energies

Article
Study and Analysis of an Intelligent Microgrid
Energy Management Solution with Distributed
Energy Sources
Swaminathan Ganesan 1 ID , Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 2, * ID
, Ramesh Varadarajan 1 ID
,
Umashankar Subramaniam 1 and Lucian Mihet-Popa 3 ID
1 School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT) University, Vellore, Tamilnadu 632014,
India; gswami@yahoo.co.in (S.G.); vramesh@vit.ac.in (R.V.); umashankar.s@vit.ac.in (U.S.)
2 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park,
Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
3 Faculty of Engineering, Østfold University College, Kobberslagerstredet 5, 1671 Kråkeroy-Fredrikstad,
Norway; lucian.mihet@hiof.no
* Correspondence: sanjeevi_12@yahoo.co.in; Tel.: +27-79-219-9845

Received: 11 July 2017; Accepted: 12 September 2017; Published: 16 September 2017

Abstract: In this paper, a robust energy management solution which will facilitate the optimum
and economic control of energy flows throughout a microgrid network is proposed. The increased
penetration of renewable energy sources is highly intermittent in nature; the proposed solution
demonstrates highly efficient energy management. This study enables precise management of power
flows by forecasting of renewable energy generation, estimating the availability of energy at storage
batteries, and invoking the appropriate mode of operation, based on the load demand to achieve
efficient and economic operation. The predefined mode of operation is derived out of an expert rule
set and schedules the load and distributed energy sources along with utility grid.

Keywords: energy management system; microgrid; distributed energy sources; energy storage
system

1. Introduction
The traditional bulk power generation, transmission and distribution system is facing a lot
of technological challenges to fulfil the growing demand and increased penetration of distributed
energy resources. The existing infrastructures are also outdated, which hinders the integration of
newer technology for capacity enhancement and sophisticated monitoring and control. Hence the
need has arisen for distributed generation which can co-exist with existing bulk power networks [1].
In recent years, there has been significant growth in renewable energy generation through wind
and solar resources. A microgrid is a miniature version of the bulk power system with distributed
energy resources capable of serving as an independent electrical island separated from the bulk
power system [2]. Microgrids employ environmentally benign energy sources like solar, wind, and
fuel cells [3]. The higher the penetration of sustainable energy sources the more the socio-economic
benefits will be. The recent advances in control and communication technology facilitate robust and
intelligent control of microgrids [3–5]. In emerging economies, to encourage independent sustainable
energy generation, there is a strong regulatory framework which in turn will constitute the microgrid
building blocks.
The Figure 1 depicts the microgrid architecture under consideration for an energy management
system (EMS). The proposed microgrid system comprises sources like the utility grid, a diesel generator,
photovoltaic (PV) generator, and a battery energy storage system (BESS) [3,6]. The loads are classified

Energies 2017, 10, 1419; doi:10.3390/en10091419 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1419 2 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 2 of 21

uninterruptible
into power supply
secure and non-secure loads(UPS),
[7]. while the rest
All secure of the
loads are loads are supplied
supplied directly either from
from an uninterruptible power the
utility grid
supply (UPS),or while
from distributed
the rest of theenergyloadssources (DES) [8,9].
are supplied All the
directly sources
either from and loads are
the utility gridconnected
or from
through appropriate
distributed energy sourcescircuit(DES)
breakers.
[8,9]. The current
All the andand
sources voltage
loadsfeedback signals
are connected from the
through loads and
appropriate
local feeder
circuit lines
breakers. arecurrent
The fed to and
the EMS
voltage controller.
feedbackThe control
signals fromsignals to circuit
the loads and localbreakers
feederare sent
lines arefrom
fed
the
to theEMSEMScontroller.
controller.The Theinput
controland output
signals data ofbreakers
to circuit the EMSare is shown
sent fromin the
Figure
EMS2.controller.
Figure 3 depicts
The input the
typical
and outputdatadata
flowofbetween
the EMSsources,
is shown load
in and
Figurecontroller.
2. Figure The main controller
3 depicts the typical receives active
data flow power,
between
reactive load
sources, power,andvoltage, andThe
controller. current
maindata from the
controller local/embedded
receives active power, controller
reactivefrom the voltage,
power, DES. Table and1
lists thedata
current specification of loads and sources
from the local/embedded used infrom
controller this the
analysis. The cost
DES. Table of energy
1 lists data fromof
the specification the grid
loads
is fed
and from the
sources used utility side.
in this The cost
analysis. Theofcost
energy for local
of energy datageneration
from the using
grid isDES withinthe
fed from theutility
microgrid
side.
are cost
The fed manually
of energyinto the EMS
for local for decision-making
generation using DES within purposes to achieveare
the microgrid economic operation.
fed manually The
into the
user for
EMS interface of the EMSpurposes
decision-making will allow tousers to manually
achieve economic enter the specific
operation. The user parameters based
interface of on which
the EMS will
the power
allow usersflow decisions
to manually to bethe
enter made. Theparameters
specific central database
based which
on whichstores
thehistorical
power flow load demand,toand
decisions be
the actual
made. forecastdatabase
The central data will be processed
which in the load
stores historical EMSdemand,
for effective
and theload management
actual andwill
forecast data powerbe
delivery. in the EMS for effective load management and power delivery.
processed

