12 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution Methods Chap.

Figure 1.3.4 Force–deformation relation for a structural steel component. (From

H. Krawinkler, V. V. Bertero, and E. P. Popov, “Inelastic Behavior of Steel Beam-to-
Column Subassemblages,” Report No. EERC 71-7, University of California, Berkeley,
1971.)

curve (o–a) shown in Fig. 1.3.1c. The unloading (a–c) and reloading (c–a) curves can be
computed similarly or can be defined from the initial loading curve using existing hypothe-
ses. Another approach is to define the inelastic force–deformation relation as an idealized
version of the experimental data, such as in Fig. 1.3.4.
We are interested in studying the dynamic response of inelastic systems because
many structures are designed with the expectation that they will undergo some cracking,
yielding, and damage during intense ground shaking caused by earthquakes.

1.4 DAMPING FORCE

As mentioned earlier, the process by which free vibration steadily diminishes in amplitude
is called damping. In damping, the energy of the vibrating system is dissipated by various
mechanisms, and often more than one mechanism may be present at the same time. In
simple “clean” systems such as the laboratory models of Fig. 1.1.4, most of the energy
dissipation presumably arises from the thermal effect of repeated elastic straining of the
material and from the internal friction when a solid is deformed. In actual structures,
however, many other mechanisms also contribute to the energy dissipation. In a vibrating
building these include friction at steel connections, opening and closing of microcracks