enone a Bae Electrre Meachties Theoty, Operation, Applications, Agjustment, ata Conitel Hi eenev sear eogeea ncaa erp tot eu MeN eea anc Cue hn Uc ewe RC Coe ten ene kur a tanec)Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Ine. ‘This edition is published by arrangement with Pearson Educ: Publishing Ine. ma, Inc. and Dorling Kindersley This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's priar written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher of this book. ISBN 978-81-317-0802-6 First Impression, 2007 ‘Second Impression, 2009 This edition is manufactured in India and és authorized for sate only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Circulation of this edition outside of these territories fs UNAUTHORIZED. Published by Dorling Kinderstey (India) Pvt, Led. ticensees of Pearson Education in South Asia, Head Office: 482, F.1.E., Patparganj, Dethi 110 092, India. Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. Printed in India by Saurabh Printers Pvt. Ltd.Contents 1_MAGNETICS, ELE MAGNETIC F no VOLTAGE, AND ENERGY CONVERSION LL___Introduction _1 12 Magnetic Field 1 13 Magnetic Circuit Defined 2 Reluctance and the Mi tic Circuit ition 4 15 Relative Permeability and Magnetization Curves 5 Lo Analogies Between Electric and Magnetic Circuits 12 7 Magnetic Hysteresis and Hysteresis Loss 15 18 Interaction of Magnetic Fields (Motor Action) 7 19 Elementary Two-Pole Motor 18 1.10___ Magnitude of the Mechanical Force Exerted on a Current-Carrying ‘Conductor Situated in a Magnetic Field (BLIRule) 19 Electromechanically Induced Voltages (Generator Action} 21 1.12 Elementary Two-Pole Generator 25 1.13___Energy Conversion in Rotating Electrical Machines 27 1.14 __ Eddy Currents and Eddy-Current Losses__28 1.15 Multipolar Machines, Frequency. and Electrical Degrees 29 Sum: of Equations for Problem Solvin, 32 Specific References Keyed to Text 33 Review sstions 33 Problems _34 2.1___Introduction _37 2G ion of Distribution Transf 31 23 Principle of Transformer Action __40 2.4 Transformers with Sinusoidal Voltages 41. 25 ___No-Load Conditions 43x | Contents: 2.6 Transient Behavior When Loading and Unloading 46 27 Effect of Leakage Flux on the Output Voltage of a Real “Transformer 48 28 Ideal Transformer __49 2.9 Leakage Reactance and the Equivalent Circuit of a Real ‘Transformer 51 2.10 Equivalent Impedance of a Transformer___ 55 2.11 Voltage Regulation _ 62 2.12 Per-Unit Impedance and Percent Impedance of Transformer ‘Windings 64 213 Transformer Losses and Efficieney 71 2.14 Determination of Transformer Parameters 75 Summary of tions for Problem Solvin; 79 ific References toText 81 General References _82 Review Questions 82 Problems _83 3__ TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS, OPERATION, ANID SPECIALTY TRANSFORMERS 94 4.1___Introduction __91 3.2 Transformer Polarity and Standard Terminal Markings 92 3.3 Transformer Nameplates 94 3.4____Autotransformers _95 3,5____Buck-Boost Transformers _101. 3.6 Parallel Operation of Transformers 104 3 Division B Transformers in Parall 106 3.8 Transformer In-Rush Current __109 39 Harmonics in Transformer Exciting Current NO 3.10 __ Three-Phase Connections of Single-Phase Transformers 113 > ‘.UL___Three-Phase Transformers _118, 3.12 Beware the 30° Phase Shift When Paralleling Three-Phase Transformer Banks __[19. ‘Transh 3.13___ Harmonic Suppression in Three-Phase Connections __121 3.14__Instrument Transformers __125. Su of tions for Problem Solvin; 126 Specific References Keyed to Text 127 Copyrighted materialContents | xi General References _127 Review Questions 128 Problems __128 42 __Induction-Motor Action __133 3 Reversal of Rotati a5 44 Induction-Motor Construction 16. 