GRID
MV

1,5MVA
Dyn11
6%
LV (230V/400V)
50Hz

10 kVA 25 kVA

GEN
BAT
15KVa

MCCB0
MCCB MCCB Battery Inverter
I+- Vf Grid Inverter DG

I+ I- Vf I+ Vf

EMS - Charging
Grid-sell
Controller
MCCB1 I+ Vf DC/AC

CT1
I+ Vf

MCCB7 MCCB6
CT2 CT3 CT4 CT5

CT7 CT6 MCCB2 MCCB3 MCCB4 MCCB5

15 kVA
Main LV 400V 50Hz MCCB15

UPS On-Line brick

MCCB16 MCCB17 MCCB18

AC/DC I- Vf

CT12 CT13 CT14

BAT

4 wires

DC/AC
I+ Vf
I- Vf I- Vf I- Vf

MCCB8

MCCB9 MCCB10 MCCB11

CT10 CT11

MCCB12 MCCB13 MCCB14

CT7 CT8 CT9

Control Commands & Feedback signals

I- Vf

Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Motor

NC-A NC-B CL-A CL-B Load
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Cooling
SCL-A SCL-B SCL-C SCL-D System
Non secure Critical Non secure
Non secure Non critical Lighting Non critical
Secure Secure Secure Lighting
Critical Critical Critical Motor Load
lighting lighting Motor
(unbalance)

Figure1.1.Microgrid
Figure Microgridschematic
schematicdiagram.
diagram.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 3 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 3 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 3 of 21

Figure 2.
2. EMS
EMS controller Input
Input and Output
Output data.
Figure
Figure 2. EMScontroller
controller Inputand
and Output data.

Load1 Load2 Load3 Load4

Load1 Load2 Load3 Load4

Diesel Diesel Energy

Energy On/Off, setset
Grid Tie
Grid Tie On/Off, Local
Gen Gen Inverter
Storage
Storage
commands Local
Inverter System commands Circuit Utility
Utility
System Control
Control Circuit
Breaker
Breaker

Droop
Droop control
control Micro
Micro Grid
Grid
commands
commands SS open/Close
SS open/Close
P,Q,
P,Q, V V& &I, I,and
and command
Serve/Shed, command
Serve/Shed,
Adjustload
Adjust load
LocalLocal commands
Control commands
Control

Set points, start/stop, commands V, I, Cost of Energy

Set points, start/stop, commands Centralized Control V, I, Cost of Energy
Centralized Control
Center
Center

