ABSTRACT

This Mechanics of Materials open ended laboratory is designed to construct an integrated

laboratory exercise on beam element subjected to external and internal forces and deflection. Other
than that mechanical properties of aluminum material and also the Euler’s theory and application on
compression member. Next, aim of this laboratory are to investigate the existence of internal shear
force and bending moment developed in beam based on external loading that been applied. Second
objective is to identify the relationship between load and displacement, and estimate the modulus of
elasticity of the materials. The scope for this laboratory are focuses on the analysis of the existence
of internal shear force and bending moments developed in the beam based on the external loading
used. Next, identify the relationship between the load and the displacement, and the estimated
modulus of material elasticity. The tools we use to run this experiment include support frames,
weight sets, record sheets, measuring tape, a pair of simple support and vernier calipers. This
experiment uses 3 different load types. We convert the mass (g) into the burden of Newton (N).
After that, compare the data of theory and experiment. It may get different values because some
error during the experiment such systematic error, parallax error and random error. Overall, we can
conclude that Theoretical calculation of shear force show that there is a direct relation between load
and shear force but the experimental shear force shows some errors which can be due to personal
error or faulty apparatus.

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
In the vicinity of our area, there are many things that cannot be seen. As a
result, there has always been a mistake that engineers have used their physics
knowledge to improve the situation. In civil engineering, shear force and bending
time teach how the force used between two proponents can cause flexibility. As
large and tall buildings are built by engineers, some collapse is caused by this
phenomenon. To find out more about the problem, engineers apply their knowledge
to investigate problems through trial. Various experiments were conducted by
establishing two side support on the basis of two structural frames with the same
separation distance at both ends. Today's sophisticated equipment allows us to
know the reading when the load is applied at a certain distance measured from the
left beam. Shear force is the internal force acting perpendicular to the beam.

1.2 GOAL OBJECTIVE

i. To investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment
developed in beam based on external loading applied.

ii. To identify the relationship between load and displacement, and estimate the
modulus of elasticity of the materials.

iii. To calculate the shear stress and bending stress developed inside the beam.

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1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE

This project focuses on the analysis of the existence of internal shear force and
bending moments developed in the beam based on the external loading used. In
addition, the structure of a structure. After that, calculate the shear force and
bending force produced. Next, identify the relationship between the load and the
displacement, and the estimated modulus of material elasticity. The tools we use to
run this experiment include support frames, weight sets, record sheets, measuring
tape, a pair of simple support and Vernier calipers. This experiment uses 4 different
load types such as 160g, 200g, 210g and 350g. We convert the mass (g) into Newton
(N). Then, the weight is located at 100mm and 260mm from left support. Then,
make sure the digital power used works well. Avoid parallax errors when taking
experiments.

1.3.1 TYPE OF TESTING

Shear Force
The beam fits onto a Structures Test Frame. A mechanism bridges the
cut, which stops the beam collapsing and allows movement in the shear
direction only. An electronic load cell measures the force, and connects to
a Digital Force Display.

Instrument
1. Shear Force in a Beam Apparatus (STR3)
2. Weight (Loading)

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 Figure 1.1 - Shear Force In A Beam (STR3)

Bending Moment
The experiment hardware is a simply supported beam ‘cut’ by a pivot.
The beam fixes to the Structures Test Frame. Students apply loads at set
positions using hangers holding various masses. To stop the beam
collapsing, a moment arm bridges the cut onto a load cell thus reacting
(and measuring) the bending moment force. A Digital Force displays
forces during experiments.

Instrument
1. Bending Moment in a Beam Apparatus (STR2)
2. Weight (Loading)

Figure 1.2 - Bending Moment In A Beam (STR2)

`
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Deflection of Beam
Test beams fit onto the backboard using a rigid clamp and knife-edge
supports. Students apply loads at any position using hangers holding various
masses. Mounted on a trammel, a digital deflection indicator traverses the
beam. The indicator measures beam deflection. Scales on the backboard show
the position of the indicator, the loads and supports.