45 Synchronous Speed ___137 4.6 Multispeed Fixed-Frequency Pole-Changing Motors __141 4.7__ Slip and Its Effect on Rotor Frequency and Voltage __141 48 quivalent Circuit of an Induction-Motor Rotor 143 4.9__Locus of the Rotor Current__146 4.10 Air-Gap Power __148 4.11 Mechanical Power and Developed Torque __150 Torque-Speed Characteristic __153 4.13 Parasitic Torques 156 4.14 Pull-Up Torque __157 4.15 Losses, Efficiency, and Power Factor__157 Su of Equations for Problem Solvin; 161 Specific References Keyed to Text___162 Review Questions 162 Problems _163 5 CLASSIFICATION, PERFORMANCE, APPLICATIONS, AND OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES 167 .1_ Introduction __167 $.2___ Classification and Performance Characteristics of NEMA-Design Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors 168 45.3___NEMA Tables _170 5.4___ Motor Performance as a Function of Machine Parameters, Slip, and Stator Voltage 178 5.5___ Shaping the Torque-Speed Characteristic _182 5.6___ Some Useful Approximations for Normal-Running and Overload Conditions of Squirrel-Cage Motors _186xil | Contents. 57 NEMA Constraints on Voltage and Frequency 189 58 Effect of Off-Rated Voltage and Off-Rated Frequency on Induction Motor Performance _189 4.9 __Wound-Rotor Induetion Motor _195 5.10 Normal Running and Overload Conditions for Wound-Rotor Induction “Motors 200 3.1 Motor Nameplate Data 202, §.12___Locked-Rotor In-Rush Current 205 5.13 Effect of Number of Starts on Motor Life _208 5.14 Reclosing Out-of-Phase Scenario _ 209 5.15 Effect of Unbalanced Line Voltages on Induction Motor Performance 209° 5.16__Per-Unit Values of Induction-Motor Parameters 212 5.17 __Toeterminatinn of Taduction.Motne B 23 18 Induction 5.19 Dynamic Braking of Induction Motors 227 $20 Induction-Motor Starting 229 - Sur of Equations for Problem Solvin; 239 Specific References Keyed to Text 242 General References _243 Review Questions 243 Problems __245 G_SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS —_253 6.1 __Introduetion _253 6.2 ure Field and Induction-Motor Action _253 6.3 Induction-Motor Action Through Phase Splitting 256 64 Locked-Rotor Torque __256 65 Practical Resistance-Start Split-Phase Motors 260 66 Capacitor-Start Split-Phase Motors 262 67 Reversing Single-Phasc Induction Motors 269 68 5 69 __NEMA-Standard Ratings for Single-Phase Induction Motors _270 6.10 ration of Three-Phase Motors From Single-Phase Lines 270 6.11 Single Phasing (A Fault Condition) 272 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving _ 274Contents | xii Specific References Keyed to Text___275 Review Questions 275 Problems 276 L1___Introduetion _279 L.2____Reluctance Motors _279 7.3 HysteresisMotors _ 282 7.4 Stepper Motors 286 7.5 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motors 287 7.6 Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motors 291 7.7 Stepper-Motor Drive Circuits 292 1 Linear Induction Motor 295 L.9___Universal Motor __299 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 301 Specific References Keyed to Text 302 Review Questions _303 Problems _303 $8 _SVNCHRONOUS MOTORS 305 ‘8.1___Introduction _305 ‘8.2___Construction _305 8.3 Synchronous Motor Starting _309 84 Shaft Load, Power Angle, and Developed Torque 311 8.5 Counter-EMF and Armature-Reaction Voliage 312 8.6 uivalent-Circuit Model and Phasor Dit ofa Synchronous-Motor Armature 315 8.7___ Synchronous-Motor Power Equation (Magnet Power) _316 8.8 Effect of Changes in Shaft Load on Armature Current, Power Angle, and Power Factor __318 8.9 ___ Effect of Changes in Field Excitation on Synchronous-Motor Performance _320 810 _W Curves _321 8.11___ Synchronous-Motor Losses and Efficiency 323 8.12 Using Synchronous Motors to Improve the System Power Factor 3248.14 Pull-In Torque and Moment of Inertia. 329 |5__ Speed Control of Synchronous Motors __330 8.16 Dynamic Braking 331 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 331 Specific References Keyed to Text 332. General Reference 332 Review Questions _332 Problems: 333 9 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS 337 91 Introduction __337 9.3 Synchronous-Generator Power Equation 342 9.4 Generator Loading and Countertorque 344 96 Paralleling Synchronous Generators 345. 