Class Notes of SWR-DOES2021-Raja Babu

Subject: Major World Religions
Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu
Major World Religions

Compiled By Mr. Odugu Raja Babu
Introduction
A. The Root Word of Religion
The root of the word “religion” is usually traced to the Latin religare (re: back, and ligare: to
bind), the term is associated with “being bound or tie back or to hold back.” It is like
covenant, agreement, treaty and so forth. It emphasizes communal aspect—draws people into
religious rites, practice and belief. It also means as a slave bound to his master so the
‘devotee’ is bound to the deity. Religion is a feeling towards a god or deity and having an
obligation to fulfil their teachings.
Roughly there are 4,300 religions in the world.
B. Definition of Religion

The term religion has many definitions. None is agreed upon by everyone, but certain
common aspects and implications of religion can be observed.
 The psychologist William James defined religion as the feelings, acts, and experiences
of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in
relation to whatever they may consider the divine.
 William Newsman defines religion as "regardless of what else may be said of religion,
it is also a social phenomenon — it is something that people do in groups.
 Rudolph Otto says that religion is that which grows out of, and gives expression to,
experience of the holy in its various aspects.
 Friedrich Schleiermacher says that the essence of religion consists in the feeling of
absolute dependence.
 Ninian Smrat says that religion is the way humans experience and relate to some
sacred Focus (or foci). It is an experience transmitted as a community tradition with
sacred symbols, places, times, people and (sometimes) scriptures; it is expressed in
rituals, myths, doctrines, and ethical-cultural values; by participating in this constantly
adapting tradition perceived human limitations and threats to existence are
experienced as overcome or transcended. ( This definition combines most element s
of religion)
C. The Importance of Knowing Other Religions

According to Edmund Husserl, “Bracketing (epoche) is a term in the philosophical movement
of phenomenology describing the act of suspending judgment about the natural world or
religion to instead focus on analysis of experience.”
1. Objectivity—students of religion must observe facts as objectively as possible
One must consider sacred texts and historical manifestations of the faith
It is important not to pre-judge another religious perspective.
According to Edmund Husserl, “Bracketing (epoche) is a term in the philosophical movement

of phenomenology describing the act of suspending judgment about the natural world or
religion to instead focus on analysis of experience.”
2. Studying religions can help us reflect on the similarities and dissimilarities between our
own worldview and others.
3. To formulate our own philosophy of life.
4. To have a better engagement in the global society.
5. Studying other religions can show us great love to those of other religions we seek to reach
out.
D. General Characteristics of Religions


a. Theism (Monotheism, Polytheism, Henotheism, and Pantheism)
Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of either a deity or deities.
 Monotheism is the belief in theology that only one deity exists. Some modern
day monotheistic religions include Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
 Polytheism is the belief that there is more than one god.
 Henotheism, the viewpoint/belief that there may be more than one deity, but
only one of them is worshiped.
 Pantheism believes that everything seen in the universe is god.
b. Atheism
The word atheism comes from the Greek prefix a- (no or non) and the noun theos (god or
God). Atheism means disbelief or lack of belief in the existence of God or gods. In atheism,
all of existence can be explained naturally.
c. Agnosticism
Agnosticism comes from Greek agnōstos, “unknowable.” Agnosticism is the view
that the existence of God or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. An agnostic
is one who believes there is insufficient evidence to prove the existence or
nonexistence of God or gods. Agnostics criticize the theist and the atheist for their
dogmatism and their presumption of such knowledge.
d. Skepticism
Skepticism is derived from the Latin scepticus (inquiring, reflective, and doubting). A
sceptical people who doubt as to the truth of something or someone.
e. Naturalism
The philosophical belief that everything arises from natural properties and causes, and
supernatural or spiritual explanations are excluded or discounted.

UNIT II
Primal/ Tribal Religion: Characteristics

A. Discussion on Terms
Animism, Pre-Literate Religion, Primitive Religion, Tribal Religion, Indigenous
Religion, and Primal Religion
The religion of the people who live in isolation and in the hills and forests has been
given many names by the scholars.
 Animism
Sir Edward B. Tylor who first propounded the theory of animism defines it as the
belief in spirit beings, which might inhabit anything in nature-rocks, trees, water.
It is used for longtime by scholars. It is outdated in today’s scholarship because
lots of higher developments in primal religion and this religion considers as world
religion.
 Tribal religion
This term is used because the people who practice this religion are in tribal stage
of organization.
The term cannot be used exclusively because this is not applicable to many
situations in the world even India. (e.g., modern developments in Northeast states)
 Pre-literate religion
This term is used by some to mean the religion of the people who do not have
written language and script.
Oral literacy is part of literacy. (Narrow definition)
 Primitive religion
This is term widely used by Western scholars. They consider that primitive
people who are inferior to civilized people.
However, these people have acute mind and intrinsic intelligence and have a
profound thinking and rationalistic ability in their own way (no need books for
them)
 Primal religion (PR)
Harold Turner promoted the term primal religion and defined primal religion as
most basic or fundamental religious forms in the overall history of mankind. In
line with Turner, Andrew F. Walls explicates that primal religions underlie all the
other faiths, and often exist in symbiosis with them, continuing (sometimes more,
sometimes less transformed) to have an active life within and around cultures and
communities influenced by those faiths. Therefore, according to him, primal
religions represent basic and elemental status in human experience.

B. Features of the Primal religion
• Magician
The important saviour in Primal people is the magician, also called as the doctor, the sorcerer,
the shaman, the medicine man and the exorcist. Deliverance from the evil forces and gaining
of material blessing are expected through his magic. He uses spells (word with magical
power) and charms to heal his patient, to injure his enemy, to arouse love or hate (hatred), to
bring rain, to promote fertility and to secure good hunting and fishing. He restore to spells
and charms to appease the antagonistic power and to avert (to avoid, to prevent) death and
holistic powers.
He is considered as a priest and prophet as well. It is believed that he comes under the direct
influence of the super natural powers and does ever thing only when he directed by these
higher powers. Therefore, he has knowledge about mysteries and control of hidden forces. He
is the mediator between men and the unseen. He places himself as indispensable to all men in
the time of their need- gives thought to the causes of events and suggest effective
method/ways to gain desired results. He thrives on men’s misfortunes and feeds upon men’s
hope. In this way, the magician (shaman) stands as the greatest figure among PR society.
• Priests
The Tribal/ PR believers are in a constant effort to appease various powers by various
ceremonies and rites at different stages of life such as at birth, puberty, marriage and death.
Because, he believes that man and nature are controlled and ruled by various powers and
spirits. For the right performance and effects of these rites priests are needed. Thus priests
also rank themselves as the saviours of the PR man.
The Tribal watches nature, and observes the changing seasons. He attributes spirits to various
seasons and thinks that he should exploit them in his favour. Consequently, elaborate
seasonal festivals came into existence- here the priests play a dominant role. The priest also
plays the role of saviour.
• Fetishes
Fetish is an object that is worshipped; because of believe that a spirit is believed to have in it.
The primal person employs fetishes in order to have close association with friendly spirits
and fight the evil spirits, which harass him. Thus, the fetishes are also considered as saviour
in primal religion. With the help of fetishes the PR man felt better and able to fight off the
hazards of life. He imagined himself more of a match for the universe. When he was in need,
he simply called on one of his fetishes for help and the help was not soon forth coming, he
angrily reproached (scolded) the object for its laziness. If it still remained obdurate (refusing
to change), he simply flung it away and got another.
• Supreme Being/ High God

Most of the primal people have a belief in Supreme Being. This concept of God among these
people was quite clear and well-formed even before the arrival of missionaries. It is a sky-

divinity, the creator but he takes very little interest in human affairs. Therefore, he is not
often worshipped and shrines to him are rare. When all other gods fail themselves, he is
appealed since he is the supreme power. Otherwise, for ordinary, everyday matters the living
dead, nature-gods and manipulation of the mana are of far greater importance. The original
religious concept of god in his primal state was monotheism, which later becomes corrupted
into polytheism.
• Totems
In PR society, we see the totems (animals or plants from each tribe believed to have
descendant) are regarded as protectors and guardians of the particular tribe. In reverence he
prays to them to protect and save him from his problems. Totems are also treated as saviours
in PR community.
• Spirits of the Ancestors

Primal people believe that the spirits of their departed are very much interested in their lives;
especially in their own descendants and relatives. Some of them go even to believe that it is
because of the favour the spirits of their ancestors that they get rain for their agriculture. They
offer prayers and offerings to satisfy these spirits so that they may be delivered from drought,
protected from other hostile spirits and calamities.
• Power/ Mana (unseen spiritual force)

There is a spiritual power or life-force recognized in all PR society- which vibrates/permeates
the universe of their experience. The word mana is a Melenesian word adopted by scholars to
describe this sacred universal power.
Mana may concentrate itself in certain things such as stones, plants, trees, animals and even
people. They believe that all success and all advantage proceed from the favourable exercise
of the mana. For this, religious experts practice charms, medicines, rites, etc, which contain
the power of mana. If they find it is not effective, then they explain it as simply as fate and
even meta-divine-here all things including gods and the Supreme Being believed to be
helpless. This situation is understood as too dangerous. However, PR society protect
themselves against its abuse by a system of tabus (taboos is ban or prohibition on something
that is regarded for a religious or other reason as not to be done, touched, used etc.)
• Prohibition/Taboos
Jonathan H. Thumra defines “Taboo as a caution or prohibition against supernatural objects,
plants, animals or human beings who possess mana”
Where mana concentrated in a particular person or thing that is considered to be as

dangerous-it becomes tabu. Tabu becomes essential because of the fear of the unknown or the
unseen world. A whole range of the people, things, and places are thus prohibited. For
example this can be the sacred persons (who are in close contact with the divine or who are
able to manipulate the sacred power are tabus), the dead ones, all thing that belong to them,
time of birth, time of menstruation and sex, war, sickness, sanctuaries and anything belongs

to them. All these and many other areas hedged round with myriads of tabus for the
protection of the communities and their members.
For instances,
Santal women must avoid a number of actions which men are permitted or even expected to
do. Thus, women are not only barred from ploughing but it is also inauspicious for a Santal
woman to even touch the plough, striking with an axe, playing flute, wearing male clothes
and so forth
The among the nagas of northeast India couple who commit incest is thrown out from from
the village for fear that their sin will be visited by divine curse if they are allowed to stay in
the village.
• Omen
H. H. Presler. Presler defines that an omen may be defined as any phenomenon believed to
have supernaturally inherent portent. An omen is not an immediate event; it is a warning, an
alerting.
Some of the tribals’ beliefs and practices are dreams, signs of birds, relationship with the
nature, relationship with the spirit world, signs of the nature.
Dreams: There is a belief among Tangkhuls that if a buffalo attack a person in a dream then
he or she will suffer parallel consequences. Among Moa’s, it is a sign of bad luck or sickness.
Signs of Birds: In Ao’s tradition, if a large hawk flies over the village, the Ao’s people
believe that someone will die from that particular village.
Relationship with the Nature: In Sumi tribe, it is called as Anagha or charm-stones in

English, associated with rice which is kept in a field with an expectation of good harvest.
• Evil Eye
People believe that others may become jealous and cause harm to them in their efforts like
building a house or a business, family members or crops and the like. They prefer to counter
such evil designs of their enemies who are jealous of them or who may cause harm to them.
Since this usually discerned by their eyes, and the way they look, some people are believed to
have evil eye that will cause harm.
Take Away from primal religion
• Primal religion seen worship mostly as an anti-structure in their community. This idea
makes great impact on Christian worship. There should not be caste system, hierarchy
and more or less in Christian worship, there should be equality.
• Primal people venerate nature. They are eco-friendly people.

Spiritual power encounter
Evangelism can be defined as bringing people from Satan’s kingdom to God’s kingdom.
The missionary’s response by Spirit worship, magic, and witchcraft, the following are
some of the piratical guidelines.
 The spirit world and evil forces are real

 The powers of the spirit world are stronger than human powers.
 Evangelism involves spiritual warfare or power encounter
 Empowering of the Holy Spirit is essential to encounter and defeat spiritual
powers
 Spiritual authority over demonic forces should be exercised in the context of
evangelism and church planting.
Hinduism
A. PRE-ARYAN RELIGION AND CULTURE IN INDIA

The Aryans (Nobles) were the Indo-European nomads who migrated to India about 2000BC.
Till the first two decades of the 20th Centuries. Generally people believed that the Aryans
were the people who created the Religion of Hinduism. But, today hardly anyone holds this
“Aryan myth.”
The Indus Valley was the cradle of one of the ancient civilizations of the world, which was
contemporaneous with Egyptian, and Mesopotamian civilizations. This civilization generally
known as the Indus Valley Civilization; certainly was pre-Aryan. The archaeological
excavations at Mohenjo-Daro in Sind and Harappa in West Punjab (now both are in Pakistan)
brought some facts to light. The pre-Aryan inhabitants of the Indus Valley had enjoyed a
highly developed urban culture and that they had a kind of religion which contained aspects
such as worship of bull, goddesses, horn god, (proto-type of Siva), sacred trees, conical
objects (later developed to linga-worship). Thomas R. Trautmann, professor of History and
Anthropology, discusses the importance of religion in India during the Indus Valley culture
(2500 BCE):
… [T]here are a number of cheaply made terracotta figurines of women heavily
ornamented with necklaces, earrings, and fan-shaped headdresses. It is natural to think
that these are votive figures, mass produced for popular worship, and that their
function is to promote the fertility of crops, livestock, and humans. Mother goddess
figurines are commonplace all across Neolithic Western Asia, and even prehistoric
Europe. It is reasonable to hypothesize that Indus figurines depict the local version of
this cult, and that this is the prototype of the Great Goddess of Hinduism, the wife of
Shiva… there are the seals with their theriomorphic, anthropomorphic, and composite
images, which might well represent divinities because of their non-natural form.
P. Fallon points out that Dravidians worshipped aniconic symbols like sacred stones and trees
as part of their worship. They considered aniconic symbols as sacred. John Marshall says
Dravidians believed that the spirit of the deity permeated the stones and trees.
Mainly three forms of idols during Indus Religion: Theriomorphic, anthropomorphic and
aniconic
Excavations in these places testify some of the following facts such as: a) the religion of
Indus Valley inhabitants shared certain common elements with later Hinduism. b) Hinduism

as religious system is not just an Aryan development but is the result of a fusing of Aryan and
pre-Aryan religious elements.
 The Aryan Migration to India