Figure 3. EMS controller data flow between controller, load and sources.
Figure 3. EMS controller data flow between controller, load andand sources.
sources.
Table 1. System specification considered for analysis.
1. System specification considered
Table 1. considered for
for analysis.
analysis.
Serial No. Type of Source/Load Specification
Serial No.
1 No. Type
TotalofNetwork
Source/Load
capacity Specification
100 kVA, 400 V,Specification
3 PH, TT grounding system
Serial Type of Source/Load
1 2 Total Network capacity
PV Generator 100 kVA, 400 V, 3 PH, 25 kWTT grounding system
1 Total Network capacity 100 kVA, 400 V, 3 PH, TT grounding system
2 3 PV Generator
Diesel Generator 25 kW
50 kW
2 PV Generator 25 kW
3 4 Diesel Generator
BESS 25 kW, 50 50
kWkWh
4 5 3 Diesel
BESS
UPSGenerator 15 25 50 400
kW,
kVA, kW50V,kWh3 PH
5 64 UPSBESS
Managed Loads 400 kVA, Air conditioner, 15 25 kW, 400
Heater,
kVA, 50&kWhStandard
V, 3 PH 16 A Loads, 10 kVA
6 5 Managed LoadsUPS 400PH 1-N Air
kVA, 230 conditioner,
V, Lighting: 13 kVA,
Heater,
15 kVA, 400 PF 0.7
PH& Loads:
& 3Standard
V, 12Loads,
16 A kVA, PF100.8
kVA
76 Priority unmanaged loads
Managed Loads(Single phase) PHPH 2-N
4001-N
kVA, 230
230Air V, Lighting:
V,conditioner,
Lighting: 13 8 kVA,
kVA,&PF
Heater, PF 0.55 & Loads:
0.7 & Loads:
Standard 7 kVA,
12 kVA,
16 A Loads, PF 0.60.8
PF
10 kVA
7 Priority unmanaged loads (Single phase) PH
PH 3-N 230 V, Lighting: 168 kVA, PF 0.8 && Loads: 3.57kVA, PF
PF0.67
PH2-N
1-N230
230V,V, Lighting:
Lighting: 13 kVA,
kVA, PF PF0.70.55 Loads:
& Loads: 12 kVA,kVA,
PF 0.8 0.6
87 Priority unmanaged loads (Three phase)
Priority unmanaged loads (Single phase) PH PH 3-N2-N 400
230 V,V,V,
230
3Lighting:
PH + N:16
Lighting: 20kVA,
kVA,
8 kVA,
PF
PF
PF
0.85
0.8
0.55
(Motor
Loads:7Loads)
&&Loads: 3.5 kVA,
kVA, PF 0.67
PF 0.6
8 9 Critical
Priority unmanaged
unmanaged loads
loads (Three
(Three phase)
phase) PH400 V,
3-N400
2303 V,
PH 3+PH N: +6.45
V, Lighting: N:16kVA,
20kVA,
kVA,PF
PF0.85 &(Miscellaneous
0.8 0.85
PF Loads: 3.5 kVA,
(Motor Loads)
Loads)PF 0.67
9 8 Critical unmanaged
Priority loadsloads
unmanaged (Three phase)
(Three phase) 400 V, 400
3 PH V, 3+ PH
N: 6.45
+ N: kVA,
20 kVA, PFPF0.85
0.85(Miscellaneous
(Motor Loads) Loads)
The
9 communication network
Critical unmanaged will carry
loads (Three phase) the control
400 V, 3and
PH +feedback
N: 6.45 kVA,signals over the network.
PF 0.85 (Miscellaneous Loads) This
will facilitate having proper co-ordination and control among the loads,
The communication network will carry the control and feedback signals over the network. sources and utility. All the
This
willmeasured
facilitate critical
having parameters
proper of the respective
co-ordination and devices among
control connected the toloads,
the network
The communication network will carry the control and feedback signals over the network. sources will
and beutility.
transmitted
All the
to the
measured central/local
critical having controller
parameters over the
of co-ordinationspecified
the respectiveand communication
devices connected protocol
to loads, for
the network processing and take
This will facilitate proper control among the sourceswillandbe transmitted
utility. All the
appropriate decisions and actions based on the control algorithm. The parameters to be measured
to the
measuredcentral/local
critical controller
parameters over
of the the specified
respective communication
devices connected protocol
to the for
network processing
will be and take
transmitted
are defined in the EMS data flow diagram in Figure 2. The Modbus RTU protocol has been deployed
appropriate
to the decisions
central/local and actions based on the control algorithm.protocol
The parameters to be measured
to acquire the datacontroller
from variousover the specified
sources and loads. communication
The EMS controller forweather
gets the processing andand
forecast take
are defined
appropriate in the EMS
decisions data flow diagram in Figure 2. The Modbus RTU protocol has been deployed
cost of energy fromand theactions
utility based
and then on the controlthe
computes algorithm. The parameters
energy forecast based ontothe be historical
measured
to acquire the data from various sources and loads. The EMS controller gets the weather forecast and
cost of energy from the utility and then computes the energy forecast based on the historical
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 4 of 21

