See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/236108921

Cymbopogon essential oils Chemical compositions and bioactivities

Article · April 2009

CITATIONS READS

90 9,096

2 authors, including:

Deepak Ganjewala
Amity University
63 PUBLICATIONS   946 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Enzymes and their inhibitors View project

MEP pathway View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Deepak Ganjewala on 30 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

56 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65

e
International Journal of
rc Essential Oil Therapeutics
EORC www.ijeot.com

Cymbopogon essential oils: Chemical compositions and

bioactivities

D. Ganjewala

Plant Biotechnology Division, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) University,
Vellore-632 014,Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract
The genus Cymbopogon (Poaceae) is most important from the point of view of their essential oils. Essential
oils from these species are widely used in flavours, fragrances, cosmetics, soaps, detergents and perfumery
owing to their typical lemon and rose-like aroma. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents present
therein e.g. citral, geraniol, citronellol, citronellal and piperitone, have been known to possess impressive
antibacterial, antifungal, antiyeast, insecticidal and insect repellent activities for a long time. However, the
biological and pharmacological significance of these essential oils has been rapidly expanded in the past
ten years; anti-inflammatory, anticancer, allelopathic, free radical scavanging and other useful biological
activities have now been demonstrated. Cymbopogon essential oils and constituents offer outstanding
biological activities and therefore may be used in the treatment of several diseases, including cancers,
and in applications of industrial importance particularly food packaging. The present review discusses the
chemical compositions and biological activities essential oils from Cymbopogon species and emphasizing
mechanisms of action. These details were gathered from reports on the bioactivities of essential oils of
Cymbopogon species published during 1999-2009.

Keywords: allelopathic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, Cymbopogon species, essential oil,

isointermedeol

Introduction have been studied extensively, both previously and

The genus Cymbopogon (Poaceae) is renowned for
their essential oils of immense commercial significance
in flavours, fragrances, cosmetics, perfumery, soaps,
detergents and pharmaceuticals [1]. The genus comprises
of about 140 species of which most are aromatic and yield
an essential oil upon the steam distillation of their aerial
parts [2].
Some most important species of this genus are:
• Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf. (East Indian lemongrass)
• Cymbopogon citratus DC Stapf. (West Indian
lemongrass)
• Cymbopogon nardus (L)
• Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt (citronella)
• Cymbopogon martinii Roxb. (palmarosa)
• C. nardus x C. jwarancusa (jamarosa hybrid ) [3].
Essential oils from Cymbopogon species of diverse origin
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: deepakganjawala73@yahoo.com
© Essential Oil Resource Consultants. All rights reserved.
currently [1-9].
The essential oils of Cymbopogon species mainly
consist of the monoterpene fractions. Several reports
published earlier have revealed the presence of citral
(a mixture of geranial and neral), geraniol, citronellol,
citronellal, linalool, elemol, 1,8-cineole, limonene, geraniol,
β-caryophyllene, methyl heptenone, geranyl acetate and
geranyl formate in the essential oils of different species
with marked variations have been reported. Also, the
essential oil components are greatly influenced by genetic,
environmental and geographical conditions [1-3]. The
essential oils in Cymbopogon species are biosynthesized in
the rapidly growing leaves and stored in specific oil cells in
the parenchymal tissues [10,11].
For many years lemongrass (C. flexuosus) has been used
as a culinary flavouring in Asia. The leaves are cooked with
foods, especially curries, and the peeled stems are available
in local markets. Fresh leaves crushed in water are used as
hair wash and toilet water in India. Beside their traditional
uses, studies aimed to evaluate the biological activities of
the essential oils and constituents of Cymbopogon species
 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65
have revealed their usefulness. Perhaps their significance
has been best realized in the past ten years. Studies have
revealed many useful biological activities of the essential
oils and essential oil constituents of Cymbopogon species
in recent years such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer
and allelopathic activities [12-16]. There are few reports
available describing other bioactivities of agricultural and
ecological significance such as food packaging and insect
repellent of essential oils of Cymbopogon species [17-20].
For example, C. martinii (palmarosa) essential oil is used as
fumigation to control beetles like Callosobruchus chenesis
and Tribolium castaneum, which grow in stored grain [18].
Similarly, the insect repellent properties of C. winterianus
(citronella) are used to protect cartons containing muesli
and wheat germ from beetles [19].
It is also reported that the essential oils of Cymbopogon
flexuosus, C. citratus, C. martinii, C. winterianus, C. nardus, C.
khasianus, C. nervatus, C. schoenanthus, C. giganteus and C.
densiflorus possess several useful bioactivities. In addition,
individual chemical constituents such as citral, geraniol,
citronellol, citronellal, linalool, limonene, piperitone,
borneol, bisabolol and isointermedeol have demonstrated
remarkable bioactivities, including anticancer activity
[14]. The easy availability, pleasant olfactory properties
and insignificant toxicity of the Cymbopogon essential oils
make them most promising candidates for the treatment
of chronic diseases [14]. In addition, their semio-chemical
properties are useful as an alternative to synthetic chemical
pesticides in an integrated pest management programme
[18].
Certainly, essential oils of the Cymbopogon species are
occupying increasingly and vastly varied significance in
pharmaceuticals and medicine owing to their potential
bioactivities. This trend, however, has been increased
progressively in the past ten years. Despite the fact that
the numbers of reports are increasing on the bioactivities
of Cymbopogon essential oils, these reports have not been
analyzed or reviewed at one place. In this review article,
I have discussed chemical compositions and various
bioactivities of the essential oils of Cymbopogon species
from the collation of reports published in the past ten
years. Also, the biosynthesis and accumulation of the
essential oils has been briefly mentioned.
Essential oil extraction from Cymbopogon species
Essential oils from members of the genus Cymbopogon are
usually extracted by steam or hydrodistillation of the aerial
parts, such as leaves and inflorescences in mini Clevenger
apparatus (Figure 1). They yield an essential oil with a
characteristic aroma due to the presence of the significant
monoterpene fractions. Cymbopogon flexuosus (East Indian
lemongrass) oil is yellow to reddish-brown in colour and
the odour is powerful lemon like, while that of C. martinii
(palmarosa) and C. flexuosus mutant cv. GRL-1 essential
oil has a rose-like aroma due to the higher proportion of
geraniol.
Chemical compositions of the essential oils
Essential oils of a number of Cymbopogon species have been
57
extensively studied for their chemical composition by gas
chromatography, GC-MS and NMR spectroscopy [1-9]. In
recent years C. flexuosus, C. citratus, C. martinii, C. winterianus,
C. nardus, C. giganteus, C. schoenanthus and C. parkeri have
been investigated for their chemical compositions as well as
evaluated for biological activities The studies have revealed
that their essential oils mainly consist of monoterpenes
(acyclic and acyclic), whilst those of C. flexuosus and C.
parkeri also consist of bicyclic monoterpenes, piperitone
and sesquiterpenes such as isointermedeol [14, 21].
Isointermedeol is a major component in the essential oil
of C. flexuosus that has anticancer properties [18].
Figure 1. Mini Clevenger apparatus for extraction of essential oil.
Figure 1. Mini Clevenger apparatus for essential oil
extraction.
Gas chromatographic analyses of essential oils of C.
flexuosus cultivars OD-19 and GRL-1 has revealed the
presence of several monoterpenes viz., citral (a and b),
geraniol, borneol, isopulegol and 6-methyl hept-5-en-2-
one, geranyl acetate, γ-terpinene, α-thujene, α-pinene,
sabinene, n-decanol, α-terpenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene,
α-humulene, germacrene D, β-bisabolene and γ-cadinene
[1-9]. Structures of some of these monoterpenes are
presented in Figure 2.
Our earlier study of essential oil compositions in eight
cultivars of C. flexuosus revealed that essential oils of the
seven cultivars consisted mainly of citral (75-85%), except
that of cultivar GRL-1, which is mainly composed of
geraniol (90%) [1]. Citral is an isomeric mixture of geranial
(citral a) and neral (citral b) and are major components
in the essential oils of several species of Cymbopogon
[10]. Both citral and geraniol have immense commercial
significance due to their characteristic lemon and rose-
like smell in the flavour, fragrance, cosmetics, perfumery
and pharmaceutical industries [1,22]. A study of essential
oil composition and phylogenetic relationship in 19
Cymbopogon taxa by Khanuja et al. 2005 [2] revealed marked
variation in the essential oil content and compositions of
these taxa. Essential oils from C. confortiflorus and C. nardus
var. confortiflorus were rich in geraniol with observed
values of 68% and 46%, respectively, whereas essential
oils from C. nardus var. nardus and C. winterianus had very
little amount of geraniol. Essential oil extracted from C.
pendulus, C. flexuosus and C. citratus mainly consisted of
58 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Figure 2. Chemical structures of Cymbopogon essential oil constituents
1, citral a; 2, citral, b; 3, citronellol; 4, citronellal; 5, geraniol; 6, geranyl acetate; 7, limonene; 8, linalool; 9, nerol; 10, cis-
ocimene; 11, piperitone; 12, α-terpineol, 13, thujane; 14, α-bisabolol, 15, isointermedeol; 16, borneol; 17, α-pinene; 18,
β-pinene.