The most important and significant event after the Indus Valley Civilization in the history of
India was the coming of Indo-European Aryans to India and Nepal from central Asia. These
vigorous nomads entered into India and Nepal through the north-western passages. The
Aryan invasion was not a sudden and one incident but was a process, which covered a long
period from 2000BC to 1000BC. In other words Aryan invasion was gradual influx (inward
flow/inflow) of these Aryans (noble people).
They came to India as peaceful emigrants and not as warriors. They came here with all their
belongings such as cattle, household, goods, and gods. As their number increased they found
themselves in conflict with the local inhabitants, the Dravidians. The powerful Aryans pushed
off the Dravidians of the south and subdued those who remained in the plains. Though the
Aryans tried to keep their racial purity there was considerable mixing of both blood and
culture between the Aryans and the Dravidians. This was the context they took stern steps to
stop any kind of racial fusion and thus; gradually the caste system was introduced on the
basis of color.
B. Definition of Hindu and Hinduism
• Root word of Hindu and Hinduism

The term “Hindu” is derived from the River Sindhu (Indus), as the Persians referred to India
“as the land beyond the Sindhu.” The Muslims, who began conquering India from the eighth
century onwards, used the term “Hindu” as a generic title for non-Muslim Indians, who
worshipped idols. The suffix “-ism” was added by the British around the 1830s, and thus
Hinduism came to refer to the culture and religion of Brahmans the high-caste in Hinduism.
In contemporary India, Hinduism not only refer to a religious identity (Brahmans) but is also
bound to cultural idenity.
Hinduism has no founder unlike religions such as Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, and
Islam. Hinduism understood as Sanatana dharma which means the eternal tradition. The
idea of Sanatana dharma that its origins lie beyond history, and its truths have been divinely
revealed (Shruti) and passed down through the ages to the present day in the most ancient of
the world’s scriptures, the Veda. Because of this reason, most Hindus and Hindu scholars
believe that Hinduism is a combination of many belief systems and practices. R.C. Zaehner
explains what this implies:
Hinduism is both a way of life and a highly organized social and religious system..is
quite free from any dogmatic affirmations concerning the nature of God, and the core
of religion is never felt to depend on the existence or non-existence of God, or on
whether there is one God or many; for it is perfectly possible to be a good Hindu

whether one’s personal views incline towards monism, monotheism, polytheism, or
even atheism.
Correctly summarizing the religion of Hinduism, Zaehner makes an interesting note that a
good Hindu, irrespective of whether monotheistic, polytheistic, or even atheistic, is still a
Hindu. This leads to the question, who is a Hindu?
• Who is a Hindu?
The term “Hindu” has a complex meaning. There are different definitions for a Hindu.
In line with Zaehner, Julius Lipner says that one (Hindu) may be polytheistic or
monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still
be considered a Hindu. Unlike Lipner and Zaehner, Gavin Flood defines Hindu as one
who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, in sense of identity. Further,
Klostermaier states that acceptance of the Veda as revealed is certainly the most basic
criterion for anyone to declare oneself a Hindu. This definition is applicable to Hindus
(Brahmans) who accept the Veda is the ultimate Hindu text, and suggests that the
identity Hindu is defined by Hindu texts. In the context of social effect, Farquhar
defines a Hindu in terms of the caste system, saying that caste is the Hindu form of
social organization. No man [person] can be a Hindu who is not in caste.
C. Hindu Traditions
The long history, the vastness, and the heterogeneity of Hinduism offer enormous challenges
to each and every description of the tradition. Indeed, the study of Hinduism is challenging,
because of the wide range of traditions and ideas which are incorporated into Hinduism.
However, recent scholars like Gavin Flood have identified three dominant traditions within
Hinduism: Brahmanical traditions, Renouncer traditions, and Popular or Local traditions.
 Brahmanical Traditions
Brahmanical traditions are said to have developed significantly during the first millennium
CE, and focuses on a specific deity or group of deities. Among these Brahmanical systems,
there are three major branches of Hinduism which correspond to devotional practices that
focus on the deities Vishnu (and his avatars), Shiva, and the Devi (or great goddess).
Importantly the final religious tradition which is the culmination of these religious traditions
is called Vedanta or philosophical Hinduism. The Vedanta tradition became the philosophical
basis of the Hindu renaissance during the nineteenth century and is pervasive in the world
religion which Hinduism has become. Moreover, the Vedanta tradition emphasizes deeper
reflection on the inner meaning and reality of the ritual.
 Renouncer Traditions
The followers of renouncer tradition are the non-violent (vegetarian), spiritual, and ascetic.
The main focus of these traditions is the values of asceticism and world transcendence in
contrast to the Brahmanical householder values of affirming the goals of worldly

responsibility (dharma), worldly success and profit (artha), and erotic and aesthetic pleasure
(kama).
 Popular Traditions
Popular traditions unlike Brahmanical traditions and renouncer traditions, are popular
traditions which exist within a bounded geographical area, even within a particular village.
Here the texts are based in regional,vernacular languages rather in the Sanskrit of the
Brahmanical traditions. Over the course of time, popular traditions have been influenced by
Brahmanical traditions. This influence is known as Sanskritization. This concept
“Sanskritization” (Sanskritic Hinduism) was coined by M.N. Srinivas. Even though Srinivas
coined the word, however, he did not define the concept. Sanskritization is a process by
which a lower caste attempts to raise its status and rise to a higher position in the caste
hierarchy by adopting Sanskritic gods, beliefs, and rituals. As a result of this process, local
deities become identified with the great gods of the Brahmanical traditions and local myths
become identified with great, pan-Hindu myths.
D. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HINDUISM
According to K.M Sen, Hinduism grew gradually over a period of nearly five thousand years
absorbing and assimilating all the religious and cultural movements of India. For him,
Hinduism is more like a tree that has grown gradually than like a building that has been
erected by some great architect at some different point in time.
It will be really interesting to note the various general characteristics of Hinduism as a

religious system.
1. Unity in Diversity
One of the most significant aspects of Hinduism is a kind of unity in the midst of staggering
(shunning) diversities. In other words it is not an exclusive system, which upholds only one
way of approach at the exclusion and expense of the others---in fact even opposing ideas are
conglomerated in Hinduism (mass of different things put together).
For example: a. the materialistic lokayata approach and the opposing path of austere
asceticism are held side by side. b. the three Margas/Paths to liberation are well accepted and
find no discrimination (Jnana Marga, Karma Marga,and Bhakti Marga --- knowledge, action
and devotion). c. The scriptures: Though the Vedas are accepted as scriptures virtually by all
there is diversity; i.e. some believe in Vedas only, some others only in Upanishads, some
others in Smriti, some others in all these; while yet others do not believe in any of scriptures.
2. Freedom of Choice

Freedom of individual liking or selection or choice is upheld. It means anybody can be Hindu
in his own way. Hinduism doesn’t talk about only one way but about several ways. For
instance, if someone doesn’t like Vishnu but only Siva, still he/she can be a Hindu. If he/she
doesn’t believe in Trimurthy, but only in impersonal absolute principle, still there is no
objection to be a Hindu as such. Whether or not someone likes idols or temples is immaterial
for to be identified as a Hindu. He/she can refrain from these and yet remain as a Hindu.
3. Individualistic Approach
The emphasis in Hinduism is on the individual rather than on society. The individual is the
centre of attention. Hinduism’s primary concern is with individual salvation. The social or the
corporate dimension is generally lacking in traditional Hinduism. However, today there is a
great attempt to rectify this weakness.
4. Spirit of Accommodation:
Hinduism represents a spirit of universalism and tolerance. Easily it can accommodate any
diversified beliefs and practices. Any religious concept or ritual can be accommodated in
Hinduism without any serious threat to its essential and fundamental tenets. In this spirit of
tolerance to outsiders and diversified groups of insiders, Hinduism is capable of catering to
different psychological needs of men/women. Both emotional and intellectual aspects are
well taken care of. For simple illiterate people at the grass root level it offers myth and
superstitious stories in abundance. At the same time it is not only a mass of superstitions. It
offers highly advanced and developed philosophical thinking for the exercise of the
intellectuals. In Hinduism philosophical enquiry got a special emphasis.
5. A Way of Life
For a Hindu, religion is a way of life and consciously or unconsciously he translated his
religion into his daily life. Every aspect and stage of his life, right from the time of
conception to the period beyond death is religious in essence. Religion is not a matter of a
particular day of the week or of a particular stage in life. It embraces every minute and aspect
of his practical life, his imagination and his faculty of thinking.
6. All Inclusive Nature
Hinduism uniquely displays the capacity to assimilate. Quite easily it can absorb any foreign
belief or practice and make as its own. This absorptive capacity results in providing
Hinduism with a policy of tolerance. Hinduism owes its continuance to this particular
characteristic---Buddhist, Jain, Sikh, Islamic, Christian, Greek, anything, you name it---
Hinduism can absorb the ideals and ethics of Christianity and other religions adapting to the
secular spirit and to evolutionary science.
7. Other-Worldly Character

Generally traditional Hinduism (except the Lokayata School) is otherworldly in its character.
This other worldliness is at the expense of this/the material world here and now. The Hindu
spirituality neglects the matter and condemns it as well.
8. Belief in Fatalism
The classical Hinduism does believe in fate. But modern Hinduism is not hundred percent
true representation of traditional Hinduism. For example Swami Vivekananda and
Dr.Radhakrishnan put some conscious effort to reinterpret traditional concepts and theories in
Hinduism, in order to release it from the shackles of fatalism and give a descent place among
other world religions, which take the science of society.
9. It Does not Have a Missionary Tendencies
Traditionally Hinduism has not been a missionary faith through some modern sectarian
movements holds a missionary zeal. Some of these groups today try to convert people from
non-Hindu sections in society. E.g. Ramakrishna mission, the Krishna Conscience Society,
The Divine Light Mission and the TM of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
E. THE HINDU SCRIPTURES
Sruti or ‘what is heard’ refers to the eternal truths, which are believed to be
heard/seen by the Rishis. The Rishis are believed to be independent of any god or man and
the final authority of religious truths. The intellect of ancient Rishi was so pure like a
mirror/surface of lake that the eternal truth perfectly reflected on it. Their disciples recorded
this truth. This record is called the Vedas.
Smriti or what is remembered possesses a secondary authority. They derive this
authority from Sruti and stand for its principles. Smriti contain all the sacred books other than
the Vedas, such as the Law Books, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Puranas, the
Agamas and Bhakti (devotional) writings.
 The Sruti (Revelation/That which is heard)
• The Vedas (Samhitas) and Their Parts

Samhitas means collections of hymns, praises, prayers, rituals, and magical formulas. Veda
means knowledge/wisdom. Therefore, The Vedas can be called the book of wisdom. The
Vedic literature is normally dated between 1500 and 500 BC. The Vedic religion is a record
of the development of the religion of the Aryans. This is the earliest Hindu scriptures which
comprise the four Vedas: the Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur/Yajna-Veda, and the
Atharva-Veda. Each of these Vedas consists of four parts such as Mantras, Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, and the Upanishads.