are defined in the EMS data flow diagram in Figure 2. The Modbus RTU protocol has been deployed
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 4 of 21
to acquire the data from various sources and loads. The EMS controller gets the weather forecast
and cost of energy
consumption from The
patterns. the utility
forecastandofthen computes
renewable the energy
energy forecast
generation based on the
is estimated by historical
the EMS
consumption patterns. The forecast of renewable energy generation is estimated
controller using the weather data input. The decisions for controlling loads and DES are sent to the by the EMS controller
using the weather
respective devicesdata input.
through The or
RS485 decisions for controlling
the TCP/IP protocol based loadsonand theDES are compatibility.
device sent to the respective
Table 2
devices through
lists various RS485 or the
parameters thatTCP/IP protocol
are acquired based
from theon the device
sources and compatibility.
loads connected Tablein 2the
lists various
microgrid
parameters
system to EMS that are acquired
controller andfromthethe sources and
respective loads
output connectedFigure
command. in the 3microgrid
presents system
the singleto EMS
line
controller and the
representation of respective
the data flow output
fromcommand. Figure 3devices
all the connected presentsinthe
thesingle line representation
microgrid network to theofEMS the
data flow from all the connected devices in the microgrid network to
controller. Figure 4 presents the communication architecture used in the microgrid system. The the EMS controller. Figure 4
presents the communication architecture used in the microgrid system. The communication
communication is divided into three parts: (i) device level; (ii) unit level and (iii) system level. Device is divided
into
levelthree parts: (i) device
communication level; to
is point (ii)point
unit level
dataand (iii) system
transfer, level.communication
unit level Device level communication
is controller is to
point to point data transfer, unit level communication is controller to controller
controller data exchange, and system level communication is like unit level, but over a long distance data exchange, and
system
and bulk level communication
data exchange betweenis like unit level, but
microgrid over a long
networks. distance
For systemand bulk
level data exchange between
communication, the IEC
microgrid
61850 protocolnetworks. For system
has been level communication,
considered, whereby the IEC the61850
IEC 61850 protocol
9-2 process hasprotocol
bus been considered,
facilitates
whereby
Generic the IEC Oriented
Object 61850 9-2 System
process Event
bus protocol
(GOOSE) facilitates
messages Generic Objectexchange
for data OrientedwithSystem theEvent
EMS
(GOOSE)
controller.messages
For device for data
level,exchange
since it with the EMS
is shorter controller.
distance For device
the RS485 Modbuslevel,protocol
since it ishas shorter
been
distance
considered. the Modbus
RS485 Modbus
TCP hasprotocol has been for
been considered considered.
unit level Modbus TCP hasFurther,
communication. been considered
this proposed for
unit level communication. Further, this proposed communication architecture
communication architecture has a provision to be expanded for ZigBee and Wi-Fi protocols as per has a provision to be
expanded for ZigBee and Wi-Fi protocols as per IEEE 802.15.4.
IEEE 802.15.4.

Modbus (RS485)

Modbus/Ethernet (LAN)
Utility Gate Way
Ethernet (WAN)

Ethernet (WAN)

Modbus/Ethernet (LAN)

Localized control system Localized control system

Controller Local DSP
Controller

Local Local Local

Local DSP DSP
DSP DSP
Controller Controller Controlle
Controller Energy
Controller Controll Diesel
r Storage
er Gen System

Energy
Energy Grid Tie Diesel
Grid Tie Storage
Storage Diesel Critical Normal Secure Inverter Gen
Inverter System
System Gen
Critical Normal Secure

Figure 4.
Figure 4. EMS
EMS controller
controller data
data flow
flow between
between controller,
controller,load
loadand
andsources.
sources.