citral that accounted for 80-84% [2].
The essential oil obtained from the roots of C. citratus
consisted of ten components including longifolene-(V4)
that accounted for 56.67% of the essential oil; also present
as a major constituent was selina-6-en-4-ol (20.03%) [16].
The chemical composition of the essential oil from the
shoots of C. citratus was completely different to that of
the root essential oil, with the former consisting of 12
components with citral (88%) as the major constituent
[16]. Cymbopogon giganteus essential oil has shown a very
distinct composition, which is mainly characterised by
the presence of cis- and trans-p-1(7),8-menthadien-2-ol
(19.9% and 22.3%), cis- and trans-p-2,8-menthadien-1-ol
(10.1% and 14.3%) [13]. Like C. giganteus, the essential oil
of C. schoenanthus L. Spreng from Tunisia also had a very
distinguished chemical composition, but characterised
by different types of monoterpenes such as limonene
(10.5–27.3%), β-phellandrene (8.2–16.3%), δ-terpinene
(4.3–21.2%) and α-terpineol (6.8–11.0%) [23]. So far, these
essential oil compositions are unique.
The essential oil of the C. martinii studied by GC-FTIR
indicated the presence of geraniol (65%) and geranyl
 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65 59

acetate (20%) as major components [24]. Similar
composition of the leaf and flower essential oils of C.
martinii with geraniol as dominating component (53.41% in
leaf and 69.63% in flower oil) is reported [25]. In addition
to geraniol, piperitone (6.0%) in flower and nerol (24.76%)
and α-pinene (4.32%) in leaf essential oils have also been
identified [25]. Phytochemical analysis of the essential oil
of C. winterianus Jowitt (java citronella) showed presence
of geraniol (40.06%), citronellal (27.44%) and citronellol
(10.45%) as major components [26]. The essential oil of
C. winterianus consisted of 23 compounds as revealed
by gas chromatographic analyses; major constituents
identified were citronellal (27%), trans-geraniol (23%), and
citronellol (10%) [27]. Earlier studies have shown similar
essential oil composition of C. winterianus with citronellol,
citronellal, limonene and linalool as major components
[28]. The essential oil composition of C. nardus is almost
identical to that of C. winterianus, characterised by the
presence of geraniol, citronellal, and citronellol. However,
α-terpineol,
 cis-sabinene and carvone were identified as and accumulation is subjected to developmental regulation
major constituents besides citronellal and geraniol in the
essential oil of C. nardus harvested from India [29]. The
essential oil of C. parkeri Stapf. from Iran has piperitone
(81%) as major component with some other minor
constituents including germacrene-D (5%), santolinyl
acetate (2.1%) and α-eudesmol (2.1%) [21].
The study of the essential oil composition of various
Cymbopogon species presented here led to the conclusion
that the monoterpene compositions of the essential oils
markedly varied among the species. Invariably, essential oil
content and compositions are greatly influenced by climate,
season and diurnal effects. Additionally, developmental and
ontogenic variations in the essential oil composition in
Cymbopogon species have been reported [1,3].
Essential oil biosynthesis and accumulation
Essential oils are complex mixture of acyclic and/ or
cyclic terpenoids. Monoterpenes are colourless, lipophilic,
volatile substances responsible for the characteristic
odours of essential oils and scents of many plants [3].
The monoterpenes are mainly derived from geranyl
diphosphate (GPP) through interconversions such as,
stereo specific isomerization, acetylation, deacetyaltion,
cyclisation and dehydrogenation [31,31]. Geranyl
diphosphate (GPP) is believed to be biosynthesised by
condensation of the isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) with
dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) in a head to tail fashion.
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate is the universal precursor of all
isoprenoids including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes
and is thought to be derived either from the cytoplasmic
acetate-MVA pathway or the newly discovered methyl-
erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway (Figure 3) [22, 32-
34]. Incorporation studies in C. flexuosus (lemongrass) and
C. martinii (palmarosa) using radiolabel substrates [2-14C]-
acetate, 14CO2, [14C]-sucrose favoured acetate-MVA origin
of the essential oil [22,35,36]. The essential biosynthesis
in Cymbopogons [1]. Previous incorporation studies in
lemongrass and palmarosa revealed only young and
rapidly growing leaves and inflorescences are most active
in biogenesis as well as accumulation of essential oil [22,
36,37].
Histochemical methods using Schiff’s reagent have shown
that Cymbopogon flexuosus cv. OD-19 and C. citratus
accumulate essential oils in oil cells located in the adaxial
side of the leaf mesophyll, commonly adjacent to non
photosynthetic tissue and between vascular bundles
[10,11].
Bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils
The bioactive potential of Cymbopogon essential oils and
their constituents have been rapidly recognised in the past
ten years (Table 1), although the conventional bioactive
properties against microbes have been known for much

 
Figure 3. Monoterpene biosynthesis via cytosolic acetate-MVA and plastidic MEP pathway.
DMAPP, dimethylallyl diphosphate; G-3-P, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; GPP, geranyl diphosphate; IPP, isopentenyl
diphosphate. Secondary transformations of GPP produce diverse monoterpenes structures.
60 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65
longer. Essential oils of Cymbopogon species are easily
available, have a pleasant aroma, are non-toxic and safe;
the active principles are therefore becoming increasingly
popular in pharmaceuticals and medicines. Also, semio-
chemical properties of the Cymbopogon essential oils
has been promising in integrated pest management
programme since this property may lead to development
of alternatives to synthetic chemical pesticides [18].
While several research groups have investigated the
bioactive potential of essential oils and their constituents
using animal models and cell systems, others have elucidated