Dating of the Vedas
The four Vedas are generally dated between1500-800 BC; whereas the Brahmanas and the
Aranyakas between 800-600 BC and Upanishads between 600-500 BC.
Rig-Veda
Rig means a ‘hymn of praise’ and hence it is a collection of hymn of praise used in worship
and prayer. It is a collection in ten books (mandala) of 1028 hymns to various natural deities
such as Indra, Agni, Soma and so forth. This is the most important and oldest of all Vedas. It
was recognized as the canonical.
Sama-Veda
Sama means chant. Therefore it is a collection of hymns arranged musically for the purpose
of chanting.
Yajna/Yajur Veda
Yajna means sacrifice and therefore, it deals with sacrificial rites and formulas.
Atharva-Veda
Atharva means a priest who performs sacrifices and magic. Hence it is a collection of chants
and spells used by the priest in the performance of magic.
The Brahmanas (ca.800-600 BC) (extreme rituals)
They are written in prose as guidebooks for the performance of the sacrificial rites for the
pleasing of gods. The householder (Grihasta) takes the help of Brahmanas in tending the
sacred fires and offering sacrifices to the Vedic gods.
The Aranyakas (ca.800-600 BC): Aranyakas means the forest books. They give
philosophical interpretations of the rituals by allegorizing them. When one retires to the forest
as a hermit (Vanaprasta) the Aranyaka guides his philosophical speculations.
The Upanishads
The term Upanishad comes from “Sanskrit verbal root sad (“sit”) and the prefixes upa- and
ni (“nearby”), the word Upanishad represent the act of sitting at the feet of someone. The
term Upanishad indicates “listening closely to the mystic doctrines of a guru who has
cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. It points to a period in time when group of
pupils sat near the teacher and learnt from him the secret things in the quietude of forest.
They are variously numbered as being between ten and thirteen. They stand as the end part of
Vedas- i.e. the Vedanta’s. They are the foundations of later Hinduism. Their teaching centers

on the concepts of Brahman (the Ultimate/Absolute reality or Being) and atman (self). They
search for the relationship or identity of Brahman and atman and the self-realization of one’s
true self. Though the base is Vedas, Upanishads reflect a movement away from the sacrifices
and ritualism of polytheism to more man-cantered philosophies and to the problems of ethical
behaviour. Several western philosophers have found solace (comfort) in the Upanishads (e.g.
Schopenhauer)
 The Smriti (Tradition/That which is remembered)

This is only a second authority. This is a recollection of Vedas and it contains all the sacred
texts other than Vedas.
The codes of Law (Manu Smriti)
These are the laws for detailed regularity of Hindu society. The lawgivers codified them from
time to time. As Smriti the law codes carried less authority than the Vedas. Manu is the oldest
giver of law and perhaps the best known. Main teachings on Caste system amd roles for
women
The Ramayana
These two epics expound the principles of Vedas by interpreting the exploits (the
adventurous deeds) of the great national heroes Rama and Sita. The Characters depict the
ideals of moral and social behaviours for the individuals, the families and the nations. These
dominant ideals clearly seen in the traditional Hindu festivals, modern dramas and films as
well. The Ramayana related the story of Rama, the ideal man shows how an individual
should behave toward all other men in society and how a community should live in peace and
harmony.
The Mahabharata (It is longest poem in the world, consist of 100,000 verses)
It is the story of the conflict between two branched of the same family. This epic seeks to
answer the moral, spiritual, and metaphysical problems of the times through parables and
dialogues. One such dialogue is the Bhagavat Gita (Song of the Lord). It contains 18
chapters.
Bhagavat Gita is a conversation between Arjuna the warrior-prince and Krishna, his
charioteer. Krishna is believed as the disguised incarnation of Vishnu. Gita calls for
disinterested action (niskama-karma)in doing one’s duty according to the status of the person
in society. The Gita is the best known and best loved scriptures for modern Hindus.
The Puranas
The Puranas are very popular in Hinduism. The Puranas are intended to teach religious
knowledge and evoke religious devotion among the masses, through stories and myths,
legends and chronicles of great national events. Tradition recognizes eighteen main Puranas:
Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Siva, Bhagavata, Narda, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavisya,
Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya ,Garuda and Brahmanda.

The Bhagavata Purana is the most popular Purana. It relates the stories of ten incarnation of
Vishnu, known as ‘Kalki’ is yet to come. Krishna is one of the incarnations, Heroes display
virtues such as honesty, chastity and self-sacrifice in the legend from the Puranas. Hindu
moral codes are formed from such stories.
The Agamas
Agama texts were developed in the eighth and ninth centuries, when the growth of temples
led to greater use of ritual texts such as the Puranas. The agamic rites systematized the
worship of idols both in the homes and in the temples. These texts were like manuals of idol
worship for Hindus.
Fig.1. Classification of Hindu Philosophy

Hindu Schools of
Thought
Accepting the Not accepting the

authority of the authority of the
Vedas Vedas
(Orthodox- (Heterodox-
astika) nastika)
Based directly Based on Materialistic

Ethical/
on the Vedas
Independent (Carvaka)
Spiritual
reasoning
(Jainism &
(Nyaya, Vaiseshika,
Buddhism)
Sankhya, Yoga)
Emphasizing Emphasizing
active life contemplative life
(Mimamsa) (Vedanta)
F. Main teachings of Hinduism

a. Concept of God in Hinduism

• Multiplied the deities and beliefs making up the Hindu religion till it is a bewildering
potpourri of gods, goddesses, sages, humans (the suras), demons (the asuras), even
animals and strange beings, some of which are half human and half animal, and
customs and practices, some of which are strange, to say the least. To the present day,
the popular Hindu assertion is that there are 33 crores (330 million, 1 crore equivalent
to 10 million) deities in their pantheon
Rig Veda, 1-164 says:
Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti, Existence is One; Sages call it by different Names. Other
translation, “There is only one truth, only men describe it in different ways.
God’s attributes:
 Nirguna (without form/attributes) Impersonal

 Saguna (with form/attributes)- image worship
Trimurthy
Brahma- Creator
Vishnu – sustainer
Siva- Destroyer
c. The Concept of World in Hinduism
Hinduism is not a unified system of beliefs and practices. Rather it is a multifaceted matrix of
beliefs, philosophies, practices, myths, and epics. Within this matrix there are many accounts
on world and there is no definite theory of world in sacred texts of Hinduism.
 The Rig Veda refers glancingly to many different theories of creation. In Rig Veda,
tenth books vividly mentions about the world. Rig Veda explains that there is
existence of creation according to 10.129 and 10.121 account posits the existence of a
divine principle in the beginning. The Rig Veda views the origin of the cosmos as the
work of one true divine principle which projects itself as Vaak, the divine word, and
bringing forth the cosmos that we know from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or Golden
womb. Thus, we don’t know what the divine principle stands for. A few scholars like
Kedar Nath Tiwari identifies Brahma, as Hiranyagarbha, appear to be the seed of all
creation. In Vedas, the divine principle is important. Thus, it evinces that God is
important rather than creation in Vedas.
 Brahamanas: In Vedas, God is important rather than cosmos or creation. But the
understanding of creation differs in Brahmanas. The concept of Rita is main aspect to
be understood with regarding to account of world in Brahmanas. The word Rita is
derived from a root meaning to run or go. The meaning applies that Rita maintains the
cosmic order. Rita is mainly identified with sacrifice in Brahmanas. The concept of
sacrifice was developed for the purpose of encouraging fire sacrifice as offering to the

gods who were responsible for maintaining the cosmic order. Even gods has to
depend on the sacrifice. Rita also plays role in maintaining moral order. The idea of
Rita is not only indicates an awareness of a cosmic order or a principle of uniformity
of nature, understood in terms of regular alternations of natural events, but it also
signifies a moral order.
 World in Hindu philosophy:
Exponent Main Principle Name of System
Sankara Non-Dualism Advaita
Ramanuja Qualified non-dualism Visishtadvaita
Madhva Dualism Dvaita
Advaita (non-dual) philosophy, Sankara holds that Brahman is real: the world is an illusory
appearance (maya); the individual soul (jiva) is Brahman alone, not other.
In Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy, Ramanuja says that there is supreme

soul (Brahman), as the essence of the universe and inner soul of all finite souls, who is yet
also a personal being. For Rāmānuja it is the body of God, sharing some of the qualities
ascribed to the Supreme One, real and sacramentally necessary. (Brahman is like fire, atman
is like sparkle)
In Dvaita (dualism) philosophy, Madhva explains that both the creator and matter or world is
distinct.
• In Puranic cosmology, Vishnu considered as creator who created the universe after
he woke from sleep. Thus, Vaishnavists regarded as Vishnu as creator of the world
and they worship him in their daily devotion.
In Saivism, in the Svetasvatara Upanishad, Siva is the cause of the cosmos. He is a magician
(mayin) who produces the world through his power (sakti) and sustains it.
In Devibhagavata purana, goddess (devi), considered as the absolute source of the cosmos.
Because her main representation as consorts or energies (sakti) of the gods, particularly
Saravati, Pravati and Lakshmi, the consorts of Brahma, Siva and Vishnu.
d. Karma and Punarjanma (reincarnation)

• First, the law of karma presupposes that all willful actions have consequences. It is
sometimes loosely perceived as people being accountable for all their actions. In other
words, what we sow, we must reap.
• Second, actions in accordance with dharma have good consequences, while actions
not in accordance with dharma have bad consequences. This assumes a sense of moral

uniformity in the cosmic order because the same quality of the action is produced in
the effect. However, this feature of the law accounts for the allied law of retribution,
which requires that the guilty should suffer for their evil actions. As the law of karma
cannot be violated, people will inevitably suffer for the evil which they have done, or
be rewarded for their good deeds. The moral quality of any action is passed on in such
a way as to affect the doer of the action at a subsequent time. According to the law of
karma, a person’s present circumstances are the result of past actions.
• Third, the manifestations of consequences are not necessarily immediate or in this
life, but in some future life.
• Fourth, the doctrine of karma developed historically alongside the allied doctrine of
reincarnation. The law of karma presupposes that the human person can undergo a
series of transmigrations, and is often compared to an ever-rolling wheel. In this way,
the rewards or punishments of past deeds are manifest.
e. Dharma
The noun “dharma” comes from the verbal root dhr which means uphold, maintain, sustain,
and keep in balance. Dharma is the right way to maintain order and balance in the world.
Thus, dharma directs as every aspect of and every activity in the life of a Hindu.
• Dharma in Vedas broadly considered as a high moral principle.

• Vedas were followed by Brahmanas, dharma came to be defined as caste duties or
Varna dharma.
• In the Upanishads, the primary concern of the Upanishads was speculation about the
relationship between Brahman, the supreme soul and the individual human soul. The
Philosophic speculations and teachings were interspersed with exhortations to good
life, to obedience to dharma.
Dharma in Ramayana “taught morality through examples and precepts
 Dharma in Bhagavad Gita
• Firstly, dharma in Bhagavad Gita regarded as right action.
• Secondly, dharma in Bhagavad Gita regarded as save the good and punishes
the evil. The Bhagavad Gita declares “righteousness is the essence of
dharma” (B.G. IV.7). The idea and purpose of avatar is taught in the Gita.
Sri Krishna says in the Gita.
Transliteration
yadaa yadaa hi dharmasya glaanir bhavati bhaarata abhyutthaanam adharmasya
tadaa'tmaanam srijaamyaham // 4.7 //
paritraanaaya saadhoonaam vinaashaaya cha dushkritam dharma samsthaapanaarthaaya
sambhavaami yuge yuge // 4.8 // ( By T.N.Sethumadhavan)

Translation
Whenever there is a decline of righteousness and a rise of righteousness, I incarnate myself

for the protection of the pious and for the destruction of the wicked, and for the establishment
of righteousness firmly, I am born from age to age (4:7-8). Krishna came as avatar to save the
righteous people from evil doers.
• Finally, dharma in Bhagavad Gita regarded as Personal behavior should be good.

“The main vices that one should try to get of egoism, too many desires, greed, anger,
pride, and vanity and of these desires and anger again and again mentioned as being
like gazes of hell (XVI.1-5). Among the principle virtues called the divine equipment,
the Gita counts fearlessness, purity of heart, knowledge and proper action in
accordance with it, giving control of mind, sacrifices, study, tapsa, sincerity, non-
injury, truthfulness, control of anger, renunciation, peacefulness of mind and like
qualities”.
f. Varnashrama Dharma and the Caste System

Caste system needs to be understood within framework of Varnasrama Dharma.
India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of surviving social stratification.
The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work)
and dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here it means duty) is generally accepted to be
more than 3,000 years old.
How did caste come about?

Manusmirit, widely regarded to be the most important and authoritative book on Hindu law
and dating back to at least 1,000 years before Christ was born, "acknowledges and justifies
the caste system as the basis of order and regularity of society".
The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and the Shudras. Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of
creation.
At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and
are believed to have come from Brahma's head. Then came the Kshatriyas, or the warriors
and rulers, supposedly from his arms. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who
were created from his thighs. At the bottom of the heap were the Shudras, who came from
Brahma's feet and did all the menial jobs.

The main castes were further divided into about 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes, each
based on their specific occupation.
Outside of this Hindu caste system were the achhoots - the Dalits, Panchama, Harijan or the
untouchables.
High caste understood as purity
Low caste understood as pollution (eg., marriage within own caste because of concept of
purity and pollution)
Varna- (general caste – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Sudras, and Dalits)
Jaati (Particular caste- sub-caste)
g. Four Stages of Life

Life is divided into four stages in one’s life. They are: Brahmacharya (1-25), Grishastha (26-
50), Vanaprastha (51-74) and Sanyasa (75 above). Let us briefly look at the each of them.
• Brahmacharya: Boys of the three upper varnas are initiated into the first stage with the
ritual of the sacred thread. The ceremony signifies a second birth, and the initiates are
called ‘twice born’. The ideal age for the ceremony varies according to varna- eight
for a Brahmin, eleven for a Kshatriya, and twelve for a Vaishya. The first stage in life
is a bachelor when one is expected to be a student receiving training and learning
discipline of the body and mind. The boys leave their homes and go to guru’s house
for a predetermined period of time. The guru teaches his students sacred texts, various

arts and the skills that will be useful later in his life.
• Grishastha: the next stage is that of a householder. A person gets married, beget
children, settle down in his family, in business and pursues various interests in life.
This enables the maintenance of the society, its customs, traditions, and religious
practices. He is expected to practice hospitality, contribute to the welfare of the
society. Marriage is regarded as acceptable, sacred and required function in life.
Monasticism does not have a place here.
• Vanaprasta: At this stage of life, the time comes for a person to relinquish his
responsibility at home and business. Accompanied by his wife, the man leaves for
forest where both of them together pursue their spiritual aims. Manu prescribed that
when a person becomes the grandfather, or when one skin begins to wrinkle or hair
turns grey, that is the time to relinquish his responsibility to leave for the forest. The
main purpose of this stage of life is to leave the activities and worries of life, retire to
a solitary place and meditate on spiritual values and matters.
• Sanyasa: This is the last stage of life when a person is to discard all the cares and
worries of this worldly life and pursue freedom, peace, and liberation from the cycle
of rebirths. In this stage, husband and wife separates from one and another for the last
time and take leave of each other. Person at this stage of life are solitary persons, they
do not have personal ambitions or private attachments and renounce the world.
It is interesting to note that the first three stages are said to be obligatory, i.e. all men
experience them, while the last is only optional, and not all men reach it.
h. The Four Purusarthas (Aims of Life)

In Hinduism, there is not just one purpose of human life, but four:
Dharma- fulfilling one’s duty
Artha- prosperity
Kama- pleasure, sexuality, and enjoyment
Moksha- liberation
i. The way to salvation or liberation/moksha

