Definition: Transformer is a static piece of equipment used either 

for raising or lowering the voltage of ac supply with a 

corresponding decrease or inverse in current.
EMF Equation:
E1 = 4.44 f N1 (Phi m)
E2 = 4.44 f N2 (Phi m)
Resistance in transformer winding:
Rp = Rp+Rs/K2
Rs = Rs+K2*Rp
where k is transformer ratio K= E1/E2 = V1/V2 = N1/N2 = I1/I2
Equivalent circuit:

Faults and effects in transformer

• Over current: insulation life, temp. rises, mech. stress
• over voltages : insulation cable connection to over head 
lines 
• external faults : all above

losses:
1. copper losses: these occur due to resistance in winding & also 
eddy currents in conductor. these losses are prop. to the square of 
load current.
2. Iron losses: these occur due to hystersis & eddy current in the 
core. these losses are constant irrespective of the load current. 
the iron losses depends upon the supplying freq., max. flux density 
in core, volume of core etc
Voltage regulation:
= (Vnoload - Vload)*100 / (Vnoload)
Efficiency:
= output / (output +losses)
= output / (output + copper losses +iron losses)
• for max. eff. of transformer
variable copper loss = constant iron losses

Transformer test:
1. open circuit or no load test:
from this test we concluded iron losses. open ckt test made on low 
voltage winding.
2. Short ckt or impedance test:
from this we conclude the copper losses. equivalent resistant & 
impedance can also be calculated. this test made high voltage 
winding.
Parallel operation of transformer:
• the voltage ratio should be the same
• the polarity should be the same 
• the percentage impedance should be equal
• the phase sequence should be same
• the vector diagram should be same
• the phase displacement should be the same:
Source of transformer:
• magnetostriction
• mech. vibration of lamination due to magnetic force
• mech: vibration of tank
• damping
Types of transformer:
• core type transformer
• shell type transformer 
Impedance ratio:
Z1/Z2 = K2 =(V2/V1)2 = (I1/I2)
• a resistance (R1) in primary becomes R1*K2 when transferred 
to sec.
• a resistance (R2) in sec. becomes R2/(K)2 when transferred 
to primary
• a reactance (X1) in primary becomes X1*K2 when transferred 
to sec.
• a reactance (X2) in sec. becomes X2/K2 when transferred to 
primary. 