and proposed mechanisms underlying their actions. A
number of reports published in recent years have described
several novel bioactivities viz., allelopathic, anthelmintic,
anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant and insect and
mosquito repellency of some Cymbopogon essential oils
and the mechanisms of action. Among the various species,
C. citratus has been recognised most promising since the
essential oil of this species has exhibited a variety of
fundamental and novel bioactivities (Table 1). Cymbopogon
martinii and C. winterianus were other species that showed
outstanding bioactivities, particularly insect repellent and
anthelmintic. In contrast, C. schoenanthus essential oil
demonstrated antioxidant activity. The bioactive potential
of other species of Cymbopogon have not yet been fully
exploited.
Like essential oils, monoterpene constituent of the
essential oil have displayed useful bioactivities [12-16].
For instance, citral, a major constituent in essential oils of
many Cymbopogon species has shown strong antimicrobial
properties against plant and human pathogens and
insecticidal properties [38-41]. Similarly, limonene and
borneol present in the essential oil of C. flexuosus have
immunostimulatory, analgesic and anaesthetic properties,
respectively [42, 43]. Some other constituents such as
geraniol, geranyl acetate, α-bisabolol and isointermedeol
have also been correlated with different types of
bioactivities. Isointermedeol, a major component in C.
flexuosus essential oil, possesses anticancer properties
[14]. The number of reports describing the bioactivities
of Cymbopogon essential oils is growing. Most of the
bioactivities shown by Cymbopogon essential oils are
discussed in the following sections.
Antimicrobial activities
Rapidly developing resistance of pathogenic microorganisms
against currently available drugs/ treatment is a major
concern in recent years. Essential oils of Cymbopogon
species have strong antimicrobial properties and thus could
produce alternative therapeutics to current antibiotic
drugs. The antimicrobial properties of C. flexuosus, C.
citratus, C. martinii, C. winterianus, C. nardus, and C. parkeri
have been well documented (Table 1). Most of the studies
have determined the antimicrobial activity of the essential
oil and its constituents in terms of minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC), which is required for 50% inhibition
of the growth of microorganisms. From these studies it has
become clear that essential oils of Cymbopogon species have
outstanding antifungal activities and significant antibacterial
activities. Cymbopogon nervatus inflorescence essential oil
has demonstrated antibacterial activities against Shigella
dysenteriae and Klebsiella pneumoniae [44], whilst that of
C. densiflorus has a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity
against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria [45].
De Billerbeck et al. [46] have studied the effect of the
essential oil of C. nardus on the growth of Aspergillus
niger. The study revealed that the essential oil (800 mg/
ml) had strong inhibitory action causing cytological
modifications on growth of the mycelium. It was suggested
that the essential oil damaged the plasma membrane and
mitochondrial structural organization. Subsequently, Helal
et al. [47] described a very similar antifungal property of C.
citratus essential oil with negative effects on the growth, lipid
content and morphogenesis in A. niger ML2-strain.The MIC
of the essential oil was 1.5-2.0 μ/ml. Observation of A. niger
hyphae treated with essential oils under the light, scanning
electron and transmission microscope demonstrated the
ultra structural alterations in the hyphae, which might be
developed during treatment with essential oil. Fumigation
with essential oil also caused great loss in Ca2+, K+ and
Mg2+ ions from the mycelium. Moreover, C. citratus essential
oil is reported to block aflatoxin B production in A. niger
[48, 49].The essential oil of C. martinii displayed remarkable
antiyeast activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae at
a concentration as low as 0.1% [24]. Geraniol, which
accounts for 90% of palmarosa essential oil, was found to
be responsible for this activity.
Two mechanisms of antiyeast activity have been suggested.
Geraniol arrests the growth of yeast cells causing excessive
K+ ion leakage from yeast cells and essential oil treatment
induces alterations in the S. cerevisiae cell membrane
composition by increasing the proportion of saturated fatty
acid and decreasing that of unsaturated fatty acid, resulting
in growth inhibition. Besides the effects of palmarosa on
S. cerevisiae, the oil has shown inhibitory effects on the
growth of dermatophytes and filamentous fungi [50]. This
was studied by applying essential oil ointments against
induced ringworm in a guinea pig model; hair samples
were collected after 7-21 days of the treatment and
examined for fungal growth [50]. The essential oil from C.
citratus has been found to be useful in treatment of oral
and vaginal candidiasis [51], with citral exhibiting powerful
inhibitory effects on growth of the yeast [51]. Other
yeasts significantly affected include Candida oleophila,
Hansenula anomala, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. uvarum,
Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Metschnikowia fructicola.
Cymbopogon citratus essential oil has also shown significant
inhibitory activities against a number of filamentous
fungi, namely Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium
oxysporum and Penicillium roquefortii [52].
The essential oil and powder of C. citratus is used to
control storage deterioration and aflatoxin contamination
of melon seeds caused by Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A.
tamarii and Penicillium citrinum [53]. The advantages of
this treatment are that the essential oil does not affect
the biochemical composition of the seeds and has strong
effects comparable to that of a commercial fungicide
iprodione. Thus it is a better and safe natural control.
Unlike essential oils of other Cymbopogon species, C.
parkeri essential oil has shown substantial activity against
 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65 61