The history of Hinduism is the history of man’s search for reality. It is the story of a
human quest- the quest for the truth of things. God, for the Hindu, is this reality or truth.
Hindus recognizes four possible paths of moksha or salvation.
Moksha is derived from the root Sanskrit which means free, let go and liberate.
 Karma Marga: The first is the way of works or karma marga. This is very popular
way of salvation and lays emphasis on the idea that liberation may be obtained by
fulfilling one’s familial and social duties. For a long time, Hinduism was considered
to be other-worldly religion. The ideal man, it was believed, is the holy sage, the man
who has given up all possessions and all worldly attachments. Today it is action that
is stressed, and not the giving up of action. A man like Gandhi, or an institution like
the Ramakrishana Mission, is often held up as an example of involvement in the life
of the world.
 Jnana Marga: The second way of salvation is the way of knowledge or Jnana marga.
The basic premise of the way of knowledge is that the cause of our bondage to the
cycle of re-births in this world is ignorance. According to the pre-dominant view
among those committed to this way, our ignorance consists of the mistaken belief that
we are the individual selves and not one with the ultimate divine reality-Brahman. It
is the same ignorance that gives rise to our bad actions, which result in bad karma.
Salvation is achieved through attaining a state of consciousness in which we realize
our identity with Brahman. This is achieved through deep meditation, often as a part
of the discipline of yoga.
Vedanta (refer to Vedanta philosophy above)
Sankhya (Purusha (pure conscious) attains moksha by escaping from the
chains of prakriti (world)
Yoga (Yoga school taught that all aspects of human personality and teaches
how to control the modification of the mind (chitta) through practice of
meditation especially astanga Yoga)
Bhakti Marga (surrender): The third way of salvation is the way of devotion or
Bhakti marga. This is the way most favoured by the common people of India. It
satisfies the longing for a more emotional and personal approach to religion. It
involves the self-surrender to one of the many personal gods and goddesses of
Hinduism. Such devotion is expressed through acts of worship, temple rituals, and
pilgrimages. Some Hindus conceive of ultimate salvation as absorption into the one
divine reality, with all loss of individual existence. Others conceive of it as heavenly
existence in adoration of the personal god.
Useful Analogy 1
The drop of water in the ocean
The soul is compared to a drop of water and liberation to its merging into the vast ocean
which represents the Supreme Soul (God).

According to the advaita schools, the soul and God are equal in every respect, and liberation
entails realisation of one's Godhood. Thus, one's mistaken sense of individuality is dissolved,
and one merges into the all-pervading Supreme.
Useful Analogy 2
The green parrot in the green tree
The individual soul is compared to a green bird that enters a green tree (God). It appears to
have "merged", but retains its separate identity.
 The personalistic schools of thought maintain that the soul and God are eternally
distinct and that any "merging" is only apparent. "Oneness" in this case refers to:
1. unity of purpose through loving service
2. realisation of one's nature as brahman (godly) but maintenance of one's
spiritual individuality.
 Liberation involves entering God's abode, though many schools teach that those souls
who have become free from material contamination are already liberated, even before
leaving the material body
j. Samskaras
Samskaras are rites of passage in a human being’s life. Hinduism recognizes the importance
of right conduct (samskara) in human life. It is right conduct which eventually determines a
person’s next life.
List of Sixteen Samskaras
Pre-natal Samskaras
(1) Garbhadan (Conception)
(2) Pumsavana (Engendering a male issue)
(3) Simantonayana (Hair parting)
Childhood Samskaras
(4) Jatakarma (Birth rituals)


(5) Namakarana (Naming)
(6) Nishkrama (First outing)
(7) Annaprashana (First solid food feeding)
(8) Chudakarma (or Chaul) (Shaving of head)
(9) Karnavedh (ears pierced)
Educational Samskaras
(10) Vidyarambha (Learning the alphabet)
(11) Upanayana (Sacred thread initiation)
(12) Vedarambha (Beginning Vedic study)
(13) Keshant (Godaan) (Shaving the beard)
(14) Samavartan (End of studentship)
Marriage Samskara (15) Vivaha (Marriage Ceremony)
Death Samskara (16) Antyeshti (Death rites).
k. The concept of Avatara
 Etymology of the Term “avatara”
In Hinduism, The term came from “ava (down) and ti (to cross), therefore, an avatar is
generally a descent or a down-coming of a deity, part of deity” (Kocak 2). The idea of
avatara is mainly related with god Vishnu (Kinsely, 707). In Hinduism, according to the
bhakti tradition, they have ten avataras (The list of Dashavatara varies across sects and
regions: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha,Vamana, Parashurama, Rama,
Krishna, Balarama,and Kalki) and they believe that the divine takes human form time to time
and descend to earth. There is saying in Gita IV.7-8. “Whenever there is a decline of law, O
Arjuna, and an outbreak of lawlessness, I incarnate myself. For the protection of the good, for
the destruction of the wicked and for the establishment of the Law I am born from age to
age”. To extend, Hindus also believed that God could manifest himself in thousand ways and
forms. Thus, the term avatara gives idea about the coming down of the divine to save the
good people from wicked time to time.
“the main ground of objection being that to the Indian mind God who becomes incarnate-
Isavara, the personal God of bhakti- is on a lower level than the manifest God whom the
Hindus describe as nirguna Brahman. It is therefore felt that to turn Christianity into a

bhakati marga is to devalue it, and to give the impression to Hindus Christianity is a lower
form of religion than advaita.
In Christianity, the word ‘incarnation’ was popularized by Latin theology which indicates
‘in-flesh-ment’, and it can be scripturally authenticated from John 1:14 ‘the Logos became
flesh.’ There was the historicity of the coming of Jesus in Christianity. On the other hand,
Hinduism did not stress on “the historicity of an avatara.” Jesus Christ took the form of
human in order to save the evil people from their sins and died for all in one time event in the
real history unlike Hinduism.
l. Popular Hinduism
Anthropologists and scholars of religion use different names for popular Hinduism such as
“village Hinduism,” “the religion of the masses,” “local Hinduism,” and so forth. Popular
Hinduism defines as “the beliefs and practices that constitute the living, ‘practical’ religion of
ordinary Hindus.” Popular theistic Hinduism refers to the beliefs and practices of ordinary
Hindus who focus on the many deities with “whom Hindus interact and communicate in
ritual,” not only that, ordinary Hindus see the relationships with deities as primary
relationships as part of their religious experiences.
Rituals of Popular Hinduism

In the Hindu context, ordinary Hindus usually perform religious rituals in worship of gods
and goddesses in order to obtain blessings, deliverance and so forth. This is common to most
of the religions in the world. Such religious rituals of popular Hinduism are puja, sacrifice,
pilgrimages, festivals, rites of passage, possession, vows, and the like. I note only relevant
rituals on puja, sacrifice, pilgrimage, and festivals.
 Puja
Puja is the main ritual of popular Hinduism. The Sanskrit word “puja” is translated as
“worship”. Puja is the offering of vegetarian food, flowers, and incense to a deity. Some
deities even accept blood sacrifices. All deities accept these offerings at the time of puja.
Puja is done before the images of deities both by priests and ordinary people in temples and
homes across India and Nepal. This act of honouring deities is like honouring a guest at
home. Most ordinary Hindus worship deities in order to please them so that their needs can
be met. Eck points out:
… Hindus “worship” is not only a matter of prayers and offerings and the devotional
disposition of the heart. Since, in the Hindu understanding, the deity is present in the
image, the visual apprehension of the image [darsan] is charged with religious
meaning. Beholding the image is an act of worship, and through the eyes one gains
the blessings of the divine.
Eck correctly notes the importance of worship with regard to images of deities. She also
indicates that this is the central act of Hindu worship for lay people.

 Sacrifice
The ritual of sacrifice is also related to puja. Most ordinary Hindus perform animal sacrifice
is a part of their worship. Because the sacrifices of the animals mostly accepted by deities
(especially goddesses). In most villages, two kinds of sacrifices are practiced by ordinary
Hindus. Kumar says that “sacrifices at times to propitiate goddesses and sacrifices on a daily
basis to goddesses in Tantrism,1 which cannot be compromised.” Ordinary Hindus perform
sacrifice to the images of deities for asking malicious spirits to leave. In some occasions,
ordinary Hindus also offer animal sacrifice to images of their own goddesses in order to seek
protection. Fuller says that sacrifice is like puja where the sacrificer representatively
identifies with the deity. Thus, the ritual of sacrifice is so prominent among ordinary Hindus.
 Pilgrimage
Another activity which should be considered as part of the life of Hindus is periodic visits to
sacred places like Himilaya, Pasupathi temple, Tirupati, Varanasi, Haridwar and Gangotri.
This is known as tirtha yatra (meaning “journey to a sacred place”). The most common term
for such places of pilgrimages is tirtha, literally meaning a “crossing place” or a “ford”. The
term originally referred to the ford in a river, where one could safely cross to the other shore.
Flood comments that it is a place where the divine world meets the human world. Moreover,
Eck refers to tirthas as images of the cosmos, and thus the place becomes an icon. For
instance, the city of Varanasi which is acknowledged by Hindus unanimously the most sacred
of the tirthas is also a sacred image of the cosmos. In fact, this city is said to be the
permanent earthly home of Lord Siva. So a tirtha is an image of the cosmos where deities
reside. Fuller considers a pilgrimage to be “physical movement, which explicitly symbolizes
the devotees’ progress toward unity with the divine.” Thus, a pilgrimage is a journey to
experience the divine presence and to move closer to a deity.
 Festivals
Festivals are an important part of Hindu religious life. During festivals, Hindus worship
images of gods in a special way based on the yearly cycle. Moreover, Ram Gidoomal and
Robin Thomson say that festivals are mainly community and family events. All over India
and Nepal, in villages and in religious centers, the festivals of the sacred calendar are
indicated by the appearance of special festival images. Festivals are intended to serve as
occasions for intensive meditation and worship of God as occasions for joy, and occasions to
pray for good to prevail. Mahadevan says that just as the temples are places which remind us
of God, the festivals are times which make us commune with Him. Moreover, in all these
rituals of popular Hindus, idol worship has a peculiar role to play.
Hindus celebrates a great many festivals. There are national festivals like diwali, the festivals
of lights, which commemorates the destruction of a demon king by Krishna. And there are
also many local and religious festivals. Some of them are of a seasonal character. For
example Onam in Kearla and pongal in tamil nadu are primarily harvest festivals. A number
of festivals commemorate acts of liberation done by Gods and goddesses. Durga puja, the
1
Tantrism is a non-Vedic practice. It focuses on spiritual discipline, ritual activity, and the attachment of
magical powers.

worship of Mother Goddess, is the national festivals in Bengal; it celebrates the triumph of
good over evil. Dasara, another popular festival, commemorates Rama’s victory over ravana.
Colourful processions and dramatics and dance performance mark the celebration of most
festivals.
ISLAM
1. Introduction

Islam is no longer an Arab religion; it is indeed a global religion. It is estimated that there are
about1.8 billion (according to 2015) Muslims in the world. In Asia, from West Asia to
Indonesia, they play a decisive role in the total life of the people, and in the international
level with their petro-dollars they control the world economy. Modern Islam is militant and
Islam appears in the forefront of the world news. In India mass conversions of Harijans to
Islam make very much significant in the country also. Therefore we should have a working
knowledge of Islam and its nature.
Islam means peace, purity or submission
Muslim means one who submits or surrenders to the will of Allah
Quran means recite
2. Pre-Islamic Arabia
The land
Arabia (now called Saudi Arabia) is the cradle of Islam. It is one of the driest and hottest
countries in the whole world. Its surface is almost completely desert with only a narrow strip
of habitable land round the periphery. The Arabs called their Habitat an island as it is
surrounded by water on three sides and by sand on the fourth. There is no a single river of
significance which flows perennially and reaches the sea. None of its streams is navigable.
The most important part of Arabian Peninsula is Hijaz. It contains the two holy cities of
Islam, Mecca and Medina. Even before the coming of Islam Mecca was a holy place, and
people from all over Arabia came there on pilgrimage. It being also on the caravan route was
an important trade centre. Many families in Mecca grew rich and the tribe which gradually
won prominence and became important in Mecca was called Quraish. They claimed to be
descended from Prophet Abraham. They were responsible for the care and maintenance of the
Kaaba a pantheon of multitudinous deities and a centre of pilgrimage at Mecca. Kaaba is
now the most sacred shrine of Muslims. It is cube-shaped building measuring about 39 feet
by 33 and is little over 49 feet high. Arab historians have also referred to the period
immediately preceding Islam naming it “Jahiliyya” the age of ignorance in which Arabian
had no dispensation, no inspired Prophet and no revealed books.
The economic condition and the religion of pre-Arabian people
Apart from the settled Arabs engaged in trading there were nomad tribes-the Bedouins. These
wandering natives of Arabia lived in tents of goats’ and camels’ hair. Sheep and Camel rising
and to a lesser degree horse-breeding, hunting and raiding were their regular occupations.
Dates and milk were the chief items on their menu and dates and camels flesh were royal
solid food.