97 __Prime-Maver Governor Characteristics __350 Divisi ive P " 99 Motoring of Alternators 356 9.10 ___General Procedure for Safe Shutdown of AC Generators in Parallel With Other Machines __356 911 Characteristic Triangle as a Too! for Solving Load Distribution Problems Between Altemators in Parallel 357 GAZ Division of Reactive Power Between Alternators in Parallel 9.13 Accidental Loss of Field Excitation 367 9.14 Per-Unit Values of Synchronous Machine Parameters 367 9.15 Voltage Regulation 368 9.16 Determination of Synchronous Machine Parameters 373 9.17 Losses, Efficiency, and Cooling of AC Generators 377 ‘Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 379 Specific References Keyed to Text. 381 Review Questions 381 Problems 383 363‘Contents | xv 10.1__Introduction _389 10.2__ Flux Distribution and Generated Voltage in an Elementary DC Machine 389 10.3__Commutation _394 10.4__Constnuction__394 10.5 Layout ofa Simple Armature Winding 396 10.6 BrushPosition 398 10.7 Basic DC Generator 398 10.8 Voltage Regulation __ 400 10.10 Reversing the Direction of Rotation of aDC motor 403 10.11 Developed Torque 403 Basic DC Motor 403 Dynamic Behavior When Loading and Unloading aDC Motor 406 Speed Regulation 406 10.15 Effect of Armature Inductance on Commutation When a DC Machine Ts Supplying aLoad 408 10.16 _Interpoles 410 10.17 Armature Reaction 412 10.18 _ Brush Shifting as an Emergency Measure 414 10.19 Compensating Windings 415 10.20 Complete Equivalent Circuit of a Separately Excited Shunt Generator 416 10.21 Complete Equivalent Circuit of a Shunt Motor 418 10.22 General Speed Equation fora DC Motor 419 10.23 _ Dynamic Behavior During Speed Adjustment___422 10.24 Precautions When Increasing Speed Through Field Weakening 424 10.25 Mechanical Power and Developed Torque __ 426 10.26 Losses and Efficiency 428 10.27. StartingaDCMotor = 431 ‘Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 435. Specific References Keyed to Text___436 General References 436, Review Questions 436 Problems 438xvi | Contents 11_bDIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS 443 1L1 Introduction _443. t Shunt Motors. 443 11.3 Compound Motors 443 11.4 Beware the Differential Connection 445 11.5 Reversing the Direction of Rotation of Compound Motors 445 11.6 — Series Motor 446 LL7__Effect of Magnetic Saturation on DC Motor Performance _ 447 1.8 Linear Approximations 455 11.9 Comparison of Steady-State ting Characteristics of DC Motors _ 458 11.10 Adjustable-Voltage Drive Systems 459 LU Dynamic Braking, Plugging, and Jogging 461 11,12 _ Standard Terminal Markings and Connections of DC Motors 465 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 466 Specific References Keyed to Text __ 467 General References _ 467 Review tions 467 Problems __468 AND OPERATION __ 475. 12.1 Introduction _475 12.2__ Solf-Fxcited Shunt Generators 475 12.3 __ Effect of Speed on Voltage Buildup of a Self-Excited Generator 479 12.4 Other Factors Affecting Voltage Buildup _ 482 12.5 Effect of a Short Circuit on the Polarity of a Self-Excited Shunt Generator __482 12.6 Load-Voltage Characteristics of Self-Excited Shunt Generators _485, 12.7 Graphical Approximation of the No-Load Voltage 486 128 Compound Generators 490 29 Series-Field Di 93 12.10 Compounding Effect of Speed 495 12.11 Paralleling Direct-Current Generators 495Contents | xvii 12.12 Effect of Field-Rheostat Adjustment on the Load-Voltage ‘Characteristics of DC Generators 496 12.13 Division of Oncoming Bus-Load Between DC Generators in Parallel = 497 12.14 Characteristic Triangle as a Tool for Solving Load-Distribution wi rs 12.15 __ Theory of Load Transfer Between DC Generators in Parallel __ 502 12.16 Compound Generators in Parallel 504 12.17 Reverse-Current Trip _ 505 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 506 Specific References Keyed to Text__506 General Reference __507 Review Questions _507 Problems 508 . 13 CONTROL OF ELECTRIC MOTORS 513 13.1___Introduction _513 13.2 Controller Components 513 13.3 Motor-Overload Protection SIS 13.4 Controller Diagrams _519 14.5 Automatic Shutdown on Power Failure _519 13.6 Reversing Starters for AC Motors 523 137 TwoS; Starters for AC Motors 523 138 Reduced-Voltage Starters for AC Motors. 