Instrument
1. Deflection of beam and cantilever apparatus (STR4)
2. Weight (Loading)
3. Aluminum strut, Brass strut and Steel strut

Figure 1.3 - Deflection of Beam & Cantilever (STR4)

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1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY

The importance of laboratory testing during this experiment is that we learn

how to handle laboratory equipment, for example, and read digital power meters.
Subsequently, we learn about the mechanics of material knowledge on how
theoretical shear, deflection, bending and buckling results are calculated using the
shear force formula. Therefore, we can compare the results of theoretical data with
the results of the experimental data. In this case, we can use lecture knowledge to
solve this problem. Then we know about the type of trial of the shear pressure and
the safety measures should be considered during the trial. In addition, to avoid
parallax errors we do not record the shear force of reading when the load is still
vibrating or oscillating. Therefore, the apparatus should be screwed or fixed firmly
on the table.

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 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Many studies related to 'Mechanics of Materials' have been studied around the
world. Mechanics of Materials has been taught pretty much the way for many years,
using topics and methods described beautifully over 50 years ago in classic texts
by Stephen Timishenko. The study was conducted in several places by different
parties. Any force that is transmitted to a body from another body by means of
direct contact over an area on the surface of the first body is a load due to body
contact. Beams are long and slender structural elements, differing from truss
elements in that they are called on to support transverse in addition to axial loads.
Their attachment points can also be more complicated than those of truss elements:
They may be bolted or welded together, so the attachments can transmit bending
moments or transverse forces into the beam. Studied by Galileo, beams are among
the most common of all structural elements, being the supporting frames of
airplanes, building, cars, people, and much else.

Among them is R.C Hibbeler, Book : ‘Mechanics of Materials Editions 8th’ who
said in a beam transverse load is acted, which in fact comes from the slabs to the
column or walls. It is clear that, beams are integral part of building structure. This
way can determine external load acting on individual beams. Shear force is a force
that acts on a plane passing through the body. Shear forces are forces that are
unaligned and separates structure in to two different parts in inverse direction. Shear
force acts in a perpendicular direction to the large part (length) of the structure. The
deflection of a beam or shaft must often be limited in order to provide integrity and
stability of a structure or machine, and prevent the cracking of any attached brittle
materials such as concrete or glass. Furthermore, code restrictions often require
these members not vibrate or deflect severely in order to safely support their
intended loading. Most important, though, deflections at specific points on a beam
or shaft must be determined if one is to analyze those that are statically
indeterminate.

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 The study conducted by B. Horowitz, F. A. N. Silva (2008), ‘Bending
Moments in Beams of Reinforced Concrete Buildings’ has provided some
research to clarify that residential buildings with slab systems supported by
reinforced concrete beams are widely used in building industry. For design
purposes, the computation of the loads on supporting beams is performed using
simplified procedures, in which the slab is analyzed as an isolated element. In a
simplified way, it is still allowed that these reactions may be considered as
uniformly distributed on the slabs supports. Bending Moments are rotational
forces within the beam that cause bending. At any point within a beam, the
Bending Moment is the sum of each external force multiplied by the distance
that is perpendicular to the direction of the force.

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 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 FLOWCHART / FRAMEWORK

• • 350 g

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3.2 Apparatus

Instrument Shear Force

1. Shear Force in a Beam Apparatus (STR3)

2. Weight (Loading)

Figure 3.1: Shear Force in a Beam Apparatus (STR3)

Instrument Bending Moment

1. Bending Moment in a Beam Apparatus (STR2)

2. Weight (Loading)

Figure 3.2 Bending Moment in a Beam Apparatus (STR2)

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Instrument deflection

1. Deflection of beam and cantilever apparatus (STR4)

2. Weight (loading)
3. E Steel 207 GNm²
4. E aluminum 69 GNm²
5. E brass 105 GNm²

Figure 3.3: Deflection of beam and cantilever apparatus (STR4)

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3.3 Procedure

Experiment 1: Shear force and bending moment of a beam

1. Measure the length of the beam which are 440mm.

2. Prepare the load with hanger 160g, 200g, 210g, and 350g.
3. Make sure the Digital Force Meter are equal to zero.
4. Place the load 160g with length of 100mm and 210g with length 260mm from the left
side of beam respectively.
5. Calculate the data.
6. Repeat step 3 – 5 twice but swap the load with 210g, 160g and change load to 200g, 350g
on the same length.