The dowry of the bride, the price of blood, the profit of gambling, and the wealth of Sheikh
(headman of a tribe) all were computed in terms of camels. The Bedouin was royal and
generous within his laws of friendship.
The Bedouins woman enjoyed a measure of freedom. She was at liberty to choose a husband
and leave him if ill-treated. Birth of a son was looked on as an honour for the family while
often a daughter would be killed at birth or abandoned.
The Bedouins measured intelligence by poetry. It was only in the field of poetical expression
and the pre-Islamic Arabs excelled. The Kaaba was the cultural and religious rallying point.
The annual fair held there included a great competitive festival of poetry, the winning entries,
epics, elegies, and romantic poems, were carefully lettered out on strips of precious cloth and
draped along the walls of the Kaaba. Beside these pre-Islamic poems in Arabic there is no
trustworthy record of any Arabic literature before the Quran.
The Pagan Bedouins of Jahiliyya had little if any religion. They were idolaters. They
believed in Jinn or demons. Their deity consisted of natural objects such as trees, wells,
caves, and stones. These stones served as altars at which sacrifices were offered. The blood of
the victim was smeared or poured on it while the tribesmen danced around the stone.
In the city of Mecca, a deity called Allah was held by the people to be the creator, the
supreme provider, the god they invoked in time of greatest peril. The urban population at
Hijaz also believed in many gods and female deities such as al-Lat, al-Manat. They were
considered to be the daughters of Allah. Hubal, the chief deity of the Kaaba, was represented
in human form. It is said that the Kaaba was first built by Adam and Abraham and Ishmael
rebuild it after the flood. A black stone installed in one of the walls of the Kaaba had a special
attraction for pagan pilgrims. Kissing of the black stone by Muslim pilgrims in modern times
is a pre-Islamic practice.
In Mecca, there was a group of people called “Hanif” (The Up-right). The Hanifs were
neither Christians nor Jewish, yet held a monotheism deriving from Abraham.
The religion of the Christians
There were large settlements of Christianity with their own bishops, churches, and
monasteries within easy reach of Mecca. The Monophysites and the Nestorians were two
major groups. Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia was infested with the worship of idols and
adoration and deification of saints. The idolatry took shape as a result of the incorporation
into the church of pagan belief widely practiced.
The iconoclastic controversy and the disputes on the nature of Christ and the Trinity,
Mariolatry, meditation of saints, relics, and prayers for the dead had so split up the church by
the beginning of the seventh century that North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and the East
had all broken away from the mother church, either by excommunication or by their own
will.
The religion of the Jews


The Jews were geographically the next door neighbours of the Arabs and racially their next
of kin. Immediately before Islam, the Jews dominated the economic life in Hijaz. They held
all the best land. They formed at least half of the population in Medina. They had their
synagogues. Their rabbis ran school and taught people to read and write. They were proud of
their sacred scriptures which they never translated into Arabic, the language of the pagan
Arabs whom they considered inferior to themselves.
Muhammad emerged in the midst of these multi socio-religious conditions from pre-Arabian
context.
3. Life History of Muhammad

Sources about Muhammad
 Quran
 Sira (biography of Muhammad)
 Hadith
His birth
Muhammad was born in 570 CE in the city of Mecca. Abdullah and Amina were his parents.
Both belonged to the Quraish tribe. Muhammad never knew his father, for he died before he
was born. Amina dies when Muhammad was only five or six years old. As a child he was
nursed by a Bedouin woman called Halima. When Muhammad became an orphan his
grandfather Abu-ul-Muttalib took him under his own care. Abu-ul-Muttalib also died after a
few years and Muhammad came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad was
shepherd when he was a boy. When he was young, his uncle Abu Talib would take
sometimes Muhammad with him to Syria on trade with caravans. Muhammad was the honest
person. People of his tribe trusted him and began to call him al-Amin, the trusted one.
His life in Mecca
When Muhammad was 25 years old, he came into service of a rich Meccan widow called
Khadija. Delighted by his personal charm and integrity of character she offered him her hand
in marriage. Khadija (40 years) was older than he but she was very understanding. They had
four daughters and two sons but except one daughter, Fatimah, all died quite young.
Muhammad had none other for a wife as long as Khadija lived. (After death of Khadija,
Muhammad married 12 women, most of them widows. Among them Aisha (daughter of Abu
Bakr) was not widow. When Aisha was six years old Muhammad engaged with her, but when
she was nine years old Muhammad had sex with her.
His call
When Muhammad was 40 years old, he got first revelation from Allah through Gabriel at
Mountain Hira. He was asked to recite Surah 96. When he heard his first revelation, he was
frightened and under the stress of great emotion rushed home and confided in Khadija.
Muhammad got revelations from Gabriel for 22 years.
Persecution
Muhammad was convinced that he was now appointed as a messenger of God and that he
was asked to give this message to fellow Meccans. Khadija, Abu Bakr, Ali, and a few
Meccans joined in him. But he and his followers got persecution from the rich and influential
Mecca people. However, amidst persecution, he was invited by Medina people to make
Medina his home.
The Hijrah
Hijrah means migration or immigration. Muhammad migrated to Medina along with his two
hundred followers on September 24th, 622 CE. This date marks the years of the Muslim era (It
known as the beginning of Islam era).
Medina period
Muhammad who was a preacher and warner in Mecca became a warrior, legislator, judge and
ruler in Medina and the believers were constituted as “Umma” one community He got
persecution from Christian and Jews, especially Jews were against Muhammad.
There are some battles took place:
 Battle of Badr: Muhammad first battle was fought in 623 CE against Meccans, whose
caravan was on its way back to Mecca from Syria. The prophets himself led a 300
strong force of the Muslims against the Meccans who numbered 1,000. The Muslims
swept the Meccans off the field. It was a great victory. (during this battle the name
“Allah Akbar” means Allah is greater was came to exist)
 Battle of Uhud: In 625, the Meccans took their revenge on Muhammad and his
followers. In this battle, Muhammad himself was wounded. However, two years later

Muhammad was able to repulse an attack of a force of 10,000 Meccans a ditch across
the approaches to Medina. The Jews had helped the Meccans this time and therefore
Muhammad turned on them and taught them a severe lesson by expelling them from
their colonies.
 The treaty of Hudaibiya: In 628 CE Muhammad took 17,400 Muslims to Mecca for
pilgrimage ceremony. The Meccans agreed to a truce. Muhammad exacted a pact in
which Meccans and Muslims were treated on equal terms. The Meccan leaders agreed
to the prophet right to preach and convert the Arabs to Islam. They also agreed to
allow the Muslim to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca. This pact of Hudaibiya was
considered a great diplomatic victory for the Prophet. After two years Muhammad
control Mecca and almost all residents of Mecca converted to Islam. Muhammad
ordered to destroy all the idols in and around the Kaaba which numbered three
hundred and sixty.
Farwell Pilgrimage
In 631C.E prophet revisited Mecca (from Medina). This is the last visit, In 632 CE, 8 th June,
he passed away as he gave last sermon. At the time of death he asked Abu Bakr to pray in his
place that indicated Abu Bakr to be his succeeded.
His character
Prophet Muhammad was the perfect man in Islam, so those who blasphemy against
Muhammad will not be forgiven. He was a friend of the poor. He loved children and showed
special kindness towards orphans. He was mild and gentle. He was often seen mending his
own clothes and all times within the reach of his people. Muhammad was illiterate but he
encouraged his followers to seek knowledge wherever they could find it.
4. Four Caliphs
A Caliph who act as a religious leader, chief judge, commander of the army and civil head of
the State
Abu Bakr (634, death of Abu Bakr, first Caliph)


He was elected after Muhammad’s death in 632 and served as a successor of the prophet.
Father of Aisha, the favorite wife of the Prophet.
Umar (644, death of Umar, second Caliph)

The second Caliph Umar, on taking over the control, pushed forward the Muslim conquests
and brought a vast territory under the control of Islam. Byzantine, Persian Empire,
Alexandria, Egypt these were the places captured by Umar. Many from Egypt became
Muslim in 644. He served nearly ten and half years and was stabbed by a Persian salve.
Uthman (656, death of Uthman, third Caliph)

He was elected in 656. He was from Umayyad class (Qurasaih tribe). He finished the
unfinished task of Umar and sent Muslim armies to the north coast of Africa. He showed
favoritism to his family members and put Umayyad’s in the chief positions. Moreover,
Uthman’s Quran was authentic and used by all the Muslim now. Uthman was also
assassinated by the some rebel Muslim in the year 656
.
Ali (661, death of Ali, fourth Caliph and figurehead of the Shia)
Ali was both the cousin and the son-in-law of the Muhammad. He belongs to Hashim clan.
He had two sons, Hasan and Husain. These two also killed. Hasan was poisoned by one of his
concubines and Husain was brutally killed by the son of Muawiya. Shia Muslims considered
Ali to be the rightful successor of the Prophet and the spiritual leader (Imam) of the
community.
5. Four foundations of Islam
a. Quran
Etymology
The word Quran is derived from the Arabic root iqra which means read or recite. The
meaning of the word Quran is something to be recited.
Revelation

Quran was revealed to Muhammad in Mecca and Medina too. It was a continuous and long-
time process and lasted for 610-632 that is for 22 years. From beginning to end every single
word in God’s word and divine. The Muslims says that the Quran is guarded tablet or
preserved tablet (85:22), pre-existing book with Allah. Arch angel Gabriel gave him, word to
word as dictation.
Size and contents:
Surah in Arabic means chapter
Ayat in Arabic means verse
There are 114 surahs and total verses of the Quran are between 6204 and 6236. It starts from
longest to the shortest. Quran is not written in chronological order, it was written time to time
in various periods. The shortest surah is 108 and the longest surah is 2.
Since the Quran was not written in context, thus, it is difficult to understand and interpret the
text of Quran without the help of Hadith. Allah is the central theme of Quran. He is
maintained as merciful God and most high God. Quran talks about the prophets of the past,
the Day of Judgment, paradise and so forth. The Christology of the Quran is also significant.
In Quran, only the name Mary, a woman is mentioned.
The greatest miracle
To Muslims the absolute perfection of the language of the Quran is an impregnable dogma.
Muhammad was illiterate. It is, therefore contended that he could not have written the Quran
himself. He could not have gathered his material from other written sources such as OT and
New Testaments. These books were not available in Arabic during the time of Muhammad.
The greatest miracle of the unlettered prophet of Islam was, therefore, the Quran the most
sacred book God revealed to him in perspicuous language.
The language “Arabic”
The Muslim considers that the Arabic language as “the divine breath.” There are 28 letters in
Arabic. They considers as the divine language. Therefore no translation, however good it may
be, can ever take the place of the original Quran, which is its Arabic text; for it is impossible
to copy its matchless enchanting and grand style, its highly emotive and fiery language and

its powerful rhetoric. (Muslims refer the interpretation of Quran instead of the translation of
the Quran)
Compilation of Quran
The completion of Quran is known as the recension of Quran. Muhammad recited the surahs
to his companions and all surahs were memorized by his companions. It was written down on
palm leaves, leather, stones, and the broad shoulder- blades of some animals.
Zaid bin Thabit was the most significant person in the completion of the Quran. He was the
one who memorized the Surahs. 623 CE, Abu Bakr took the initiation to compile Quran
because most of the companions or reciters of Quran were killed in the battle of Yamama.
Abu Bakr asked Zaid to compile the Quran into a single book. Zaid did his work honestly and
produced an authentic volume.
Again in 651 CE, Uthman the third Caliph appointed Zaid to prepare an official recension, a
text which everyone must accept. Copies of this were prepared and sent to different
provincial governors. The other copied were burned. Thus, Uthman’s Quran considered being
the authentic text in Islam.
5 Questions to ask to the Muslims
1. Is Quran eternal?
2. Was it sent down to Muhammad via angel Gabriel?
3. Was it compiled completely at the time of Uthman in 650 A.D?
4. Is the Quran unchanged since 650 A.D. every word, letter and sentence?
5. Prove it? Provide a complete manuscript.
Great thing in Christianity
a. Jesus, the word of God is eternal

b. Jesus, the word of God has come down to us
c. Jesus, the word of God is the complete revelation of God to us
d. Jesus Christ remains unchanged
e. Prove it, Jesus lived-died- resurrected (empty tomb in Jerusalem and
population of Christianity in world)

b. Hadith
The tradition of Hadith is called as wahi ghair matlu, which means, the un-recited revelation.
But when it comes to Quran, it is recited (wahi matlu-recited). Hadith, means a statement or
report or record as used as in Islamic term for the record kept of the sayings and doing of the
prophet Muhammad. Sunnah, means, the actions, the prophet himself performed or action he
asked his followers to perform. So the Hadith is the record of the Sunnah. Without hadith it is
very difficult to understand the Quran. Hadith is the commentary of Quran.
c. Ijma
Ijma, one of the basic principles and a recognised source of Islamic law, means consensus of
juristic opinion. This consensus was first limited to the agreement on a particular issue of the
immediate companions of the Prophet but later extended to include all the pious inhabitants
of Mecca and Madina and still later applied to the agreement reached by the Ulama in a
particular period. A tradition of the Prophet tersely summarised the principle: “My
Community will never agree in an error.”
d. Qiyas
The fourth and the last source of law, is derived from the Jewish term Hiqqish from an
Aramaic root, meaning ‘to beat together.’ In Arabic usage the word means ‘measurement’
and therefore analogy or analogical deduction.
6. The Five Pillars
1. Reciting the creed (Shahada): the testimony of faith is saying with conviction, “LA-
ILAHA-ILLALLAH, MUHAMMADUR RASULLULLAH” Meaning, “There is no God
but Allah and Muhammad is his Messenger”. Confession of faith in God and in
Muhammad as God’s messenger is the testimony of faith for every Muslim. Only God
has the right to be worshipped is the statement called the Shahada
2. Prayer (Salat): Muslims performs prayer at five appointed times daily. Each prayer
does not take more than few minutes to perform; Prayer is the direct link between
God and the worshipper in Islam. Bilal was one of the Muhammad’s followers who
given the responsibility to call the people to prayers. Prayers are offered at dawn,
noon, midnight, sin set and at night. A Muslim may pray at any time.
3. Alms giving (Zakat): Paying an Alms- tax and giving charity to the poor. Both
obligatory and voluntary giving to the poor. Muslims believe that all things belong to