Table 1. Bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils, constituents and extracts.

Cymbopogon species essential oil MIC/IC50 value biological activity ref.

Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Essential oil 126.5 and 15.5 μg/ml Anti-proliferative 12
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil and N.D. Allelopathic 16
components
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil 1.0 - 1.5 μl/ml Antifungal 47
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil 1.0- 3.0 μl/ml Antiyeast 48
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil, citral 100 μg/ml Antifungal 51
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil 1.0 - 1.5 μl/ml Antifungal 49
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil and 1-10 g/100 g seeds and Antifungal 53
powder 0.1 to 1.0 ml/100 g seeds
Cymbopogon citratus Lemon grass extract 100 mg/kg body weight Anticancer 55
Cymbopogon citratus Citral 22.25 μM Inducer of caspase-3 in 56
tumor cell lines
Cymbopogon citratus Methanol, water 50-100 μg/ml Free radical scavenging 57
infusion & decoction and antioxidant
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil 50-200 mg/kg Antinociceptive effect 62
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil N.D. Anxiolytic 63
Cymbopogon citratus Essential oil 0.5 - 1.0 g/kg Neurobehavioral effect 64
Cymbopogon citratus Fresh leaf aqueous 125-500 mg/kg Hypoglycemic and 65
extract hypolipidemic
Cymbopogon citratus Citral 60 mg/kg body weight Anti-clastogenic 66
Cymbopogon citratus Lemongrass infusion N.D. In the treatment of oral 67
thrush in HIV/AIDS
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Essential oil 4.2 to 79 μg/ml Anticancer 15
Steud) Wats
Cymbopogon flexuosus Essential oil, 30 and 20 μg/ml Anticancer 14
isointermedeol
Cymbopogon martini Roxb. Essential oil 0.1% Antimicrobial 24
Cymbopogon martini Essential oil, geraniol 66.7 μg/ml Anthelmintic 60
Cymbopogon martini Oil extract N.D. Insecticidal 18
Cymbopogon martini Essential oils 150 and 500 ppm Antifungal activity 50
dermatophytes
Cymbopogon martini Essential oil 150 and 500 ppm Antifungal activity 25
dermatophytes
Cymbopogon martini Essential oil N.D. Anthelmintic activity 25
Cymbopogan martini var. sofia Essential oil 1 ml Repellent 20
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Essential oil 0.47 mg/ml Antioxidant 23
Spreng. Antiacetylcholineesterase
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Essential oil, 1.6 μl/l and 2.7 μl/l Insecticidal 59
piperitone
Cymbopogon schoenanthus Essential oil 33.3 μl/l Insecticidal 58
Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt Essential oil 100- 400 mg/kg Anticonvulsant 26
Cymbopogon winterianus Essential oil N.D. Insecticidal/ repellent 60
Cymbopogon winterianus Essential oil 1-10 μl/ml Antimicrobial 27
Cymbopogon winterianus Citronella extract 0.2 g/m2 of carton board Insect repellent 19
Cymbopogon winterianus Citronellal 2.5 mM Phytotoxicity 17
Cymbopogon nardus Essential oil 800 mg/l Antifungal 46
Cymbopogon densiflorus Steud. Essential oil N.D. Antibacterial activity 45
Cymbopogon nervatus Stapf. Essential oil N.D. Antibacterial 44
N.D. = not detected
62 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65
phytopathogenic fungi, namely Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia
orizea and Fusarium oxysporum [54]
Anticancer activity
Until recently, relatively little was known about the
anticancer properties of Cymbopogon essential oils and
their mechanism of actions; only few reports are available.
The first report on anticancer activity was the effects
of lemongrass on hepatocarcinogenesis in male Fischer
344 rats administered with diethylnitrosamine [55].
Consequently, the anticancer activity of citral has been
reported. Citral functions as a new inducer of caspase-3 in
tumour cell lines, with the mechanism of action involving
DNA fragmentation and enhancement of caspase-3
catalytic activity, eventually inducing apoptosis in several
hematopoietic cell lines [56]. However, apoptotic effects
were dependent on a- and b- unsaturated aldehyde groups.
The most defined work on anticancer activity of
Cymbopogon essential oil has been recently carried out
[14,15]. The two reports provided deeper insight in to
anticancer principle of the essential oil and its mechanisms
of action. Kumar et al. [14] have investigated the anticancer
activity of C. flexuosus (CFO) essential oil and its major
constituent, isointermedeol (ISO) in human leukaemia
HL-60 cells. This study revealed that C. flexuosus essential
oil and isointermedeol (ISO) induce apoptosis in human
leukaemia HL-60 cells and anticancer activity of these
materials was correlated with down regulation of NF-κB
expression and caspase activation. The caspase activation
was through apical receptors and mitochondrial signaling
pathways. As a part of the mechanism of action it was
suggested that significantly increased levels of cytochrome
c in mitochondria after essential oil treatment, played a
role in triggering apoptosis. Sharma et al. [15] have studied
the anticancer activity of C. flexuosus essential oil in human
cancer cell lines HL-60, murine Ehrlich and Sarcoma-180
tumors in combination with electron microscopy. This
indicated some morphological changes favouring induction
of apoptosis in cancer cells lines that were most probably
triggered by the essential oil. Chromatin condensation and
induced apoptosis and fragmentation of the nuclei and
apoptosis were apparent morphological changes in HL-60
and sarcoma-180 cell lines, respectively [15].
Antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant activities
The antiproliferative effect of C. citratus essential oil against
Trypanosoma cruzi was demonstrated to be due to citral.
Citral also showed significant trypanocidal activity against
the parasite [12]. Cymbopogon giganteus is widely used in
