HARDNESS

Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium and, to a lesser extent, magnesium. It is

usually expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium carbonate.
Depending on pH and alkalinity, hardness above about 200 mg/l can result in scale
deposition, particularly on heating. Soft waters with a hardness of less than about 100
mg/l have a low buffering capacity and may be more corrosive to water pipes.

Reason for not establishing a
guideline value
Additional comments
Assessment date
Principal references
Occurs in drinking-water at concentrations well below those at which toxic
effects may occur
May affect acceptability of drinking-water
The risk assessment was originally conducted in 1993 and reconfirmed at the
Final Task Force Meeting in 2003. The background document was updated in
2009 to provide additional guidance on the beneficial effects of calcium and
magnesium in water.
WHO (2009) Hardness in drinking-water.

A number of ecological and analytical epidemiological studies have shown a

statistically significant inverse relationship between hardness of drinking-water and
cardiovascular disease. There is some indication that very soft waters may have an
adverse effect on mineral balance, but detailed studies were not available for evaluation.
A WHO committee has explored the hypothesis of a reduced risk of certain
cardiovascular diseases associated with consumption of hard water. It concluded that any
beneficial cardiovascular-related mortality effect is more likely caused by magnesium
rather than calcium or hard water per se. Additional well-designed epidemiological
studies are recommended to examine the hypothesis.
No health-based guideline value is proposed for hardness. However, the degree of
hardness in water may affect its acceptability to the consumer in terms of taste and scale
deposition (see chapter 10).