524 12.9 ___Controllers for DC Motors __525, — 13.11 Counter-emf Starter for DC Motors 528 13.12 Reversing Starter with Dynamic Braking and Shunt Field Control for DC Motors 528 13.13 Solid-State Controllers S31 13.14 Thyristor Control of Motors 531 13.15 Solid-State Adjustable-Speed Drives 532 13.16 _ Cycloconverter Drives 534 13.17 ible Controllers __535 Specific References Keyed toText___537 General References _537 Review Questions 538xvili | Contents APPENDIXES: A Balanced Three-Phase System __539 B Three-Phase Stator Windings 561 c Constant-Horsepower, Constant-Torque, and Variable-Torque Induction Motors 573 D___ Selected Graphic Symbols Used in Controller Diagrams 577 E Full-Load Current in Amperes, Direct-Current Motors _579 F Full-Load Current in Amperes, Single-Phase Alternating-Current Motors _581 G___ FulleLoad Current, Two-Phase Alternating-Current Motors ‘Four-Wire) 583 H___Full-Load Current, Three-Phase Alternating-Current Motors __585 I Representative Transformer Impedances for Single-Phase 60-H2 Transformers 587 1__Unit Conversion Factors _589 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS _591 INDEX _597Tables in Chapters Available Buck-boost Voltage Ratios 103 Typical Induction Losses for Four-Pole Motors. 158 Minimum Locked-Rotor Torque. in Percent of Full-Load Torque, of Single Speed 60-50-Hz, Polyphase Squitrel-Cage Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Designs A, B, Cand 171 Minimum Locked-Rotor Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque, of Single- Speed, 60-50-Hz, Polyphase, Squirrel-Cage, Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Design E 172 Minimum Breakdown Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque, of Single Speed 60-50-Hz, Polyphase, Squirrel-Cage, Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Desi andC 173, Minimum Breakdown Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque, of Single- Speed, 60-50-Hz, Polyphase, Squirrel-Cage, Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Design E 174 Minimum Pull-Up Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque of Single-Speed, 60-50-Hz, Polyphase, Squirrel-Cage, Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors ‘with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Designs A and B 195 Minimum Pull-Up Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque of Single-Speed, 60-50-Hz, Polyphase. Squirrel-Cage. Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Design C176 Minimum Pull-Up Torque, in Percent of Full-Load Torque of Single-Speed, 60-50-Hz, Polyphase, Squirrel-Cage, Continuous-Rated, Medium Motors with Rated Voltage and Frequency Applied for NEMA Design £ 177 Maximum Allowable Temperature Rise for Medium Single-Phase and Polyphase Induction Motors °C. Based on a Maximum Ambient Temperature of 40°C 205 NEMA Code Letters for Locked-Rator kVA per Horsepower 205 Division of Blocked-Rotor Reactance for NEMA-Design Motors 216 Allowable Emergency Overspeed of Squirrel-Cage and Wound-Rotor Motors 223 Range of Standard Power Ratings, Single-Phase Motors 270 ‘Synchronous-Motor Torques in Percent of Rated Torque (Minimum Values) 330 xiMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion 1.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter starts with a brief review of electromagnetism and magnetic circuits, which are normally included in a basic circuits or physics course. This review is followed by a discussion of the development of the mechanical forces that are caused by the interaction of magnetic fields and that form the basis for all motor sction. Faraday’s law provides the basis from which all magnetically induced voltages are derived. The relationship between applied torque and countertorque is developed and visualized through the application of Lenz's law and the “flux bunching” rule. 1.2 MAGNETIC FIELD ‘A magnetic field is a condition resulting from electric charges in motion. The mag- netic field of a permanent magnet is attributed to the uncompensated spinning of elec- trons about their own axis within the atomic structure of the material and to the par- allel alignment of these electrons with similar uneompensated electron spins in the adjacent atoms. Groups of adjacent atoms with parallel magnetic spins are called domains. The magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor is caused by the movement of electric charges in the form of an electric current. For convenience in visualization and analysis, magnetic fields are represented on diagrams by closed loops. These loops, called magnetic flux lines, have been assigned specific direction that is related to the polarity of a magnet, or the direction of current in acoil or a conductor. . The direction of the magnetic field around a current can be determined by the right-hand rule: Grasp the