God and wealth is given by God to human beings in Trust. The word Zakat means,
“Purification” and “growth”. Giving Zakat means giving a certain percentage on
certain properties to certain classes of needy people. A specified amount according to
the Muslim teaching, set aside is purified by setting it aside for people in need and
this cutting in balance will encourage new growth in one’s income. Apart from this a
person may give voluntary as much as he/she pleases.
4. Fasting (Saum or Roza ): During the holy month of Ramadan (Ramazan) Muslims
fast from dawn until sundown, abstaining from food, drink and sexual relations. Apart
from being beneficial to health, fasting is a method of spiritual purification as well.
By fasting one indicates his/her identity with the need and hungry and contributes to
one’s growth in spiritual life.
5. Pilgrimage (Hajj): At least one in a lifetime obligation to the holy city of Mecca and
its sacred shrine, the Kaaba for those who are physically and financially able to
perform it. It is estimated that about two million people go to Mecca every year from
all over the world. The annual Hajj is performed in the twelfth month of the Islamic
calendar. Male pilgrims wear special simple clothes which strip away distinctions and
culture so that all stand equal before God. The rites of the Hajj include circling the
Kaaba seven times between the hillocks of Safa and Marwa, as Hagar did during her
search for water. Then at Arafa the pilgrims stand and ask God their wishes and for
His forgiveness, remembering the Day of Judgment. The last thing of the Hajj is
celebrating the festival of Eid-Al-Adha, celebrated with prayers.
By fulfilling this obligations and remembering God often, the Muslim assured of God’s favor
both on earth and at the judgment. While a Muslim may observe each of these pillars there is
still no guarantee of salvation. People who obey God’s commandment and live a good life
will go to heaven after death; those who disobey will go to the hell. All souls will be
resurrected for a last judgment at the end of the world.
7. Jihad
Islam teaches that peace should be established in the countries of the world. To participate
with God in the establishment of peace, Muslims called upon to be engaged in a renewed
understanding of the jihad. The basic Jihad is the struggle of the self, to speck about one’s
faith, to bring it in obedience to God, and to make sure that one is living a holy life and
righteous life according to his/ her faith. Another struggle is jihad as holy war fought only
when the faith is being attacked or when Muslims are not allowed to practice their faith. A
few Muslims call for the Jihad of the sword even under extreme circumstances.
8. ARTICLES OF FAITH
A Muslim recites his creed as follows
I believe in (a) God (b) His angels (c) His books (d) His prophets (e) in the Last Day (f)
the predestination by the most High God of good and evil (g) and in the resurrection after
death.
1) Belief in Allah:
“I believe in God who is one.” Greatest possible stress is laid by Muslims on this aspect.
God is alone, having no equals or partners. This oneness of God (tawhid) is
expressed very clearly in Surah 112.
‘Say; He, Allah is one,

Allah is eternal,
He begets not, nor is he begotten,
And none is like Him.
Orthodox Muslim scholars do not like a close enquiry into these attributes. Some
hold that these attributes are eternal, but there are other who reject this idea. Allah
has been attributed by 99 beautiful names, which are classified into two groups.
1) Al-asmau’l-jalaliyya (The terrible attributes) 2) Al-asmau’l-jamaliyya (The
glorious attributes
The terrible attributes receive greater emphasis in the Quran, in traditions and in the
daily life of the orthodox Muslims
2) Belief in Angels:
In the imagery of the Quran God has angels whose business is to carry out God’s
orders; they are God’s messengers. Like men they are continually worshipping God.
They bear up his throne. They are neither male nor female, nor do they eat and drink.
Some are in heaven, some are on earth. Of those on earth, some have charge of men
and record their deeds.
There are four archangels:
1. Jibrail (Gabriel) is the mightiest archangels. He is God’s chief manager. He
communicated Quran to Muhammad, announced the birth of Jesus to Mary and
strengthened Jesus.
2. Mikail (Michael) is the angel of sustenance.
3. Izrail receives souls of men when they die.
4. Israfil will blow the trumpet on the last day.
The angels are sinless, iblis the devil was also an angel but was expelled from
Paradise for refusing to pay homage to Adam (15:30-34)

Angels intercede for men. It is commonly believed that on the right side of every
man in an angel recording good deeds, and on the left another recording his evil deeds. They
witness for or against men on the last judgment. They guard the gates of Hell.
With the doctrine of angels goes also the doctrine of jinn. They are represented as
rebellious. They lead men astray. They teach men sorcery.
3) Belief in the Books of God:
A true Muslim should believe that various books have been sent by God to various
Prophets on the earth. They were sent to the following Prophets.
1) Adam and his son Seth (2:37)
2) Idris (Enoch) 19:56; Abraham (87:19)
3) The Tawrat (Torah or Pentateuch) to Moses (32:23)
4) The Zabur (Psalms) to David (17:55)
5) The Injil (Evangel) to Jesus (5:46)
6) The Qu’ran to Muhammad to be followed to the Day of Judgment.
4) Belief in the Prophets of God:
God has sent many Prophets into the world. Adam was the first and Muhammad was the last.
If traditions are to be taken into account, some 1, 24,000 prophets and 315 apostles appeared
but the names of only 28 of these are mentioned in the Qu’ran. Six of these are the greatest
and the exalted prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad.There are
degrees and ranks among the Prophets and Muhammad is the highest of all. He is known as
Khatimum-Nabiyin (33:40), i.e., the seal of Prophets, the last and the best.
The Orthodox belief is that the prophets were free from sin. Some believes that the power of
sinning was not created in them but some deny this and say possess something inherent
which keeps them from sinning. The most that any Muslim will admit is that some prophets
may have committed the “little sins” not “big sins” before they were called.
5) Belief in the Resurrection on the Day of Judgment
Muslims believe in the Day of Judgment. They believe life after death comprising
resurrection of the death on the Day of Judgment and retribution of reward and punishment
by Allah to heaven and hell. Heaven is regarded as the permanent place of the righteous and
the evil doers will be pushed to hell after death. The Muslim eschatology is similar to Jewish
and Christian doctrine of the last things. Muhammad preached the final judgment will come,
but the final date he did not give. On this day the whole universe will be destroyed and all
people will be resurrected for God’s judgment. The resurrection of the body is mentioned in
the Quran on 17:151; 36:58. Muhammad will be the first to raise and enter paradise.

It is held that Moses and Jesus would advocate for mercy for their followers. But God will
hear the petition for mercy of Prophet Muhammad alone for Muslims.
The signs of the last Days
i) The appearance of the Dajjal (antichrist)

ii) Deterioration of faith
iii) Wars and revolts
iv) Sun will rise from the west
v) The descent of Jesus on the earth. It is believed that he will return to destroy the anti-
Christ and will descend near the Mosque at Damascus at the time of afternoon prayer.
He will re-establish Islam, live for 40 years and be buried at Medina.
6) Predestination of Good and Evil

It is the Orthodox belief that whatever has or shall come to pass in this world proceeds
entirely from the Divine will and has been irrevocably fixed and recorded. Taqdir is the
Arabic word which is usually employed in theological works in the sense of predestination.
This subject has been debated in Islam hotly giving rise to three well defined schools of
thought.
i) Jabarians: According to them God is responsible for all man’s actions-

Man is not at all free.
ii) Qadarians. Evil and injustice should not be attributed to God but to man
who is free or who has power to do good or evil.
iii) Ash’arians. In one way they agree with the Jabarians. They hold man also
is responsible to some extent. This they call Kasb, or acquisition, because
it is acquires by a special creative act of God.
9. Sects within Islam
Muhammad is reported to have predicated: Verily, it will happen to my people even as it did
to the children of Israel. They were divided into seventy two sects and my people will be
divided into seventy three. Various sects have contributed to the creed, and to the
understanding of the Quran. But actually Islam was spilt because of the problem succession
which is a religio-political affair as to who was to succeed Muhammad.
Sunni: Most Muslims, perhaps 80-90 percent, are called Sunni Muslims. They accept the
four Righteous Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali). They follow the Sunna of the
Prophet, as recorded in the Traditions. They derive their name through reliance on the
"Sunnah" or the observed sayings, lifestyle and practices of Muhammad as recorded in
writings called the Hadith. They accept the "Sunnah" as a source of spiritual wisdom

Shia Muslims: There would be 10 percent of all Shia Muslims in Islam. They originally were
followers of the fourth caliph, Ali, who was Muhammad's son-in-law. Shia Muslims gives
more priority to Ali than even Muhammad. They and their views are not against Islam but
against the Sunni Muslims. They added one more sentence to the Shahada that there is no god
but God, Muhammad is the messenger of the God and Ali is the friend of Allah. The spiritual
leader of Shias called as Imam.
Sufi: Sufi Muslims known as mystical Muslims. The word ‘Sufi’ came out ‘suf’ which
means wool. They wear woollen garments. They are very much influenced by Christianity
and practice asceticism. Sufi Muslims focus on inward life. They are not very legalistic like
Sunni and Shia Muslims. They focus more on songs, dances, etc…. In addition, Sufi Muslims
are considered as the new picture of Islam because they focus on peace and justice.
10. Jesus in Islam

Jesus is an important figure in Islam. He is known as ‘Isa, and is frequently called the son of
Mary, the Prophet, and the Messiah.
 Twenty five times by the name Isa occurs in Quran (Muhammad name occurs only
four times in Quran).
 In Islamic theology, Jesus is believed to have performed many miracles, several being
mentionaed in the Quran such as speaking as an infant, healing various ailments such
as blindness, raising the dead to life, and making birds out of clay and breathing life
into them.
 Muslims denies the divinity of Jesus Christ and don’t believe Jesus as son of God
 Islam denies that Jesus was not crucified but was raised bodily to heaven by God.
 Jesus is just a prophet.
 The New Testament and Quranic descriptions, however, vary significantly. The
Muslim understanding of Jesus takes us into the core area of Christian witness. The
author carefully and objectively leads us through some of the main elements of the
Muslim position.
BUDDHISM
1. Introduction
Buddhism is the religion of hundreds of millions of people—perhaps as many as 535
(according to 2010) million---who live in lands stretching from the island of Sri Lanka to the
islands of Japan, and throughout large areas of the Asian mainland. Like Christianity and
Islam it is a missionary religion, and has today spread to countries in the West.
Buddhism claims to be one of the most reasonable of the world’s great religions. Its teachings
about beliefs and conduct are designed to meet human needs, and to solve man’s spiritual
problems without reliance on the supernatural. In this Buddhism differs from other religions:
it has no place for God, nor for a Saviour; it puts salvation completely within man’s control.
It is sometimes called ‘Do-it-yourself’ religion.
2. The founder of Buddhism

Many legends are told the life of the Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and it is now difficult
to distinguish historical facts from popular stories. It seems clear that he was born in the sixth
century BC and was brought up in what is now Bihar in Eastern India. This was probably at
Kapilavathu, capital city of the Sakya state to which his family belonged. The following
account of his life is based on the stories about him which most people accept.
The Buddha’s family name was Gautama (or Gotama) and his personal name Siddhartha,
though this is not often used. His father was Suddhodhana, an aristocratic Hindu chieftain,
and his mother Mahamaya. The young prince was brought up in princely luxury. It is said
that he had three places, one for the cold seasons one for the hot and one for the season of
rains. During the four rainy months female minstrels entertained him, and he did not come
down from the palace. He had all the comforts and pleasures of life.
Because he was the one and only son, his father took great pains to provide all the needed
and to educate him so that he could succeed him as the chieftain of the clan.
Gautama’s education consisted not only of the various branches of learning taught by the
great men of his time, but also of skills in all the manly arts, especially archery, in which he
excelled. At the age of sixteen he married a beautiful wife, Yosadhara, having won her favor
in archery contest. From this time on for about thirteen years he live a life of luxury and
domestic happiness. His father took all precautions to guard his son from anything that would
cause him pain or displeasure, but he could not do this for ever. The time came when the
young prince saw the cruel realities of life.
The prince once drove through the streets of the city, in a gaily decorated chariot, when
suddenly an old man with grey hair tottered out of hut, dressed in nothing but rags. His eyes
were dim and his teeth had fallen out. When the prince saw him, he was greatly distressed,
and returned home, in horror and disgust, abandoning his trip to the Royal Garden for sports.

On another day as the prince drove in his chariot he heard a cry calling for help. He looked
around and saw a sick man twisting his body about in the dust, groaning and moaning and
gasping for breath. Again he was filled with dismay and returned home.
On another occasion the prince saw a corpse being carried by a crowd of people who were
weeping and wailing. The prince was struck dumb and returned to home in silence. He went
into him room and began to think about the mystery of life. He realized the sorrow which is
present in the life of all men. He felt himself despair, pain, and sorrow. Later he used the term
dukkha, loosely translated as ‘suffering’, to express this fact of human life. He thought to
himself: ‘There is a getting born and growing old, a dying and being reborn. But alas, no
escape is known from this suffering, not even from old age and death. When shall such
escape be revealed?’
He found the answer to his question on another occasion when he saw a serene and dignified
hermit clothed in flowing orange-coloured robes. (A hermit is a person who lives in simple
way, by himself, often in isolated places, in order to be free to pray.) He lived a life of peace
in the midst of unrest, of security in the midst of insecurity. So the prince made up his mind
to renounce the world, like the hermit, and to go in search of peace and security from the
suffering of this mortal life.
One day, when he was twenty-nine, in the very day when a much longed-for son, Rahula, was
born to him, Gautama left his family and home, resolving not to return until he found the
solution to the riddles of life. He went deep into forest, shaved his head, clothed himself in
the yellow robes of a hermit, and for six years he sought for a solution. He sought for
knowledge from famous philosophers of his day, and practiced extreme forms of asceticism
(‘asceticism means living a hard life without comfort or luxury, in order to discipline one’s
body or to pray). Eventually, through starvation, he became dreadfully thin and weak. Five
ascetics admired him and joined him as companions. But it was not for long. He realized that
extreme asceticism was not the way, and he began to take his normal food again. The ascetic
friends then deserted him.
Finally Gautama sat under a peepul-tree and vowed that he would not move until he had
found the answer to his quest. Mara, the tempter, attacked him, and tried to frighten him with
storms, torrential rains, and blazing weapons, and to seduce him by offering him the wealth
of the world. But Gautama was unmoved. Then, after forty-nine days of meditation, on a full-
moon night in the month of May, at the spot now known as Buddhagaya in Bihar, he made
his final struggle and achieved enlightenment. He had found solution to the riddle of life.
Thereafter he became known as the Buddha, which means ‘Enlightened One’. The word for
enlightenment is ‘bodhi’, and the tree under which he won enlightenment came to be known
as the Bodhi-tree or Bo-tree.
The Buddha was thirty-five years old when he attained enlightenment. For forty-five years
after that he travelled up and down northern India, teaching and preaching the message of
hope and happiness, and making many converts. He lived a life of unceasing activity. It is
said that he slept for only two hours at night. He passed away at the age of eighty at Kusinara
on a full-moon day.