traditional medicine against several diseases. The chemical
constituents of this essential oil showed inhibitory effects in
vitro on 5-lipoxygenase. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) method was used for determination of the
antiradical scavenging activity of the essential oil [13].
Antioxidants are substances with the ability to scavenge free
radicals and the essential oils of Cymbopogon species have
shown this ability and are thus considered as antioxidants.
However, the antioxidant properties of Cymbopogon species
have not yet been sufficiently evaluated. The essential
oil of C. schoenanthus L. (Spreng.) has shown the ability
of scavenging of free radicals and also anti-acetylcholine
esterase activity, hence believed to be a strong antioxidant
[23]. Cymbopogon schoenanthus is consumed in salads and
used to prepare traditional meat recipes in Tunisia. With
C. citratus, instead of essential oil, the methanol, methanol-
water extract, infusion and decoction of leaves exhibited
powerful antioxidant properties. The antioxidant activity
of the essential oils of the above species were determined
using the DPPH assay [23,57].
Allelopathic, repellent and anthelmint activities
It is reported that Cymbopogon essential oils and their
major constituents function as allelochemicals. Allelo-
chemicals affect insect biology and behaviour and hence
are used in biocontrol. Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential
oil functions as an allelochemical and is used to control
Callosobruchus maculates development in cowpea stock
[58, 59]. Piperitone, a major chemical constituent, was
more toxic than the essential oil to neonatal larvae. The
essential oil of C. citratus exhibited alleopathic activity and
affects seed germination and seedling growth of corn and
barnyard grass [16]. Very likely, C. winterianus essential oil
has allelo-chemical property that affects the growth of
Spodoptera frugiperda larvae [60]. An extract of citronella
also has repellent activity [19] and it is for this reason that
citronella extract is used to prevent cartoons containing
muesli and wheat germ from beetles [19]. Similarly, C.
martinii var. sofia essential oil exhibited repellent action
against Anopheles sundaicus [20]. Palmarosa oil is safe
for human use and is thus recommended for protection
from malaria due to its potent repellent action against
mosquitoes. Beside mosquito repellent activity, palmarosa
essential oil also showed strong pesticidal activity against
insect infestation and is used to protect stored wheat and
grain from the beetles Callosobruchus chenesis and Tribolium
castaneum [18].
Palmarosa essential oil demonstrated significant
anthelmintic activity against the nematode Caenorhabditis
elegans [61]. and this was mainly due to geraniol (a major
chemical constituent). Palmarosa oil has also showed
anthelmintic activity against the Indian earthworm
Pheretima posthuma [25]where it causes paralysis and
death in a short time.
Other biological activities
Essential oils of Cymbopogon species have some other
less studied bioactivities. Cymbopogon citratus is reported
to possess additional properties such as antinociceptive,
anxiolytic-type, and neurobehavioral activity [53, 62-
65]. Aqueous extracts of C. citratus leaves have shown
hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects in rats suggesting
its possible therapeutic role in Type 2 diabetic mellitus [65].
Administration of aqueous extracts of leaves (125-500 mg/
kg body weight) in normal male Wistar rates for 42 days
resulted in a significant decline in fasting plasma glucose,
increase in plasma HDL-c level and no change in plasma
triglycerides level [65].
The essential oil of C. winterianus is used in Brazilian folk
 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65
medicine as an analgesic and anxiolytic [15]. A recent
study has revealed anticonvulsant and depressant activity
of C. winterianus essential oil on central nervous system
(CNS) of rodents [26]. Citronella essential oil exhibited
significant inhibitory effects on the growth of several
weed species like Ageratum conyzoides, Chenopodium album,
Parthenium hyterophorus, Malvastrum coromendelianum,
Cassia accidentalis and Phalaris minor [17]. It is suggested
that a major component, citronellal, exerts multiple
effects on the biochemistry and physiology of the weeds
and inhibits their emergence. Citronellal mainly impairs
the photosynthetic and respiratory metabolism, disrupts
cuticular wax, clogs stomata, shrinks epidermal cells
and causes rapid electrolyte leakage. Post-emergence
application of citronella has been equally effective and
cause chlorosis, necrosis, wilting and finally death of the
weeds [17].
Citral possesses many useful bioactivities and one of
these is an anti-clastogenic effect in nickel chloride-
treated mouse micronucleus system [66]. The citral
caused inhibition of micronuclei formation and enhanced
the superoxide scavenging activity. Elevated superoxide
scavenging activity was thought to be responsible for the
anti-clastogenic effects of the citral [66].
Recently, Wright et al. [67] have reported that lemon
juice and C. citratus infusion is safe in and highly effective
in the treatment of oral thrush in HIV/AIDS patients in
comparison to group using gentian violet aqueous solution
(0.5%). This randomised controlled trial validated the
efficacy of lemon juice and lemongrass for the treatment
of oral candidiasis in an HIV population in South Africa.
Conclusion
Essential oils of Cymbopogon species that are diverse
in chemical composition possess many important and
potential bioactivities of great pharmaceutical and medicinal
significance. Some of the novel bioactivities of Cymbopogon
essential oils and constituents include anti-inflammatory,
anticancer, antioxidant and insect repellency. In addition,
they have a number of other activities of ecological and