conductor with the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of conventional current, and the fingers will curl in the direction of the magnetic field. This can be visualized in Figure 1.1(a).21 Chapter 1 FIGURE 1.1 ® Direction of magnetic flux: (a) around a current-carrying conductor; (b) in a coil; (c} about a magnet ay Vai \ Ke f AN. \ 4 ) (©) Ina similar manner, to determine the direction of the magnetic field generated by a current through a coil of wire, grasp the coil with the right hand, with the fingers curled in the direction of the current, and the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field. This can be visualized in Figure 1.1(b). ‘The direction of the magnetic field supplied by a magnet is out from the north pole and into the south pole, but is south-to-north within the magnet, as shown in Figure 1.1(¢). 1.3 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT DEFINED Each magnetic circuit shown in Figure 1.2 is an arrangement of ferromagnetic materi- als called a core that forms a path to contain and guide the magnetic flux in a specific direction. The core shape shown in Figure 1.2(a) is used in transformers. Figure 1.2(b)Magnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 3 FIGURE 1.2 Magnetic circuit: (a) for a transformer; (b) for a simple two-pole mot shows the magnetic circuit of a simple two-pole motor, it includes a stator core, a rotor core, and two air gaps. Note that the flux always takes the shortest path across an air gap. Magnetomotive Force The ampere-tums (A-t) of the respective coils in Figure 1.2 represent the driving force, called magnetomotive force or mmf, that causes a magnetic field to appear in the corresponding magnetic circuits, Expressed in equation form, F=Ne1 (-l) where: ¥F = magnctomotive force (mmf) in ampere-tums (A-t) N = number of turns in coil 1 = current in coil (A) Magnetic Field Intensity Magnetic field intensity, also called mmf gradient, is defined as the magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit, and it may vary from point to point throughout the magnetic circuit. The average magnitude of the field intensity in a homogeneous section of a magnetic circuit is numerically equal (o the mmf across the section divided by the effective length of the magnetic section. That is, eZ Nt te (1-2)41 Chapter 1 where: He magnetic ficld intensity (A-t/m) mean length of the magnetic circuit; or section (m) $ mmf (A-t) Note that in a homogeneous magnetic circuit of uniform cross section, the field inten- sity is the same at all points in the magnetic circuit, In composite magnetic circuits, consisting of sections of different materials andJ/or different cross-sectional areas, however, the magnetic field intensity differs from section to section. Magnetic field intensity has many useful applications in magnetic circuit caleu- lations. One specific application is calculating the magneric-potential difference, also called magnetic drop or mmf drop, actoss a section of a magnetic circuit. The magnetic drop in ampere-tums per meter of magnetic core length in a magnetic circuit is analo- ‘gous to the voltage drop in volts per meter of conductor length in an electric circuit. Flux Density The flux density is a measure of the concentration of lines of flux in a particular sec- tion of a magnetic circuit. Expressed mathematically, and referring to the homoge- neous core in Figure 1.2(a), 2 B= a a-3) where: ® = flux, webers (Wb) A = cross-sectional area (m*) B = flux density (Wb/n), or teslas (T) 1.4 RELUCTANCE AND THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT EQUATION A very useful equation that expresses the relationship between magnetic flux, mmf, and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is (-4) ‘luctance of magnetic circuit (A-t/Wb) Reluctance & isa measure of the opposition the magnetic circuit offers to the flux and is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit, or section of a magnetic circuit, is related to its length, cross-sectional area, and perme- ability. Solving Eq. (1-4) for $, dividing numerator and denominator by ¢, and re- arranging terms, Nel _ Nei __ £ R=" - on BA GAMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 5 Defining G-5) (1-6) Ela ze flux