3. Main Teaching of Buddhism
A. Four Noble Truths

These are:
(1) Suffering exists;
(2) Desire is a cause of suffering;
(3) Suffering can be eradicated;
(4) There is a means for the eradication of suffering
B. The Eight-Fold Path
Buddha taught that the remedy for all sorrow and suffering lies in following eight-fold
path. This eight-fold path is also known as Middle Path because on the one hand Buddha
disliked extreme nature of Brahmanism based on luxury and on the other he was against the
severe and harsh austerity of Jainism.
The eight principles can be classified as follows:
1. Right Speech –abstaining from untruthfulness, tale-bearing, harsh

language and useless talk.
2. Right Action--abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct.
3. Right Livelihood—earning from living in ways not harmful to any
living thing.
Concentration:
4. Right Effort- Avoiding evil thoughts and overcoming those arousing
good thoughts and maintaining them.
5. Right Mindfulness—paying careful and vigilant attention to every state
of the body, feeling and mind.
6. Right Concentration—concentrating on a single object so as to induce
certain special states of consciousness in deep meditation.
Wisdom:
7. Right Views—understanding the Four Noble Truths.
8. Right Thought---freedom from ill will, lust, cruelty, and
untruthfulness.
It can be seen that Buddha’s teaching were based on pure and disciplined way of life
in which emphasis was laid on morality. The Eightfold Path leads to insight and wisdom and
dismiss ignorance. Its goal is nirvana the state of perfect peace and bliss.
Buddha claimed only to be a guide, teacher of the way but not a saviour. Man must work out
his own salvation by his own efforts. To achieve nirvana is to gain spiritual emancipation. It

is not a gift of divine grace but a conquest won by man’s intellect and will on his own
responsibility.
C. Nirvana (salvation): Buddha’s concern was to point out a way of putting an end to
reincarnation. This is the middle way consisting of the eight steps whose goal is nirvana. The
literal meaning of the word nirvana is dying out or extinction. As of a fire; Buddha used this
illustration to make his point: the world is in flames, kindled by the fire of desire. the process
of rebirth is rekindling of this fire from one flames to another, and this keeps the fires of birth
, decay death, pain anxiety etc. constantly burning. Nirvana is the extinguishing of this flame,
the flame of desire. In a sense this not annihilation of self because according to the doctrine
of anatta, there is no self to annihilate. It is rather annihilation of the illusion of the self. With
this all that clusters around or supports this illusion, the thirst for life, lust, greed, selfishness,
desire and all forms of suffering are annihilate. Nirvana is not just nothing, it is called ‘ the
harbour of refuge’ the cool cave, the island in the midst of the floods , the place of bliss,
liberation, safety, the home of ease, the end of suffering , and the supreme joy. Nirvana is an
experience of bliss, which can be attained in this life in this world, and not the state that can
be attained only in the distant future. Nirvana is a permanent state of bliss beyond the world
of birth, death, and rebirth. The ultimate end of the Buddhist pilgrimage is nirvana. It is not a
state of non existence but it is in their own words. Deathlessness, peace, clam of impulses,
extinction of passion, of aversion, of confusion, of carving. It is stopping of becoming getting
rid of carving, the termination of aging and dying. It is end of woes. Nirvana can be attained
in this life also provided the conditions prescribed for its attainment are fulfilled.
4. The Scriptures within Buddhism

Buddhist Scriptures cannot be taken as one religious book. Buddhist Scriptures are collection
of texts of texts which are found with different Buddhist schools.
The scriptures of the Theravada school are collected in a work called the Pali Tipitaka or Pali
Canon. The Pali word Tipitaka means "three baskets," which indicates the Tipitaka is divided
into three parts, and each part is a collection of works. The three sections are the basket of
sutras (Sutta-pitaka), the basket of discipline (Vinaya-pitaka), and the basket of special
teachings (Abhidhamma-pitaka).
The Sutta-pitaka and Vinaya-pitaka are the recorded sermons of the historical Buddha and the
rules he established for the monastic orders. The Abhidhamma-pitaka is a work of analysis
and philosophy that is attributed to the Buddha but probably was written a couple of centuries
after his Parinirvana.
In Mahayana Buddhism, there is a Sanskrit/Chinese version of the Sutta-pitaka called the

Agamas. These are found in the Chinese Canon. There are also a large number of Mahayana
sutras that have no counterparts in Theravada. There are myths and stories that associate
these Mahayana sutras to the historical Buddha, but historians tell us the works were mostly

written between the 1st century BCE and the 5th century CE, and a few even later than that.
For the most part, the provenance and authorship of these texts are unknown.
5. Sects within Buddhism

• Theravada Buddhism: (Lesser Vehicle) It is known as Hinayana Buddhism also. It
teaches that Buddha was only a teacher. It emphasizes gaining wisdom and working
out one’s own salvation by renouncing the world and living the life of a monk.
Devoting oneself to meditation and study in a monastery the ultimate purpose of the
monastic life is to become an ‘arhat’ (one who has reached spiritual perfection and
liberation from the pains and suffering in the cycle of rebirth).
• Mahayana Buddhism: Mahayana means greater vehicle. According to them
salvation is not intended for a few people of particular moral excellence but for all
mankind.
While accepting the basic writings of the Theravada school, Mahayana uses numerous other
texts, some of which are even preferred to the older ones because they develop the Buddha’s
teaching and modernize it. They accommodate principles from other religions.
• Tibetan Buddhism
It is called diamond vehicle. It is developed in seventh century. It is mixture of Theravada
and Mahayana.
• Zen Buddhism
It is known as meditation school. They seek sudden enlightenment through the meditation.
SIKHISM
Sikh religion was originated in the state of Punjab. Punjab means ‘land of the five rivers’.
The Hindi word Sikh means ‘disciple’. Sikhs are followers of their founder Guru Nanak and
followers of the teachings of the ten Gurus (Guru Nanak + 9 successors- Last Guru- Guru
Gobind Singh). Sikhism emphasizes on justice and equality.
Sikh means disciple
 Founder: Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak (AD 1469-1539) was born of Hindus parents in Talwandi, near Lahore now in
Pakistan. His parents belonged to Khatri sub caste in Hinduism known as Bedi which means,
one who knows the Vedas. We call recall here that Khatris were originally known as
Kshatriyas, the warrior caste among Hindus. We can recall here that two others Kshatriya
princess, Vardhamana mahavira and Gautama the Bussha, formerly known as Siddhartha
were also kshatriyas and were founders of Jainism and Buddhism respectively. Guru nanak
included in this category of Kshatriyas who founded new religious within the family of
Hindus.
Nanak’s father was the village accountant and a farmer. His mother was a very pious lady. In
his childhood and the youth he was interested in religious matters but his father was not
impressed by this. Nanak was not interested in learning and spent time meditating and
seeking the company of religious persons. He was assigned to take care of buffaloes. At the
age of fourteen he has married to Sulakhmi. Though he continued to take care of the cattle, he
did not do anything for his livelihood. His parents were concerned about the state of affairs.
His father tried to set up a shop for him to do business but that too did not work. It is said that
he is interested in composing songs and devoted himself to praise God. Not much is known
his married life. He had two sons Shri chand and Laxmidas. He was sent to Saltanpur to meet
his brother in law Jiram who introduced him to governor Daulat Khan who appointed him as
a storekeeper. Here he did well and out of the provision he allowed, he kept a small portion
for himself and gave the rest to the poor. He spent night composing and singing songs of
praise to God. Nanak was a simple man. He had a Muslim friend called Mardana. The poem
was composed by Nanak were given tunes by Mardana. At the age of 13 he received his
divine call. One day he went with Mardana to a river to take bath before his meditation.
Nanak reappeared after three days. After keeping silence for a day he pronounced, ‘there is
no Hindu and no Muslim so whose path shall I follow? I shall follow the path of God’. This is
beginning of his teaching that all religious are equal in the sight of God.

The Gurus
 Scripture
Guru Granth Sahib (Living Guru) or Lord’s book is the sacred scripture of Sikhism,
composed by several dozens of authors, some living prior to Nanak and having only a
distant relationship to Sikhism. It is a collection of poems. Collection of original Sikh
writing called Adi Granth is their first scripture. The text consists of 1430 angs (pages)
and 6,000 sabads (line compositions), which are poetically rendered and set to a rhythmic
ancient north Indian classical form of music.
 God
God is one, the ultimate and eternal Guru. His divine and creative word (shabad) came to
mankind in a distinctive way through ten historical figures, each of whom was called a guru.
Nanak is never considered to be a special manifestation of God, the ultimate and true Guru.
There is only one God, absolute and sovereign. Salvation is a love-union with God. People
are under the power of the self-centred pride. When it is destroyed by praising the name of
the Lord, they are free to serve the people.
The language of love, often a bride’s longing for her husband is typical of the Sikh pattern of
devotion and spirituality. Some Sikhs refer God as Nirankar (without form).

 Liberation
The concept of liberation is modified by the concept of God’s grace. The body takes birth
because of karma, but salvation is attained through grace. To get closer to God: Sikhs keep
the everlasting truth in mind, practice Shabad Kirtan, meditate on God, and serve humanity.
Sikhs believe that being in the company of the Satsang is one of the key ways to achieve
liberation from the cycles of reincarnation.
 Holy Temple: Gurudwara

During the times of the early Gurus, Sikh places of
worship were referred to as dharamsalas. They were
a place where Sikhs could gather to hear the Guru
speak or sing hymns. As the Sikh population
continued to grow Guru Hargobind introduced the
word Gurdwara, meaning the gateway through which
the Guru could be reached. Thereafter all Sikh places
of worship came to be known as Gurdwaras. Any
place where the Guru Granth Sahib is installed and treated with due respect can be
referred to as a Gurdwara, whether it is a room in ones house of a separate building.
Three main functions are carried out in all public Gurdwaras. One is Kirtan which
is the singing of hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib, another is Katha which is
reading of the Guru Granth Sahib and explanations. The third main function
which is carried out at every Gurdwara is the Langar, free community kitchen
for all visitors of all religions. Along with these main functions Gurdwaras around
the world also serve the Sikh community in many other ways including, libraries of
Sikh literature, schools to teach children Gurmukhi and the Sikh scriptures and
charitable work in the community on behalf of Sikhs.
 Langar: It is the term used in Sikhism for the community kitchen in a Gurudwara
where a free meal is served to all the visitors, without distinction of religion, caste,
gender, economic status or ethnicity. The free meal is always vegetarian.
 Equality of people
Kaur for women
Singh for men
Five Ks
Khalsa Sikhs are supposed to be distinguished by the five symbols, often referred to as the
five Ks because their Punjabi names begin with that letter.
1) Kesh - Uncut hair - Symbolizing spirituality.
2) Kangha - A comb in the hair used to keep the hair clean-
Symbolizing order and discipline.
3) Kara - a metal bangle- symbolizing Unity with God.
4) Kachha (Kaccha) – Special knee- length inner wear- implying modesty
and worn to symbolize moral restraint.
5) Kirpan (dagger or sword) - Signifying dignity, courage and self-sacrifice.
Jainism
1. Introduction
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion and philosophical tradition that blazed new trails.
The name Jainism is derived from the word Jinas meaning spiritual victors, great teachers
and ford makers. Jains have given the title ford makers. Jains have given the title ford makers
to twenty four Jinas who are known as Tirthankaras. The exact time of the origin of Jainism
is difficult to determine. In ancient times Jainism was known by many names. It is an original
system, quite an independent from other systems of Indian philosophy. Jainism is basically a
religion of Kshatriyas. Although this religion is open for all and anybody can become a Jain,
so far only Kshatriyas have become Tirthankaras. The Jains believe in 24 Tirathankara or
‘Founders of the Faith’ through whom their faith has come down from fabulous antiquity. Its
founder was Risabha, the first Tirthankara, or perfect soul. Whereas Lord Mahavira being the
last of the series of Tirthankaras
2. The context for the emergence of Jainism
Jainism, like Buddhism, was a religious reaction to the growth of Brahmanic religion and
power during the sixth century BC in India. The growth of Brahmanism focused on religious
power and truth concentrated in the Brahmin priests. The Brahmins controlled elaborate
rituals, knowledge and the Hindu scriptures in Sanskrit which the common people did not
understand. This meant that only a small group of people were capable of performing
religious ceremonies and duties and has the knowledge of scriptures. The Upanishadic
thinkers reacted to this state of affairs earlier and advocated the religious power of
individuals. A few centuries’ later two protestant movements Jainism and Buddhism sprang
up and brought about radical changes in Hinduism.
Jainism and Buddhism are important religious reform movements that broke away from
Hinduism. Jainism proclaims the universal message of ahimsa or nonviolence towards all
living creatures. The absence of teachings about God in Jainism is due to the tyranny of the
priest-craft of Brahmanism. The philosophical thought of the Upanishads also contributed to
this. Vardhamana Mahavira was a contemporary of Siddhartha who later came to be known
as Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism. Jainism teaches a path of spiritual purity and
enlightenment through a disciplined mode of life.
3. The founder of Jainism
Mahavira the Path- Maker
Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira (the Great Hero), was an elder
contemporary of the Buddha. Although the legends surrounding his life are less attractive
than that surrounding the Buddha’s, being even more formalized and unreliable, he was
undoubtedly a historical person. Under the name of Niganta Matputta, he is often mentioned
in the Buddhist scriptures as one of the Buddha’s chief opponents. The second son of
Siddardha, a Kshatriya chieftain, Mahavira was born around 540 BC at Kundagrama, near

