axial surface. Nevertheless, axial surface mapping, our
structural solution, and historical records, show how the
fold scarp was formed by coseismic folding during a
historic blind thrust earthquake.
[48] Boreholes and excavations at the Higashi-Yuriage
site, located 2 km north of the seismic profile, revealed an
earthquake occurred on the Kuwana thrust that is possibly
correlated with large historically recorded earthquake in
A.D. 1586 [Sugai et al., 1998]. Deformation from the
event is recorded by historic (
1000 – 700 years B.P.
based on radiocarbon ages) floodplain deposits folded

3.5 m across the frontal fold scarp that coincides with
the base of the forelimb as defined on the seismic line
(Figure 13).
[49] Sugai et al. [1998] also argued that 12– 13 m of
vertical separation across the top of a late Holocene pro-
gradational delta (circa 2000 – 1400 years B.P. based on
radiocarbon ages) composing the higher alluvial plain
(Figures 12 and 13) formed during two recent historic
earthquakes. We invoke a structural model that accounts
for the late Holocene uplift. The axial surface map indicates
that the westernmost, west dipping fold scarp is coincident
with the projection of the active axial surface extending
upward from the upper wedge tip (Figure 13). In addition,
the western, east dipping fold scarp appears to be coincident
with the upward projection of the upper ramp, which we

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B12408 ISHIYAMA ET AL.: ACTIVE WEDGE THRUST FOLD IN JAPAN
Figure 14. Hypothesized schematic cross section that
explains the fold scarp topography at this site. Coseismic
slip on the doubly vergent wedge thrust produces uplift
accommodated by a pair of fold scarps, which mimics the
topography observed at the Higashi-Yuriage site.
interpret as accommodating shear above the ultimate fault
tip of the Kuwana thrust. We therefore argue that folding in
this earthquake occurred in response to slip on both the
lower and upper wedge tips that governed growth of
Kuwana anticline (Figure 14).
7. Conclusions
[50] In conclusion, our studies show that coupled tec-
tonic geomorphology with high-resolution seismic data
may be used to define the detailed kinematic evolution,
geometry, and rates of slip on blind thrusts beneath
Quaternary growth folds. The close coincidence between
tectonic landforms across Kuwana anticline and the
underlying thrust geometry provides confidence in assign-
ing particular deformation mechanisms that act to build
fault bend folds. For Kuwana anticline, well preserved
fluvial terraces folded across the forelimb and back limb
suggest that it grows above a stacked sequence of thin-
skinned wedge thrusts that are consistent with the subsur-
face structure of the fold imaged in a seismic section.
Secondary, bedding-parallel thrusts that deform the terraces
in the forelimb are interpreted to form by flexural-slip
folding that acts to accommodate strains within the fore-
limb across synclinal axial surfaces and to consume fault
slip. The large amount of flexural slip supports the concept
that mechanical decoupling in the sedimentary cover
effectively acts to inhibit the upward propagation of blind
thrust tips. Perhaps most importantly, late Holocene fold
scarps formed in the floodplain east of Kuwana anticline
coincide with the projected surface trace of the east vergent
wedge thrust tip. This suggests that coseismic fold scarps
at the ground surface may be indicators of slip on
underlying blind thrust faults, and thus their otherwise
inaccessible seismic hazards.
[51] Acknowledgments. Acquisition and processing of the seismic
reflection data were a collaborative project with Hiroshi Sato at ERI,
University of Tokyo. We thank Hajime Kato, Nobuhisa Matsuta, Shigeru
Toda, Hiroyuki Tsutsumi, Nobuhiro Ogisu, and colleagues at Aichi
Educational University and Kyoto University for additional assistance
with acquisition of seismic data. Daisaku Kawabata is also thanked for
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providing us with a high-resolution shaded relief map, while Yasuhiro
Suzuki allowed us to use his detailed photogrammetric topographic
mapping of Kuwana anticline. Rick Allmendinger graciously extended
the use of his numerical Trishear code to us, for which we are grateful.
Finally, our thanks go to Associate Editor Isabelle Manighetti and to
Jérôme Lavé and Robert Yeats for their constructive reviews, which
greatly improved the manuscript. This research was funded by JSPS
Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research 12480019 to Okada, Takemura and
a JSPS Fellowship to Mueller.
References
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T. Ishiyama, Active Fault Research Center, Geological Survey of Japan,
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Site 7,
1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8567, Japan. (t-ishiyama@aist.go.jp)
K. Mueller, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado,
Boulder, CO 80309-0399, USA. (karl.mueller@colorado.edu)
A. Okada, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-
Oiwake-Cho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan. (okada@kugi.kyoto-u-ac.
jp)
K. Takemura, Institute for Geothermal Sciences, Kyoto University,
Noguchihara, Beppu, Oita 874-0903, Japan. (takemura@bep.vgs.
kyoto-u.ac.jp)
M. Togo, Department of Geoscience, Hosei University, Aihara-Cho,
4342, Machida 194-0298, Japan. (mtogo@mt.tama.hosei.ac.jp)