industrial significance.
At present, the focus of several research laboratories is
to investigate plausible mechanism/s of action underlying
the newer bioactivities of Cymbopogon essential oils.
Despite the fact that Cymbopogon essential oils have
offered immense biological, ecological and pharmaceutical
properties, little efforts have been made to harvest the
maximum bioactive potential of these species. Only C.
citratus has been extensively investigated and it possesses a
range of outstanding bioactivities.
One of the major concerns with regard to bioactivity
screening is subsequent adequate clinical trials in human
subjects, which are often lacking in many cases.The absence
of clinical trails severely impedes the development of the
bioactive component identified as an alternative medicine
or therapeutic agent. Thus the studies of Cymbopogon
essential oils also need to be substantiated by clinical trials
in human subjects.
It is true that our interest in Cymbopogon essential oils has
63
rapidly increased, shifting from their aromatic potential to
bioactive potential. It is very timely to investigate bioactive
potential of this genus when the demand for natural
remedies from the public is escalating because of their
safe use with no side effects. Also, the growing resistance
of pathogenic microbes against current antibiotics has
prompted the search for plant-based new or alternative
drugs.
Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to the Chancellor, Vellore Institute
of Technology (VIT) University, Vellore, India for providing
necessary support and facilities. This work is done under
the project “Metabolic fingerprinting of the monoterpenes
in the genus Cymbopogon” financially supported by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi,
government of India.
References
1. Ganjewala D, Kumari Ambika, Khan KH. Ontogenic
and developmental changes in essential oil content and
compositions in Cymbopogon flexuosus cultivars. In: Prasad
BN, Lazer Mathew, editor. Recent Advance in Biotechnology.
New Delhi, India: Excel India Publishers, 2008. p. 82-92.
2. Khanuja SPS, Shasany AK, Pawar A, Lal RK, Darokar MP,
Naqvi AA, et al. Essential oil constituents and RAPD markers
to establish species relationship in Cymbopogon Spreng.
(Poaceae). Biochem Syst Ecol. 2005;33:171-86.
3. Ganjewala D. Biochemical and molecular characterization of
geraniol rich lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus Nees ex
Steud) Wats. Mutant cv. GRL-1. 2002 Thesis.
4. Sarma KK, Nath SC, Leclercq PA. The essential oil of a
variant of Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats
from Northeast India. J Essent Oil Res. 1999;11:381-85.
5. Nath SC, Sarma KK, Vajezikova I, Leclercq PA. Comparison
of volatile inflorescence oils and taxonomy of certain
Cymbopogon taxa described as Cymbopogon flexuosus
(Nees ex Steud.) Wats. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2002;30:151-62.
6. Shahi AK, Sharma SN, Tava A. Composition of Cymbopogon
pendulus (Nees ex Steud) Wats., an elemicin rich oil grass
known in Jammu region of India. J Essent Oil Res. 1997; 9:561-
64.
7. Mathew S, Chittattu GJ, Thomas J. OD-468Fa lemongrass
chemotype rich in geranyl acetate. Indian Perfumer.
1996;40:9-12.
8. Nath SC, Saha BN, Bordoloi DN, Mathur RK, Leclercq PA.The
chemical composition of the essential oil of Cymbopogon
flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. growing in Northeast India. J Essent
Oil Res. 1994;6:85-87.
9. Sidibe L, Chalchat JC, Garry RP, Lacombe L. Aromatic plants
of Mali (IV): Chemical composition of essential oils of
Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stalf and C. giganteus (Hochst.)
Chiov. J Essent Oil Res. 2001;13:110-13.
10. Lewinsohn E, Dudai N, Tadmor Y, Katzir I, Ravid U, Putievsky
E, et al. Histochemical localization of citral accumulation
in lemongrass leaves (Cymbopogon citratus (DC) stapf.
Poaceae). Anal Bot. 1998;81:35-39.
11. Luthra R, Luthra PM, Kumar S. Redefined role of mevalonate-
isoprenoid pathway in terpenoid biosynthesis in higher
plants. Curr Sci. 1999;76:133-35.
12. Santoro GF, Cardoso MG, Guimarães LG, Freire JM,
Soares MJ. Anti-proliferative effect of the essential oil
of Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf (lemongrass) on
intracellular amastigotes, bloodstream trypomastigotes
and culture epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi (Protozoa:
64 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65
Kinetoplastida). Parasitol. 2007;134:1649-56.
13. Alitonoua F, Avlessia DK, Sohuounhlouea H, Agnanietb JM,
Bessiereb M, Menutb C. Investigations on the essential oil of
Cymbopogon giganteus from Benin for its potential use as
an anti-inflammatory agent. Int J Aromather. 2006;16:37-40.
14. Kumar A, Malika F, Bhushana S, Sethia VK, Shahia AK, Kaurb J,
et al.An essential oil and its major constituent isointermedeol
induce apoptosis by increased expression of mitochondrial
cytochrome c and apical death receptors in human
leukaemia HL-60 cells. Chem Biol Interact. 2008;171:332-47.
15. Sharma PR, Mondhe DM, Muthiah S, Pal HC, Shahi AK,
Saxena AK, et al. Anticancer activity of an essential oil from
Cymbopogon flexuosus. Chem Biol Interact. 2009;179:160-68.
16. Li H, Huang J, Zhang X, Chen Y, Yang J, Hei L. Allelopathic
effects of Cymbopogon citratus volatile and its chemical
components. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao. 2005;16:763-67.
17. Singh HP, Batish DR, Kaur S, Kohli RK, Arora K. Phytotoxicity
of the volatile monoterpene citronellal against some weeds.
Z Naturforsch C. 2006;61:334-40.
18. Kumar R, Srivastava M, Dubey NK. Evaluation of
Cymbopogon martinii oil extract for control of postharvest
insect deterioration in cereals and legumes. J Food Prot.
2007;70:172-78.
19. Wong KK, Signal FA, Campion SH, Motion RL. Citronella
as an insect repellent in food packaging. J Agric Food Chem.
2005;53:4633-36.