Table2.2.List
Table Listof
ofparameters
parameters acquired
acquired from
from loads
loads and
and sources
sources to
toEMS
EMScontroller
controller and
andcorresponding
corresponding
output control from EMS.
output control from EMS.
Serial No. Type Description Acquired Data to EMS Control Command from EMS
Serial No. Type Description Acquired Data to EMS Control Command from EMS
1 Source PV Generator P, Q, I, V, F P, Q
1 Source PV Generator P, Q, I, V, F P, Q
2 Source BESS V, I, SOC Charge/Discharge
2 Source BESS V, I, SOC Charge/Discharge
33 Source
Source DGDG P, Q,P,I,Q,VI,and
V and Fuel
Fuellevel
level P,QQ
P,
44 Load
Load Cooling
Cooling T, C,T,Occupancy
C, Occupancy On/Off
On/Off
55 Load
Load Lighting
Lighting L, Occupancy
L, Occupancy On/Off
On/Off
6 Load Pump Water level On/Off
6 Load Pump Water level On/Off

Presently
Presently there
there are
are many
many microgrid
microgrid architectures
architectures under
under research,
research, and
and the
the focus
focus isis
predominantly on developing energy management solutions through sophisticated
predominantly on developing energy management solutions through sophisticated artificial artificial
intelligence
intelligencetechnologies
technologies[5]
[5]for
forachieving
achievingsuperior
superioreconomic benefits,
economic but
benefits, thethe
but same amount
same amountof of
focus is
focus
is not present in developing coordinated control of DER, grid and loads with centralized controllers
[10]. Having precise control at the individual device or source level and at the network controller
level will facilitate the faster response, seamless transition of load sharing between sources, and
more reliable operation of microgrids [4]. Keeping this in mind, the authors proposed a microgrid
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 5 of 21

not present in developing coordinated control of DER, grid and loads with centralized controllers [10].
Having precise control at the individual device or source level and at the network controller level
will facilitate the faster response, seamless transition of load sharing between sources, and more
reliable operation of microgrids [4]. Keeping this in mind, the authors proposed a microgrid energy
management system (EMS) to establish control at the device level and overall system level with
the help of state of art communication technology [11,12]. In load level control, the proposed EMS
enables precise management of power flows by forecasting renewable energy generation, estimating
the availability of energy at storage batteries, and invoking the appropriate mode of operation, based
on the load demand to achieve efficient and economic operation. The predefined mode of operation is
derived out of an expert rule set and schedules the load and distributed energy sources along with
the utility grid. In system level control, the focus is mainly on system stability and power sharing.
The proposed new controller ensures the stability of the system during transition modes and steady
state operating conditions which are validated with different load and source dynamics within the
microgrid system. The connection and disconnection of PV generator from the grid in islanded mode
and corresponding power sharing of diesel generator (DG) and battery energy storage system (BESS)
are recorded and validated for conformance to the intended operation to ensure optimum power flow
from different sources to loads.

2. Load Management

2.1. Classification of Loads

The connected loads in the microgrid are classified into multiple clusters to have efficient
load management. The major classification is in three clusters: (i) secured critical loads; (ii)
non-secured-critical loads and (iii) non-secured, non-critical loads [13]. Typically, all critical loads are
a non-shedable loads, which must be served at all the time irrespective of the source of generation
and cost of energy [14]. Loads that are classified as non-critical can be scheduled to achieve economic
operation. Under these two major classifications, there are subsets that are distinguished as forecastable
and non-forecastable loads [15]. This piece of information will help in realizing economic demand and
response management (DRM) [16].

2.2. Control of Air Conditioning Loads

The cooling system is one of the major and critical energy consuming loads in any premise.
Efficient management of this critical load is important to achieve economic operation. The control
algorithm of a cooling system is based on an analogy between the caloric behaviour and electro kinetics
and steady state operating conditions have been considered for modelling. The generation of cold
source is equivalent to the cold energy stored in the walls and in the atmospheric air, during this
process, there will be a loss of energy. The cooling production can be derived using Equation (1),
where Tout is the outdoor temperature, T(t) is the indoor temperature, C is the total thermal building
Capacity, Rth is the total thermal building resistance, φs is the building cooling production. In Equation
(3), τ = Rth C is the building time constant.

dT (t) 1
φs = C + ( T (t) − Tout) (1)
dt Rth

During load shedding operation, the cooling production is stopped: φs = 0.

dT (t)
Tout = Rth C + T (t) (2)
dt

T (t) = Tout + ( T0 − Tout) × e−t/τ (3)