Experiment 2: Bending moment in a beam

1. Prepare the load with hanger 160g, 200g, 210g, and 350g.
2. Make sure the Digital Force Meter are equal to zero.
3. Place the load 160g with length of 100mm and 210g with length 260mm from the left
side of beam respectively.
4. Data from cut section is recorded in the table and calculate the different theoretical and
experimental in percentage.
5. Repeat step 2 – 4 with the load with 210g, 160g and change load to 200g, 350g on the
same length.

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Experiment 3: Span Deflection
1. Positioned the moveable knife-edge
supports so that they are 400mm

2. Place the chosen beam on the support.

3. The digital dial test Indicator at the

mid span.

4. Place the hanger

5. The digital reading is zero

6. Apply an in incremental load record

the deflection for each increment in
the table

7. Repeat step 2 to 6 with the different type beam (steel, brass and aluminum)

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4.0 DATA AND ANALYSIS

4.1 EXPERIMENT 1: SHEAR FOR IN A BEAM

Case 1: 1.569N and 2.060N

Case 2: 2.060N and 1.569N

Case 3: 1.962N and 3.433N

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4.1.1 DATA AND RESULTS

SHEAR FORCE
CASE MASS 1 LOAD 1 MASS 2 LOAD 2 THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE

(g) (N) (g) (N) (N) (N) (%)

1 160 1.569 210 2.060 2.06 2.13 3.4

2 210 2.060 160 1.569 2.23 2.23 0

3 200 1.962 350 3.433 2.92 3.0 2.7

BENDING MOMENT

CASE MASS 1 LOAD 1 MASS 2 LOAD 2 THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE

(g) (N) (g) (N) (N) (N) (%)

1 160 1.569 210 2.060 1.57 1.53 -2.54

2 210 2.060 160 1.569 1.4 1.4 0

3 200 1.962 350 3.433 2.47 2.39 -3.23

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CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1
Theory shear force and bending moment at support A and B:

∑MA = 0, 1.569(100) + 2.060(260) – Rb(440) = 0,

Rb = 1.5738N

+∑Fy = 0, 1.5638 – 1.569 – 2.060 + Ra = 0,

Ra = 2.0552N

Calculation percentage

Experiment – theory
× 100
theory

2.13 − 2.06
× 100
2.06

= 3.4%

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4.2 EXPERIMENT 2: SPAN DEFLECTION

Case 1: 1.962N

Case 2: 2.943N

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Case 3: 3.942N

4.2.1 DATA AND RESULT

Mass (g) Load (N) Elastic of Theoretical Experimental Difference

modulus, Deflection, δ Deflection, δ (%)
E (mm) (mm)
Steel -0.15 -0.19 26.67
200 1.962 Brass -0.29 -0.39 34.48
Aluminum -0.44 -0.56 27.27
Steel -0.22 -0.29 31.82
300 2.943 Brass -0.44 -0.56 27.27
Aluminum -0.67 -0.86 30.30
Steel -0.30 -0.39 30.00
400 3.924 Brass -0.58 -0.73 25.86
Aluminum -0.87 -1.09 25.29

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 Specimen Beam
Type of Beam Simply supported beam
Material of Beam Steel Brass Aluminum
Elastic of
207GPa/207000N/mm2 105GPa/105000N/mm2 69GPa / 69000 N/mm²
modulus, E

3.13mm
Cross-section of
beam
19.0 mm

CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1

Theory of deflection:

𝛴𝑀𝐴 = 0

Rb(400) – 1.962(100) = 0

400Rb = 196.2

Rb = 196.2/400

Rb = 0.4905 N

𝛴𝐹𝑌 = 0

Ay – 1.962 – 0.4905 = 0

Ay = 1.4715 N

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DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

EI 𝑦′′ = 1.4715(x) - 1.962(x-100)