20. Das MK, Ansari MA. Evaluation of repellent action of
Cymbopogon martinii Stapf var sofia oil against Anopheles
sundaicus in tribal villages of Car Nicobar Island, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, India. J Vector Borne Dis. 2003;40:100-
104.
21. Baqheri R, Mohamadi S, Abkar A, Fazlollahi A. Essential oil
compositions of Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf from Iran. Pak J
Biol Sci. 2007;10:3485-86.
22. Dubey VS, Bhalla R, Luthra R. An overview of the non-
mevalonate pathway for terpenoid biosynthesis in plants. J
Biosci. 2003;28:637-46.
23. Khadria A, Serralheirob MLM, Nogueirab JMF,
Neffatic M, Smitia S,. Araujob MEM. Antioxidant and
antiacetylcholinesterase activities of essential oils from
Cymbopogon schoenanthus L. Spreng. Determination of
chemical composition by GC–mass spectrometry and 13C
NMR. Food Chem. 2008;109:630-37.
24. Prashar A, Hili P, Venees RG, Evans CS. Antimicrobial action
of palmarosa oil (Cymbopogon martinii) on Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Phytochem. 2003;63: 569-75.
25. Nirmal SA, Girme AS, Bhalke RD. Major constituents and
anthelmintic activity of volatile oils from leaves and flowers
of Cymbopogon martinii Roxb. Nat Prod Res. 2007;21:1217-
20.
26. Quintans-Junior LJ, Souza TT, Leite BS, Lessa NM,
Bonjardim LR, Santos MR, Alves PB, Blank AF, Antoniolli AR.
Phythochemical screening and anticonvulsant activity of
Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt (Poaceae) leaf essential oil
in rodents. Phytomed. 2008;15:619-24.
27. Simic A, Rancic A, Sokovic MD, Ristic M, Grujic-Jovanovic S,
Vukojevic J, et al. Essential oil composition of Cymbopogon
winterianus and Carum carvi and their antimicrobial
activities. Pharm Biol. 2008;46:437-41.
28. Lorenzo D, Dellacassa E, Atti-Serafini L, Santos AC, Frizzo
C, Paroul N, et al. Composition and stereoanalysis of
Cymbopogon winterianus Jowiit oil from Southern Brazil.
Flavor Fragr J. 2000;15:177-81.
29. Delespaul Q, de-Billerbeck VG, Roques CG, Michel G,
Marquier Vinuales C, Bessiere JM. The antifungal activity
essential oil as determined by different screening methods. J
Essent Oil Res. 2000;12:256-66.
30. Banthorpe DV, Charlwood BV. The terpenoids. In:
Encyclopedia of plant physiology. Bell EA, Charlwood BV
editors. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Springer, 1980; p. 185.
31. Croteau R. Biosynthesis and catabolism of monoterpenoids.
Chem Rev. 1987;87:929-54.
32. McCaskill DG, Croteau R. Isopentenyl diphosphate is
the terminal product of the deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate
pathway for terpenoid biosynthesis in plants. Tetrahedron
Lett. 1999;40:653-56.
33. Luthra R, Luthra PM, Kumar S. Redefined role of mevalonate-
isoprenoid pathway in terpenoid biosynthesis in higher
plants. Curr Sci. 1999;76:133-35.
34. Rohmer M. Mevalonate-independent methylerythritol
phosphate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Elucidation
and distribution. Pure Appl Chem. 2003;75:375-87.
35. Singh N, Luthra R, Sangwan RS. Oxidative pathways and
essential oil biosynthesis in the developing lemongrass
(Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf). Plant Physiol Biochem.
1990;28:703-10.
36. Ganjewala D, Luthra R. Inhibitors of essential oil biosynthesis
in Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex. Steud) Wats mutant cv.
GRL-1 leaves. Am J Plant Physiol. 2007;2:227-32.
37. Ganjewala D, Luthra R. Essential oil biosynthesis and
metabolism of geranyl acetate and geraniol in developing
Cymbopogon flexuosus Nees ex Steud Wats mutant cv.
GRL-1 leaf. Am J Plant Physiol. 2007; 2:269 -75.
38. Asthana A, Larson RA, Marley KA, Tuveson RW. Mechanisms
of citral phytotoxicity. Phytotoxicity Photobiol. 1992;56:211-22.
39. Rodov V, Ben-Yehoshua S, Fang DQ, Kim JJ, Ashkenazi R.
Performed antifungal compounds of lemon fruit: citral
and its relation to disease resistance. J Agric Food Chem.
1995;43:1057-61.
40. Rice PJ, Coats JR. Insecticidal properties of several
monoterpenoids to the house fly, red flour beetle and
southern corn rootworm. J Economic Entomol. 1994;87:1172-
79.
41. Kakrala S, Ganjewala D. Antimicrobial activities of essential
oils of four lemongrass (Cymbopogon Flexuosus Steud)
varieties Krishna, Cauveri, Nima and Cheerharit. 2009;
Accepted.
42. Toro-Arreola SD, Flores-Torales E, Torres-Lozano C, Toro-
Arreola AD, Tostado-Pelayo K, Guadalupe Ramirez-Duenas
M, et al. Effect of D-limonene on immune response in BALB/c
mice with lymphoma. Int Immunopharmacol. 2005;5:829-38.
43. Granger RE, Campbell EL, Johnston GA. (+) and (−)-borneol:
efficacious positive modulators of GABA action at human
recombinant alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2L GABA9A) receptors.
Biochem Pharmacol. 2005;69:1101-11.
44. El-Kamali HH, Manza MA, El-Amir MY. Antibacterial
activity of the essential oil from Cymbopogon nervatus
inflorescence. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:446-49.
45. Takaisi-Kikuni NB, Tahilanda D, Babady B. Antibacterial
activity of the essential oil of Cymbopogon densiflorus.
Fitoterapia. 2000;71:69-71.
46. De-Billerbeck VG, Roques CG, Bessiere JM, Fonvielle JL,
Dargent R. Effects of Cymbopogon nardus (L.) W. Watson
essential oil on the growth and morphogenesis of Aspergillus
niger. Can J Microbiol. 2001;47:9-17.
47. Helal GA, Sarhan MM, Abu Shahla AN, Abou El-Khair EK.
Effect of Cymbopogon citratus L. essential oil on growth
and morphogenesis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ML2-strain.
J Basic Microbiol. 2006;46:375-86.
48. Helal GA, Sarhan MM, Abu Shahla AN, Abou El-Khair EK.
Effects of Cymbopogon citratus L. essential oil on the
growth, lipid content and morphogenesis of Aspergillus
niger ML2-strain. J Basic Microbiol. 2006;46:456-69.
49. Helal GA, Sarhan MM, Abu Shahla AN, Abou El-Khair
 International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics (2009) 3, 56-65 65