Energies 2017, 10, 1419 6 of 21

Figure 5 shows the cycle diagram for cooling system load management, where based on the
occupancy and temperature sensor input the load will be operated as per the cycle diagram. During
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 6 of 21
time interval T1, the shedding command for the cooling system is activated, which will allow the room
temperature to rise, but this will be maintained so as to not to reach the discomfort zone. The entire
command will be withdrawn and temperature will start reducing till the cool set limit is reached. T4
cooling system
Energies 2017, 10,will
1419 remain shut off during the time interval T2, this is the maximum time 6interval of 21 for
time interval is minimum time duration required to restore the comfort temperature level. Equation
shedding affecting the comfort of occupants. During time interval T3, the shedding command will
(4) command
helps to willcalculate T2, while
be withdrawn and the production
temperature is stopped:
will start sthe
reducing till  cool
0 and Equation
set limit (5) T4
is reached. helps to
be withdrawn and temperature will start reducing till the cool set limit is reached. T4 time interval
time interval
calculate T4. The is main
minimum time duration
objective required toisrestore
of this algorithm the comfort
to determine thetemperature
time interval level. Equation
to attain Tcool after
is minimum time durationT2, required toproduction
restore the comfort temperature
s  level. Equation (4) tohelps to
(4) helps to
T2 duration, wherecalculate
temperaturewhileistheequal to Twarm. is Thestopped:
flow chart for0 the
and Equation
cooling (5) helps
system control based
calculate T2,
calculate while
T4. The the
mainproduction
objective is
of stopped:
this algorithm φs =
is 0
to and Equation
determine the (5)
time helps
intervalto calculate
to attain T T4. The
cool after
main
on the mode of operation and cost of energy is shown in Figure 6. When the grid is available (Is Grid
objective of this algorithm is to determine the time interval
T2 duration, where temperature is equal to Twarm. The flow chart for the cooling to attain T after T2 duration,
cool system control based where
ok = 1), then the controller will look for the cost of energy, and based on the user set point for high,
temperature
on the mode is ofequal to Twarm
operation and .cost
Theofflow
energy chart for the
is shown cooling
in Figure 6. system
When the control
grid is based
availableon(Isthe mode of
Grid
low and medium cost values through the user interface, the controller will activate the respective
ok = 1),and
operation thencost
the controller
of energywill look for
is shown inthe cost of
Figure 6. energy,
When the andgrid
based on the user(IssetGrid
is available pointokfor= high,
1), then the
modelowofandoperation.
medium costthe
values
controller will look for cost through
of energy,theand
userbased
interface, the user
on the controller will activate
set point for high, the respective
low and medium
mode of operation.
cost values through the user interface, the controller will activate the respective mode of operation.
T°
T°
T°Warm
T°Warm

T°Cool
T°Cool

T1
T1 T2T2 T3 T3 T4 T4
t t

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Cooling
Coolingload
loadmanagement
managementcycle diagram.
cycle diagram.

Start
Start

True False
True Is Grid ok? False
Is>0Grid ok?
>0
Activate Super Economy
mode with moderate
Activate
comfort set Super
points Economy
mode with moderate
comfort set points
Low High
Real time Pricing

Low High
Real time Pricing
Moderate

Load Economic Load Economic

Load Normal Moderate operation algorithm –
operation algorithm
operation algorithm – – Serve all rooms/ optimize HVAC to all
Serve all rooms/ Loadbased
areas Economic
on Load rooms/
non-critical Economic
LoadinNormal
areas the network critality
operation algorithm areas algorithm –
operation
operation algorithm – – Serve all rooms/ optimize HVAC to all
Serve all rooms/ areas based on non-critical rooms/
areas in the network critality areas

Cooling Control
System

Cooling Control
Figure 6. Cooling system control flow chart.
System

dT (t ) 1
Figure Cooling
Figure 6.
6. 
Cooling system )  Tout
control
(T (tcontrol
system flow chart.
flow (chart.
t )) (4)
dt RthC