modern Patna in Bihar. On both sides of the family he belonged to the ruling worrier classes
which were a powerful force at the time. Educated as a prince, according to one tradition
Mahavira remained a bachelor for life; according to another he married a princess who bore
him a daughter. Either way, at the age of twelve-eight, on the death of his parents, he
renounced his family life to become a beggar and ascetic, seeking liberation from the cycle of
birth, death and rebirth.
At first he followed the ascetic practices of a group founded some 250 years earlier by a
certain Parsva. Parsva is known as the twenty-third and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth of the
Tirthankaras, the ‘Ford-makers’, ‘Path-makers’ or great teachers of Jainism, who guide their
followers across the river of transmigration, For over twelve years Mahavira wandered from
place to place, living a life of greatest austerity and engaging in disputation. At first he wore
only a single piece of cloth, but after thirteen months he discarded even that encumbrance and
for the rest of his Life went about naked.
4. Sects of Jainism
• Svetambara Sect:
The majority of Jains including monks and nuns in India belong to the Svetambara (white-
robed) sect. Monks and nuns in this tradition wear three pieces of white clothing and also
have a set of begging bowls and a rajoharana (small woolen whisk-broom) used to avoid
harming insects. The Svetambara include groups such as the sthanakvasis, as well as the
Terapanthis who are a sub-group of the sthanakvasis and are characterized by the wearing of
a muhpatti (piece of cloth) over their mouths to avoid harming even tiniest living beings in
the air. The Svetambara Jains are concentrated in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Digambara Sect:
Digambara (means sky-clad) monks have no property, although they can carry a whisk-
broom of peacock feathers and a gourd for water to wash with. Digambara nuns wear a white
sari. There are only a few hundred Digambara monks and nuns in India and the practical
leadership of the community draws upon the work of lay scholar. Digambara or ‘sky-clad’
monks like Mahavira do not wear any clothes, but normally they do not walk like that outside
their temples. The Digambara Jains are found mostly in Karnataka.
The schism shook the main structure of Jainism. The split concerned the question of whether
monks should go about nude or put on piece of cloth. The two groups also differ greatly on
the issues of scriptures (angas), women and monastic practices. The Digambara hold that in
order to become a saint, a person should abstain from food and possessions, including
clothing. They also denied that women are eligible for salvation. The Svetambara sect
advocates the wearing of white clothes and follows a rigorous order of religious life.

5. Literature of Jainism
Most of the literature of Jains is in Prakrit. There are several works of Jainism; most
important of these are twelve Angas. The messages of love and kindness to all preached by
the Jains is very valuable.
6. Teachings and Conducts:
Ahimsa: They follow very strictly the teaching of ahimsa. They have respect for all living
creatures. They even wear a mask so as not to swallow accidentally any insects.
Varna: The caste system that we found in Hinduism is rejected by Jainism.
The way of Salvation: Jains believe in infinite number of soul in the universe and the length
of the cycle of rebirth, it happens only rarely that a soul obtains human birth. Therefore man
should use every opportunity to pursue the way of salvation by acquiring the three
Jewels- Right knowledge, Right faith and Right Conduct. By Knowing the Jain creed,
right faith comes, by following the creed, the right conduct comes. Each person has within
himself/herself the potential to realize the needed perfection and become paramatman, a soul
freed from all restrictions of Karma and attain the highest point in Nirvana.
Life of a layman
Full salvation is not possible for the layman unless he takes the vow of old age, containing
the promise to die by voluntary self-starvation, as the end approaches. According to the
Digambaras, it is never possible for a woman unless she is first of all reborn as a man.
Zoroastrianism (Parsiism)
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions. It was founded by the
Prophet Zoroaster in ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago.
• Founder: Zoroaster
• Scripture: Avesta
• Main teachings
 God: God of Zoroastrian religion is known as Ahura Mazda. Ahura means “the Lord,
‘Mazda’ means ‘the Wise’. Hence, Ahura Mazda means ‘the wise God’. It is a
monotheistic religion
 Main practices
Fire: Fire is regarded as very pure by the Zoroastrians. Although fire is regarded as
sacred, the Parisis do not like to be called fire worshippers. Fire reminds them of
earlier religious practice of worshippers god through fire (agni) . Today fire remains
symbol of light and purity. Fire however must continually burn in Parisis temples and
homes. The first fires in the temples are consecrated by an elaborate process of ritual
filtering in which fire is contributed from different trades wherever a furnace is
burning. In most sacred temples of the Parisis (atesh behram), the original fire must
come from one ignited by a thunderbolt. Once ignited and concentrated, it must be
continually fed by firewood. Devout Parsis brings offering of sandalwood for the alter
of the fire of the temple. Fire is the symbol of the deity and nothing impure or
polluted should come near it. Although fire is not the direct object of worship or
devotion. It is symbol of divine purity. The priest while tending the fires wear surgical
masks on their faces so that their breath may not contaminate the sacred fire. Dead
bodies are not cremated by the Zoroastrians with the concern to maintain the purity of
fire.
Marriage
A Parsi is enjoined to marry and beget children as a religion duty. The vendidad, a
Zoroastrian Scripture, requires Zoroastrians to marry in their own community. This practice
has been followed through the centuries. Inter –faith marriages or inter caste marriages are
forbidden.
At the wedding ceremony, the bridegroom and the bride first sit facing each other, right hand
clasped, with dividing screen between them. The priests tie cotton threat around the
combined grip of the couple, while they continue to chant the sacred mantras. Then the thread
is woven round the couple seven times symbolized the sacred bond of the marriage. The
agreement is made in the presence of two witnesses in front of the fire, and the purpose of
marriage is acceptable as “increasing the potentiality of both to perform meritorious deeds.

Among them the father of the bride gives a dowry according to an agreed amount. Parsis are
strictly monogamous and divorce is frowned upon even though that law may allow it.
Remarriage is acceptable after the death of either partner.
Death and the disposal of the dead

Parsis do not cremate the body because they believe that fire is pure. For them fire, earth and
water are sacred. Since the dead body is impure, it is not allowed to pollute fire by burning,
or earth by burying or by throwing the dead body into the sea or river.
Religious ritual related to death is concerned with person soul and not the body. Zoroastians
believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body and the body
remain the empty shell. Traditionally, Zoroastrains dispose of their dead by leaving them atop
open topped enclosed called tower of silence, or Dokhmas. Vultures and weather would clean
the flesh of the bones which were then placed into an ossuary at the center of the tower. Fire
and the earth were considered too sacred for the dead to be placed in them.
Conversion
Zoroastrian doctrine forbids conversion. They believe that beach person is placed into a
religion by Ahura Mazda as part of divine plan, and to convert to another religious means to
mistrust Ahura Mazda judgment and to rebel against his will.
Other Religions
A. Baha’ism
• Baha’u’llah is the founder of Baha’ism

• Grew out of Shi’ite Islam in 19th century Persia (Iran)
 Main teachings of Baha’ism
• God has communicated with each culture throughout the ages through prophets
• Nine “manifestations” of God:
Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, The Bab, Baha’u’llah and
more to come as humanity continues to mature
B. Confucianism
Founder: Confucius
Born: 28th September 551 BC
Died: 479 BC
Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a
religion. In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social
values and institutions of traditional Chinese society.
A system of social and ethical philosophy: “only when character is cultivated are our
families regulated; only when families are regulated are states well governed.”
C. Taoism
Chinese concept of Tao:- Tao means “way, road of Path”. In a broader sense, it means
“method, principle, or doctrine”. According to the Chinese, the harmony and orderliness they
perceived in the universe were manifestations of Tao, a sort of divine will or legislation
existing in and regulating the universe. Instead of believing in a creator God, who controls
the universe, they believed in providence, a will of heaven, or simple heaven itself as the
cause of everything.
D. Shamanism
A Shaman is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of
benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and

practices divination and healing. The word “shaman” probably originates from Tungusic
Evenki language of North Aisa.
E. The Kirat religion

Kirat is one of the oldest religions. Some scholars say that Kirat religion is the mixture of
animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Nepal was known as Himwant Khand Kairat Desh or
Kirat in the ancient time.
Features of Kirat religion
1. Worship of nature.
2. Non-existence of caste system.
3. Equal treatment to all human beings of the world.
4. The Mundhum as the original religious book (This holy book has wise sayings in
verses that describe the universe and the religious life of the ancient Kiratis. These
verses were handed down from generation to generation
Religious Aberrations of the Modern World
A. Secularism
Secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated
to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries.
India and Nepal are secular countries
B. Pluralism
• Key claim: All major religious traditions are authentic.
• Different forms of religious pluralism:
• The most influential is John Hick’s

The key claims of Hickean pluralism. He is influenced by Copernicus (solar-centred
universe) Not Ptolemaic (earth-centred universe)
• Each world religion has its own phenomenal reality.
• Since each world religion has its own phenomenal reality, the claims of one world
religion do not conflict with those of another world religion.
• Each world religion is a response to the same thing: The ‘Real’.
• All theistic religions are focused toward one true God and simply take different paths
to achieve the same goal.

Responding to this phenomenal reality is, so far as we can tell, equally effective in each
world religion.
C. Marxism
Karl Marx said that “Religion is the opium of the people.”
Religion is an escape of mechanism
Religion is illusory happiness of the people
Religion is legitimating power (oppressing poor people, saying holy war and killing innocent
people). Religion discourages social change.
The full quote from Karl Marx translates as: "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature,
the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the
people". Often quoted only in part, the interpretation of the metaphor in its context has
received much less attention.
Christian Response to Different Religions

The question is usually asked because of the exclusive nature of Christian faith. That is,
Christianity believes it is only through the completed work of Jesus on the Cross and His
subsequent resurrection, that a person can have a relationship with God. Bible verses such as
these are used to substantiate this:
In John 14:6, Jesus answered, “I am the way and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the
Father except through me.
Acts 4:12 states “Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven
given to men by which we must be saved.”
• Respect other religion people without compromising the essence of the gospel.
• Christianity is not religion, but it is a way of life
• Religion focuses on human merits but Christianity offers no need human merits to
attain salvation, it is gift from God. Christ suffered and died behalf of humanity to
save from sins. Christ offers salvation freely for those who believe in Jesus Christ.
• Some think that Christianity is fundamentally same, superficial different, (wrong
understanding)
• Christianity is fundamentally different, but superficial similar (right understanding)
• Origin, meaning, morality, and destiny only found in Jesus Christ.
• Three tests for four questions – origin, meaning, morality, and destiny should be
tested by three tests – logical consistency, empirical adequacy and experiential
relevance.
a. Logical consistency (hundreds of years prophecy, multiple authors, 66
books) (purity of his life- virgin birth)
b. Empirical adequacy (it is not spiritual resurrection- bodily resurrection
where everybody can test)- thus Jesus had food with people who had
walked on the road of Emmas) Thomas able to touch him
c. Experiential relevance

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Subject: Major World Religions

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Major World Religions

Roughly there are 4,300 religions in the world.

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

C. The Importance of Knowing Other Religions

1. Objectivity—students of religion must observe facts as objectively as possible

It is important not to pre-judge another religious perspective.

According to Edmund Husserl, “Bracketing (epoche) is a term in the philosophical movement

D. General Characteristics of Religions

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Primal/ Tribal Religion: Characteristics

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

• Supreme Being/ High God

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

• Spirits of the Ancestors

• Power/ Mana (unseen spiritual force)

Where mana concentrated in a particular person or thing that is considered to be as

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Relationship with the Nature: In Sumi tribe, it is called as Anagha or charm-stones in

Take Away from primal religion

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

 The spirit world and evil forces are real

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

A. PRE-ARYAN RELIGION AND CULTURE IN INDIA

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

 The Aryan Migration to India

B. Definition of Hindu and Hinduism

• Root word of Hindu and Hinduism

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

D. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HINDUISM

It will be really interesting to note the various general characteristics of Hinduism as a

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

6. All Inclusive Nature

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

9. It Does not Have a Missionary Tendencies

E. THE HINDU SCRIPTURES

 The Sruti (Revelation/That which is heard)

• The Vedas (Samhitas) and Their Parts

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

The Brahmanas (ca.800-600 BC) (extreme rituals)

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

 The Smriti (Tradition/That which is remembered)

The codes of Law (Manu Smriti)

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

Fig.1. Classification of Hindu Philosophy

Accepting the Not accepting the

Based directly Based on Materialistic

F. Main teachings of Hinduism

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

 Nirguna (without form/attributes) Impersonal

c. The Concept of World in Hinduism

Tutor: Odugu Raja Babu

 World in Hindu philosophy:

Exponent Main Principle Name of System

Sankara Non-Dualism Advaita

Ramanuja Qualified non-dualism Visishtadvaita

Madhva Dualism Dvaita

In Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy, Ramanuja says that there is supreme

d. Karma and Punarjanma (reincarnation)