EK. Effects of Cymbopogon citratus L. essential oil on of lemongrass oil inhibits the clastogenic effect of nickel
the growth, morphogenesis and aflatoxin production of chloride in mouse micronucleus test system. Pak J Pharm Sci.
Aspergillus flavus ML2-strain. J Basic Microbiol. 2007;47:5-15. 2006;9:108-13.
50. Prasad CS, Shukla R, Kumar A, Dubey NK (2009): In vitro and 67. Wright SC, Maree JE, Sibanyoni M. Treatment of oral thrush
in vivo antifungal activity of essential oils of Cymbopogon in HIV/AIDS patients with lemon juice and lemongrass
martini and Chenopodium ambrosioides and their synergism (Cymbopogon citratus) and gentian violet. Phytomed.
against dermatophytes. Mycoses (In press). 2009;16:118-24.
51. Abe S, Sato Y, Inoue S, Ishibashi H, Maruyama N, Takizawa T,
et al. Anti-Candida albicans activity of essential oils including
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and its component,
citral. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi. 2003;44:285-91.
52. Irkin R, Korukluoglu M. Effectiveness of Cymbopogon
citratus L. essential oil to inhibit the growth of some
filamentous fungi and yeasts. J Med Food. 2009;12:193-97.
53. Bankole SA, Joda AO, Ashidi JS. The use of powder and
essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus against mould
deterioration and aflatoxin contamination of “egusi” melon
seeds. J Basic Microbiol. 2005;45:20-30.
54. Hajieghrari B, Mohmmasdi MR, Hadian D. Antifungal activity
of Cymbopogon parkeri stapf. essential oil on some
important phytopathogenic fungi. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci.
2006;71:937-41.
55. Puatanachokchaia R, Kishidaa H, Dendaa A, Murataa N,
Konishia Y, Vinitketkumnuen U, et al. Inhibitory effects of
lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus, Stapf) extract on the
early phase of hepatocarcinogenesis after initiation with
diethylnitrosamine in male Fischer 344 rats. Cancer Lett.
2002;183:9-15.
56. Dudai N, Weinstein Y, Krup M, Rabinski T, Ofir R. Citral is
a new inducer of caspase-3 in tumor cell lines. Planta Med.
2005;71:484-88.
57. Cheel J, Theoduloz C, Rodriguez J, Schmeda-Hirschmann G.
Free radical scavengers and antioxidants from Lemongrass
(Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.). J Agric Food Chem.
2005;53:2511-17.
58. Ketoh GK, Koumaglo HK, Glitho IA. Comparative effects
of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil and piperitone
on Callosobruchus maculatus development. Fitoterapia.
2006;77:506-10.
59. Ketoh GK, Koumaglo HK, Glitho IA. Inhibition of
Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
development with essential oil extracted from Cymbopogon
schoenanthus L. Spreng. (Poaceae), and the wasp Dinarmus
basalis (Rondani) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). J Stored Prod
Res. 2005;41:363-71.
60. Labinas AM, Crocomo WB. Effect of Java grass (Cymbopogon
winterianus Jowitt) essential oil on fall armyworm
Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera,
Noctuidae). Acta Scientiarum Maringa. 2002; 24:1401-05.
61. Kumaran AM, D’Souza P, Agarwal A, Bokkolla RM,
Balasubramanian M. Geraniol, the putative anthelmintic
principle of Cymbopogon martinii. Phytother Res.
2003;17:957-60.
62. Viana GS, Pinho RS, Matos FJ. Antinociceptive effect of
the essential oil from Cymbopogon citratus in mice. J
Ethnopharmacol. 2000;70:323-27.
63. Costa CRA, Gargano AC, Costa M. Anxiolytic-like effect of
the essential oil from Cymbopogon citratus in experimental
procedures in mice. Euro Neuropsychopharmacol. 2006;16:
S475-80.
64. Blanco MM, Costa CA, Freire AO, Santos JG, Costa M.
Neurobehavioral effect of essential oil of Cymbopogon
citratus in mice. Phytomed. 2009;16:265-70.
65. Adeneye AA, Agbaje EO. Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic
effects of fresh leaf aqueous extract of Cymbopogon citratus
Stapf. in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;112: 440-44.
66. Rabbani SI, Devi K, Khanam S, Xahra N. Citral, a component

View publication stats