Important Points
• freq. does not change in an ordinary transformer
• the material used in the construction of core is usually 
silicon steel
• high thermal conductivity is not necessary desirable for 
material of transformer core.
• eddy current loss can be minimized by laminating the core of 
transformer
• iron loss in transformer occurs in core
• under no load condition copper loss is negligible
• open ckt test of transformer gives iron loss
• short ck test of transformer gives copper loss
• back to back test on transformer provides information about 
regulation eff. & heating
• in transformer for condition of max. eff. copper loss = 
iron loss
• the eff. of well designed transformer may be expected as 95 
to 99%
• in a power transformer low voltage winding is closer to core.
• eddy current losses in a transformer can be reduced by 
reducing the thickness of lamination
• transformer oil must be free from moisture.
• when Rs is the resistance of sec. winding of transformer & K 
is the transformer ratio of the eq. sec. resistance as compared to 
primary side is Rs / K2
• in a transformer magnetic coupling b/w primary & sec. ckts 
can be increased by using the magnetic core of low reluctance.
• if flux density in the core of transformer increased size of 
the transformer can be reduced.
• in induced e.m.f on the sec. side of transformer depends on 
freq. flux & no. of turns
• copper loss in a transformer varies significantly with load.
• the P.F. of transformer depends on the P.F. of load 
• at no load the current taken by a transformer lags behind 
the applied voltage by 80 or 90 degree
• if the secondary of a 1:10 step up transformer connected to 
the primary of a 1:5 step up transformer the total transformation 
ratio will be : 1:50
• winding of transformer is subjected to max. heating
• a 1600kva, 200hz transformer is operated at 50hz. its kva 
rating should be restricted : 400kva
• the permissible max. temp. for different classes
Y:90, A:105; E:120; B:130; 
F:155; H: 180; C>180.
• leakage fluxes in a transformer may be minimized by 
sectionalizing interleaving the primary & sec. winding
• in transformer the chemical contained inside the breather is 
silica gel
• a transformer having 100 turns of primary side is applied 
with 200v, ac in order to get 400v, ac on sec. side the no of turns 
on sec. side :200
• for transformer if the full load copper losses are A and 
iron losses are B then the load at which these two losses will be 
equal is sq.rt.(B/A)
• a step up transformer increases voltages
• in step down transformer secondary turns are less than 
primary turns
• a transformer has a full load iron loss of 900w & copper 
loss of 1600w. At what percent of load transformer will have max. 
eff. : 75%
• power transformer are usually designed to have max. eff. 
near full load.
• distribution transformer are usually designed to have max. 
eff. near 50% load.
• iron losses of transformer can be app: calculated if the 
weight of core & yoke is known.
• in high freq. transformer ferrite cores are used.
• in a transformer it is difficult to measure the eff. by out 
put- input measurement method b/c efficiency of transformer is 
usually high and have extremely accurate measurement will be 
necessary.
• the leakage flux in a transformer depends upon full load 
current
• noise level test on a transformer is type test.
• routine test is conducted on all transformer in 
manufacturing concerning
• the color of fresh dielectric oil for a transformer is pale 
yellow
• a transformer will have highest eff. near 93% of rated load.
• a 1kva transformer at full load will have copper losses 
greater than iron losses
• in a transformer if peak voltage is fed to primary the iron 
loss will be less.
• in a transformer the copper loss at half load as compared to 
full load will be: one forth
• the path of magnetic flux in a transformer should be 
reluctance 
• the desirable properties of transformer core material are 
high permeability and low hystersis loss
• the function of transformer oil in a transformer is to 
provide insulation & cooling
• full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600w at half load 
loss will be: 400w
• a transformer working under the conditions of max. eff. has 
total losses of 1600w, while operating at half load, the copper 
loss:200w
• a transformer has full load copper loss of 800w and core 
loss of 600w total losses at no-load: 600w
• a Buchloz relay is used on oil cooled transformer
• Buchloz relay is generally not provided on transformer below 
500kva
• operating time of Buchloz relay is 0.1 sec
• in distribution transformer normally core losses are less 
than copper loss
• a Buchloz relay will operate in transformer when ever there 
is large internal fault.
• HRC fuses on a transformer provides protection against 
external fault
• horn gaps acts as a protection against high voltage surges 
due to lightning & switching.
• in a transformer open ckt test is conducted on low voltage 
side & short ckt test on high voltage side.
• in a power transformer no load current is usually : 2 to 5% 
of load current
• for a transformer operating at constant load current max. 
eff. will occur at unity P.F.
• the function of conservation in transformer is to take care 
of expanses & construction of oil.
• the function of breather in a transformer is to arrest flow 
of moisture into tank.
• the eff. of a 430/220v transformer at full load 0.8 P.F. 
lagging is 95%, the eff. at full load 0.8P.F. leading will be :95%
• air natural cooled transformer are used up to max. capacity 
of about 1.5mva
• O.N.A.N. method of cooling is capable of dissipating max. 
heat of transformer
• a good voltage regulation of transformer means output 
voltage punctuation from no load to full load is least
• class H of insulation can with stand the highest temp.
• class Y had least max. allowable temp.
• a transformer can have zero voltage regulation at leading 
P.F.