1.4715𝑥² 1.962(𝑥−100)2
EI 𝑦′ = − + 𝐶1
2 2

EI 𝑦′ = 0.7358𝑥² – 0.981(𝑥 − 100)² + 𝐶1

0.7358𝑥³ 0.981(𝑥−100)³
EI 𝑦 = − + 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2
3 3

EI 𝑦 = 0.245𝑥³ − 0.327(𝑥 − 100)³ + 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2

at x = 0, y = 0, C2 = 0

at x = 400, y = 0

0 = 0.245(400)3 − 0.327(400 − 100)3 + 𝐶1(400)

C1 = -17.1275 × 103

GENERAL EQUATION

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 0.245(𝑥)3 − 0.327(𝑥 − 100)3 − 17.1275 × 10³(𝑥)

EI = 3.35×10⁶, X = 260MM y=?

Steel

10.05 × 106 𝑦 = 0.245(260)3 − 0.327(260 − 100)3 − 17.1275 × 10³(260)

1.486×10⁶
y = 10.05×10⁶

y = - 0.29 mm

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Brass

5.098 × 106 𝑦 = 0.245(260)3 − 0.327(260 − 100)3 − 17.1275 × 10³(260)

1.486×10⁶
y = 5.098×10⁶

y = - 0.44 mm

Aluminum

3.35 × 106 𝑦 = 0.245(260)3 − 0.327(260 − 100)3 − 17.1275 × 10³(260)

1.486×10⁶
y= 3.35×10⁶

y = - 0.44 mm

Steel
E = 207000 N/mm²
I = bh³ = (19)(3.13)³ = 48.55 mm⁴
12 12
EI = 207000 X 48.55 = 10.05x10⁶ mm²

Brass
E = 105000N/mm²
I = bh³ = (19)(3.13)³ = 48.55 mm⁴
12 12
EI = 105000 X 48.55 = 5.098x10⁶ mm²

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Aluminum
E = 69000N/mm²
I = bh³ = (19)(3.13)³ = 48.55 mm⁴
12 12
EI = 69000 X 48.55 = 3.35 x10⁶ mm²

Calculation percentage

Experiment – theory
× 100
theory

0.19 − 0.15
× 100
0.15

= 26.67%

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4.3 EXPERIMENT 3: BENDING MOMENT IN A BEAM

Case 1 Load = 1.569N & 2.060N

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Case 2 Load = 2.060N & 1.569N

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Case 3 Load = 1.962N & 3.433N

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4.3.1 DATA AND RESULT

Bending Stress at cut section

CASE MASS 1 LOAD 1 MASS 2 LOAD 2 THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE
At cut
(g) (N) (g) (N) (Nm) (Nm) (%)
1 160 1.569 210 2.060 0.22 0.2 9.1

2 210 2.060 160 1.569 0.1952 0.15 23.16

3 200 1.962 350 3.433 0.3464 0.3 13.39

CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1

Calculate theory bending stress from SFD cut section

moment at cut section, x = Value from SFD × distance

x = 1.5738 × 0.14
x = 0.22 Nm

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Calculate for percentage between theoretical and experimental

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
Percentage = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
0.22 − 0.2
= × 100
0.22
= 9.1%

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CONCLUSION

Therefore, we reach to the conclusion that the experiment above was conducted fairly and
with maximum accuracy as possible. It is true that errors cannot be avoided so, we take several
ways to reduce the error are by repeating the experiment for three times or more and then taking
the average readings by being extra cautious during the experiment, by asking more than one
person to record the readings and carry out the experiment. The aim is to reduce the error as
much as possible to obtain accuracy in work. The reasons are that students were performing the
experiments and not professionals so mistakes were made. Obviously, the tests were carried out
in a rush since there were many groups waiting to perform it.

REFERENCES

Arni Rahida binti Abd Rafal, Siti Zawiyah binti Husain, Jusmine Valerie (Jun 2001). Mechanics
of Structure: Civil Engineering Department,
Politeknik Melaka.

David Roylance (1993). Mechanics of Material. By John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

R.C. Hibbler (2018). Mechanic of Materials ,Tenth Edition in SI Units

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