density (Wb/m?), or teslas (T) magnetic field intensity (A-t/m) mean length of magnetic circuit (m) cross-sectional area (mr?) = permeability of material (Wb/A-t - m) where: Equation (1-6) applies to a homogeneous section of a magnetic circuit of uniform cross section. Magnetic Permeability ‘The ratio p. = BIH is called magnetic permeability and has different values for differ- ent degrees of magnetization of a specific magnetic core material. - 1.5 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MAGNETIZATION CURVES Relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a material to the permeability of free space: it is. in effect, a figure of merit that is very useful for comparing the magnetizability of different magnetic materials whose relative permeabilities are known. Expressed in equation form, K ed (-7) Huo where: jy = permeability of free space = 410°? (Wb/A-t« m) i, = relative permeability, a dimensionless constant B= permneat of material (Wb/A- +» m) Representative graphs of Eq. (I-5) for some commonly used ferromagnetic materials are shown in Figure 1.3. The graphs, called BeH curves, magnetization curves, ot saturation curves, are very useful in design, and in the analysis of machine and trans- former behavior. The four principal sections of a typical magnetization. curve are illustrated in Figure 1.4, The curve is concave up for “low” values of magnetic field intensity, ex- hibits a somewhat (but not always) linear characteristic for “medium” field intensities, and then is concave down for “high” field intensities, eventually flattening to an almost horizontal line for “very high” intensities. The part of the curve that is concave down is known as the knee of the curve, and the “fattened” section is the saturation region.6 | Chapter 1 150) = 1.00) e s z a = 0.50] 0 FIGURE 1.3 300 000 1500 2000 2500 Magnetic Field Intensity (H. Ast/m) Representative 8-H curves for some commonly used ferromagnatic materials. Magnetic saturation is complete when all of the magnetic domains of the material are oriented in the direction of the applied magnetomotive force. Saturation begins at the start of the knec region and is essentially complete when the curve starts to flatten. Depending on the specific application, the magnetic core of an apparatus may be operated in the linear region, and/or the saturation region, For example, transformers and AC machines are operated in the linear region and lower end of the knee; self- excited DC generators and DC motors are operated in the upper end of the knee region, extending into the saturation region; separately excited DC generators are operated in the linear and lower end of the knee region. Magnetization curves supplied by manufacturers for specific electrical steel sheets or casting are usually plotted on semilog paper, and often include a curve of relative permeability vs. field intensity, as shown in Figure 1.5.' "Figure 1.5. as furnished by the manufacturer. has the magncticfild intensity expressed in oersteds, a cps Unit. ‘To convert to A-Vim multiply by 79.577, See Appendix K for other conversion Factors, Although fot shown, the rinimum value of, = 1.0. and it occurs when saturation is consplete, resulting in i= to.Magnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 7 Flux Density (8,.D. Tow — Medium High Very High “Magnetic Field Intensity (H, A-tim) FIGURE 1.4 Exaggerated magnetization curve illustrating the four principal sections. ‘The relationship between the relative permeability and the reluctance of a mag- netic core is obtained by solving Eq. (1-7) for jz, and then substituting into Eq. (1-6). The result is R=—= (1-8) Equation (1-8) indicates that the reluctance of magnetic circuit is affected by the rel- ative permeability of the material, which, as shown in Figure 1.5, is dependent on the magnetization, and hence is not constant. EXAMPLE 11 (a) Determine the voltage that must be applied to the magnetizing coil in Fij 1.6(a) in order to produce a flux density of 0.200 T in the ait gap. Flux fringing, which always.occurs along the sides of an air gap, as shown in Figure 1.6(), will be assumed negligible. Assume the magnetization curve for the core material (which is homoge- neous) is that given in Figure 1.5. The