• the leakage impedance of primary & sec. winding of a 
transformer are (3+J4)ohm & (1+j4)ohm resp. it can be concluded that 
the transformer has low voltage secondary
• the color of dry silica gel is pale pink
• the color of moist silica gel is blue
• if full load copper losses of transformer is 800w, its 
copper loss at 75%load will be : 450w
• the secondary of C.T is always short ckted under operating 
conditions b/c it avoids core saturation & high voltage inductance
• the main advantage of an auto transformer over a two winding 
transformer is that: only one winding is used as result there is 
substantial saving immaterial.
• Auto transformer is used when the transformation ratio is 
small.
• in a auto transformer effective coppering & copper loss will 
occur when the transformation ratio is nearly equal to 1.
• an auto transformer has only one winding.
• if the transformer core is made of copper than eddy current 
losses will be more.
• for an ideal transformer the winding should have no ohmic 
resistance in either side.
• if ohmic resistance of winding of transformer is zero the 
copper loss will be zero.
• if the sec. of a 5:1 step down transformer is connected to 
primary of a 10:1 step down transformer the total step down ratio of 
transformation will be : 50:1
• 3 to 3 phase transformer connection possible for parallel 
operation is delta-star to delta-star & not possible for parallel 
operation of star-delta to delta-delta.
• when transformer operates under no load condition the 
current will lags behind voltage by about 75
• oil impregnated paper condenser bushing is generally used on 
transformer operating at 132kv.
• simple porcelain bushing are closed for transformer up to 
11kv
• mica can with stand the highest temp. safely.
• cellulose is the most inferior insulating material.
• if a transformer core is made of copper & coils are made of 
steel wire than copper losses in the winding will be more.
• friction loss in the transformer is zero even at full load.
• in a step up transformer the e.m.f per turn-on primary 
winding is the same as e.m.f per turn of winding on sec. winding
• 1 tesla = 1 wb./m2
• as a general rule the kva rating ratio of a transformer 
operating in parallel should be within 3:1
• if two transformer not having the same percentage impedance 
are connected in parallel for sharing a load then load sharing of 
transformer will not be prop. to kva rating.
• max. value of flux is involved in the e.m.f equation of 
transformer.
• harmonics currents in a transformer increasing I*I*R loss & 
core loss and also magnetic interference with protective relay.
• core saturation is the most likely source of harmonics in a 
transformer
• the noise produced by a transformer is termed as hum.
• form factor is given by : (rms value)/(average value)
• a 100w, 220v incandescent bulb is connected in series with 
the primary of 220v, 20kva transformer. when the sec. of transformer 
is open ckted the bulb will glow with less than normal brightness.
• in Scott connections the main transformer has centre tap on 
both primary & sec. windings.
• a tap changer is used on a transformer for adjustment in 
sec. voltage
• over current in a transformer affects: insulation life, 
temp. rise & mech. stress 
• an insulating material in transformer may fall due to dust 
moisture, voids in windings.
• in transformer the tapings are usually provided on high 
voltage
• a C.T> can be used with : Ammeter, wattmeter & watt hour 
meter
• burden of C.T. is usually expressed in volt-amperes
• breather, conservator & Buchloz relay are fittings on 
transformer.
• high dielectric loss is not the desirable property of 
insulating material in transformer.
• the reluctance of transformer depends on leakage flux
• if the freq. of supply voltage is doubled eddy current loss 
will increase
• transformer ratings are usually expressed in terms of kva
• in transformer max. voltage regulation occurs when the P.F. 
of load is lagging
• the regulation of good transformer should be neared 1%
• in step up transformer: F1/F2 ratio has value of 1%
• in transformer main voltage regulation occurs when P.F. of 
load is leading.
• in large capacity transformer 5% of turns at the ends of 
high voltage winding are provided with extra insulation to provide 
protection due to surged occurring during switching operations
• Buchloz relay is used in transformer protection
• the hum in a transformer mainly attributed to 
magnetostriction
• the sec. line current will be least for delta-star connection
• the sec. line current will be max. for star-delta connection
• impedance matching transformer are used for measuring low 
voltage & low currents
• the relative polarity of windings of transformer is 
determined by phasing out 
• a transformer has input voltage of 100v, at 400hz. if the 
no. of turns is 375, the peak value of flux will be 150 Uwb.
• in a transformer on no load the input voltage leads the 
magnetizing current by 90
• in a transformer the voltage induced in the sec. winding 
lags flux by 90.
• winding relation is likely to suffer max. damage due to 
excessive temp. rise
• low reluctance magnetic core will improve the mutual 
capacity b/w primary &sec. ckts.
• the max. load that power transformer can carry is limited by 
its voltage ratio
• the load voltage is decreased if the input freq. is 
increased 
• when the flux density in transformer core is increased than 
size of transformer can be reduced
• conservator will not be found in an air cooled transformer
• the inductive reactance of transformer depends on leakage 
flux
• the harmonics current does not effect the sec. voltage 
• the characteristics of a voltage transformer are voltage 
remaining constant varies with load
• the magnetizing current of transformer is usually small b/c 
it has small air gap.
• in dry type transformer accusation of dust on the windings 
and core is likely to cause reduction in heat dissipation
• the no load current is 1-3% of rated primary current.