coil has 80 tums and a resistance of 0.05 1. The cross section of the core material is 0.0400 m’.Aniqeautrad annoy ss 2 3 11000 10000 3000 2000 1000 /Magnetization| Relative Permeability] 10 IM45 Semiprocessed 26 Gage sicel| 1 ee (L'a) Aaysuag xm, FIGURE 1.5 Magnetization and permeability curves for electrical sheet stee! used in magnetic applications. (Courtesy USX Corp.) Magnetic Field Intensity (H, oersteds) (Oersteds X 79.577 = Asim)Magnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 9 (by Ios ~ Pe. ©) FIGURE 1.6 Magnetic circuit for Example 1.1: (al physical layout and dimensions; (b) flux fringing; (c) flux distribution, (b) Using Eqs, (1-5) and (1-7), determine the relative permeability of each of the three legs of the core, and compare the calculated values with the corresponding val- ues obtained from the permeability curve in Figure 1.5. Solution {a) The physical layout and dimensions of the magnetic circuit shown in Figure 1.6(a) are used in conjunction with the B-H curve to determine the magnetic field intensity in10 | Chapter 1 the component parts. The flux distribution is shown in Figure 1.6(c). The procedure for solving the problem is as follows: Step 1: Determine @,.,, and Freie. Step 2: Determine: Hycder Broser ANE Ppa Step 3: Determine Pees Beiors Hejore and Fejape Step 4: Determine #,, and, knowing the number of tums in the coil, determine ‘the required current. Step 5: Using Ohm's law, determine the required voltage. The flux in the center section is yoy = BeapA gap = 0.2 X 0.04 = 0,008 Wo The flux density throughout the two cores of the center leg is 0.2 T. The field intensity required to provide a flux density of 0.2 T in each of the two cores in the center leg is obtained from the magnetization curve in Figure 1.5. The corresponding field inten- sily, obtained from the curve is Ho30 = Hows * OAT X 79.577 = 37.4 Ati ‘The resultant magnetic-potential difference across each core of the center leg is deter- mined from Eq. (12): Fo = H-€ = 374X030 = IAL ‘oon = H+ € = 374 K 0.69 = 25.81 At ‘The magnetic-potential difference required across the air gap to obtain a flux density of 0.20 T is obtained from Eq. (1-5). Where flay = Hoe &, 0.2 Mpp = se a7 = Hyp sap Hag = 159,153 A-tém ‘The resultant magnetic-potential difference across the air gap is = Hap pa = Fy, ‘sap 159,155(0.00$) = 795.77 At Thus, the total magnetic-potential difference across the center leg is 2 + 25.81 + 795.77 = 833 Act Fete = Fam + Fou + Fey =U Note that the magnetic-potential drop across the 0.005-m air gap is 795.77 A-t whereas the combined magnetic drop across the 0.30-m and 0.69-m cores total only 11.22 + 25.81 = 37.03 A-t. The greatest magnetic-potemtial drop occurs across anMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 11 air gap. Thus, to reduce the amount of ampere-turns required to obtain a desired flux density, air gaps in electrical machinery are kept small. -¢ Finue is also the magnetic-potential difference across section bede, the magnetic field intensity in that region is le 833 Se a 277.67 Ant Cau TP14 ™ Abede = Converting to oersteds, 217.67 + 79.577 = 3.49 ersteds The corresponding flux density, as obtained from the magnetization curve in Figure L.Sis Breas = LAST Thus, the flux in section bede is @.2, = BA = 1.45 0.04 = 0.058 Wo ‘The total magnetic flux supplied by the coil is Bp4 = Pog + Pry, = 0.008 + 0.058 = 0.066 Wh ® _ 0.066 Bran == gg = 165 T The field intensity required to provide a flux density of 1.65 T in the left leg, as obtained from the magnetization curve in Figure 1.5, is * 37 oersteds. Thus, Hejon = 37 X 79.577 = 2944.35 A-tim ‘The mmf drop in section efiab is Fy = Ho C= 2044.35(1 + 08 + 0.8) = 7655.31 At The total mmf that must be supplied by the magnetizing coil is Fy = Frere + Fepqe ~ 1655.31 + $33 = 8488.31 Art NI > 8488.31 = 80 x J 106.1 A V =IR = 106.1 * 0.05 = 30 ¥ (b) Combining Eqs. (1-5) and (1-7), BIH B Be yo 4a x10 4 & 10-7 1.65 Hace 486 Fe X10? x 204512 | Chapter 1 _ 0.20 4m x 10-7 X 37. _ Las Heit ~ age X10? X 277.67 Hsonter = 4256 156.1 Note that even though the core is homogeneous throughout, the permeability is not the same in all parts of the core. The left leg, with the greater magnetization, is approaching saturation, and thus has a much lower permeability than the other legs. The following table compares the relative permeability of the core legs, as obtained from the curve in Figure 1.5, with the calculated values. Core H(A-tim) =—-B(T) sat, teal) gs, (curve) Left leg 2944 1.65 446 450 Center leg 374 0.20 4256 4000 Right leg 277.67 1.45 4156 4100 1.6 ANALOGIES BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS The relationship between mmf, flux, and reluctance in a magnetic circuit is an analog of the relationship between emf, current, and resistance, respectively, in an electric circuit. g E o=-2% 1.8 aR R where: corresponds to ¥ corresponds to E R corresponds to R Continuing the analogy, the equivalent reluctance of n reluctances in series is Tose = Ty + Ry + Aye + Ty (1-9) The equivalent reluctance of n reluctances in parallel is 1 1 1 ete tote ee 2 ty Re 1 a a ‘An equivalent magnetic circuit that shows the analogous relationship to an elec- tric circuit is often used to solve magnetic circuit problems that may otherwise be more difficult to visualize. For example, the components of the series-parallel circuit (1-10)Magnatics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 13, shown in Figure 1.7(a) are represented as lumped reluctances in the equivalent magnetic circuit shown in Figure 1.7(b). Using the methods developed for electric cir- Cuits, the total reluctance of the series-parallel magnetic circuit is ‘Assume that flux , in Figure 1.7(a) is 0.250 Wb, and that the magnetic circuit para- meters for this condition are ‘The magnetizing coil is wound with 140 tums of copper wire. Determine (a) the cur- rent in the coil; (b) the magnetic-potential difference across Rs; (c) the flux in Tt. Sofution (a) Applying basic circuit concepts to the equivalent magnetic circuit in Figure 1.7(b), = Pas _ 40,000 x 30,000 _ Sime * Ge + Gy ~ 40,000 + 30,000 ~ 171428571 Aas Wo Reine, = Ty + Pyar = 10,500 + 17,142.8571 = 27,642.8571 AW 140 x1 27,642.8571 1= 493622 = = 49.36.A NI ’ “Rt > 0.250 = (b) The magnetic drop across Ris F, = Bp Ry, = 0.25 X 10,500 = 2625 A-t Referring to Figure 1.7(b), Fr=Fit+ Fry > 49.3622 X 140 = 2625 + Foy Fs = Foe = 42857143 = 4285.7 At Fp _ 4285.7143 © $1 = Gr = Gono 7 21071 Wh Or, using the magnetic analog of the current divider rule, &, ®, = 0,% 4 0.25 x 22.00 __ =o. 1071. Wo th, 40,000 + 30,0004 LL) ; LEED FIGURE 1.7 Magnetic circuit for Example 1.2: ta physical layout; (b) equivalent magnetic circuit.Magnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 15, 1.7 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS AND HYSTERESIS LOSS If an alternating magnetomotive force is applied to a magnetic material, as shown in Figure 1.8(@), and the flux density B plotted against the magnetic field intensity H, the resultant curve will indicate a lack of retraceability. This phenomenon, shown in Fig- ure 1.8(b), is called hysteresis, and the resultant curve is called an hysteresis loop. Starting with an unmagnetized ferromagnetic core, point O on the curve, H = 0 and B = 0, Increasing the coil current in the positive direction inereases the ampere- tums, and hence the magnetic field intensity. From Eqs. (1-1) and (1-2), NI H € When the current reaches its maximum value, the flux density and magnetic field in- tensity have their respective maximum values, and the curve is at point a; this initial trace of the curve, drawn with a broken line, is called the virgin section of the curve. As the current decreases, the curve follows a different path, and when the current is re- duced to zero, His reduced to zero, but the flux density in the core lags behind, hold- ing at point b on the curve. The flux density at point b is the residual magnetism. This lagging of flux behind the magnetizing force is the hysteresis effect. AS the alternating current and associated magnetic field intensity increase in the negative direction, the residual magnetism decreases but remains positive until point ¢ is reached, at which time the flux density in the core is zero. The negative field inten- sity required.to force the residual magnetism to zero is called the coercive force, and is Flux density (BT) AC Source (a) oy FIGURE 1.8 fa) Magnetic circuit with an alternating mmf; (b) representative hysteresis loop.