dT (t ) 1
 (T (t )  Tout (t )) (4)
dt RthC
 Energies 2017, 10, 1419 7 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 1419 7 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 1419 dT (t) 1 7 of 21
=− ( T (t) − Tout(t)) (4)
dT (t ) 
dt R
1th C
dT (t )
s
 1 (T (t )  Tout (t )) (5)
dt dT ( ) sφs
tC Rth C1 (T (t )  Tout (t )) (5)
dt C −Rth C( T (t) − Tout(t))
= (5)
dt C Rth C
Figure 7 shows the typical cooling load control during time interval T2, where the load will be
Figure77shows
Figure showsthethetypical
typicalcooling
coolingload load control during time interval T2, where
thethe load
willwill be
in off condition. Here the Tcool limit is set to 25control
°C, Twarmduring
limit time
is setinterval
to 30 °C, T2, where
Total thermalload be in
resistance
in condition.
off condition. Here
thethe Tcool limit is set ◦
to 25C,°C, Twarmlimit
limitisisset
settoto30 ◦
30 °C,Total
Totalthermal
thermalresistance
resistance
Rthoff
= 0.00018 K/W, Here
buildingTcool
time limit is set
constant τto=25
30, withTwarm
these parameters, theC,
experimental results are
RRthth == 0.00018
0.00018 K/W,
K/W, building time constant
constant ττ = 30, with these parameters,
parameters, the the experimental
experimentalresults
resultsare
are
confirmed to be 38 min of T2, which means the cooling load was in off state with the occupancy of
confirmed
confirmed to be 38 min of T2, which means the cooling load was in off state with the occupancy of
two people. to be 38 min of T2, which means the cooling load was in off state with the occupancy of
twopeople.
two people.

Temperature
Temperature
35.
Outdoor T°
35. OutdoorT°
T°
30. Discomfort
30. Discomfort T°
25. Initial T°
25. Initial T°
20.
20.
15.
15. T2
10. T2
10.
5.
5.
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 Time
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 Time
Figure 7. Typical
Figure cooling
7. Typical load
cooling offoff
load cycle during
cycle T2T2
during time tilltill
time discomfort level.
discomfort level.
Figure 7. Typical cooling load off cycle during T2 time till discomfort level.
2.3. Control of Lighting
2.3. Loads
2.3.Control
ControlofofLighting
LightingLoads
Loads
Figure
Figure 8 shows the lighting system controller. And thethe Figure 9 shows the control flow chart for
Figure88shows
showsthe thelighting
lightingsystem
systemcontroller.
controller.And And theFigure Figure99shows
showsthe thecontrol
controlflow flowchart
chartfor for
lighting
lightingload
loadcontrol.
control.TheThelighting
lightingloadloadcontrol
control algorithm
algorithm is based
is basedon the
on input
the from
input froma photo
a photosensor,
sensor,
lighting load control. The lighting load control algorithm is based on the input from a photo sensor,
occupancy
occupancy sensor and the energy tariff. The EMS also has thethe provision to to override thethe control byby
occupancysensorsensorand andthetheenergy
energytariff.
tariff. The
The EMSEMS alsoalso has
has theprovision
provision tooverride
override thecontrolcontrol by
selecting
selectingmanual mode of of
operation. If daylight is partially available, then dim control mode will bebe
selecting manual mode of operation. If daylight is partially available, then dim control modewill
manual mode operation. If daylight is partially available, then dim control mode will be
invoked
invoked to reduce the energy consumption. If occupancy is not sensed, then all the lighting loads
invokedto toreduce
reducethe theenergy
energyconsumption.
consumption. IfIf occupancy
occupancy isis not notsensed,
sensed, thenthenallallthe
thelighting
lightingloadsloads
will be turned
will off. The lighting controller is designed using the natural light availability from thethe
willbebeturned
turnedoff.off. The
Thelighting
lighting controller
controller isisdesigned
designedusing usingthe thenatural
naturallightlightavailability
availabilityfrom from the
photo
photo sensor. The optimum required illumination is derived for thethe total area of surface using thethe
photosensor.
sensor.TheTheoptimum
optimum required
requiredillumination
illumination isis derived
derived for for the total
totalarea
areaof ofsurface
surfaceusingusing the
standard
standard lumen method. The availability of natural light is derived from Equation (6). The lighting
standardlumenlumenmethod.
method.The Theavailability
availabilityof ofnatural
naturallight
lightisisderived
derivedfromfromEquation
Equation(6). (6).TheThelighting
lighting
controller
controller actuator command for illuminating
illuminatingartificialartificial light is calculatedfrom from the difference
controlleractuator
actuator command
command for for illuminating light
artificial islight
calculated
is calculated thefrom
difference between
the difference
between
the
the required
required
illumination and natural light availability.
between theillumination and natural
required illumination and light availability.
natural light availability.

e( k )
r (k ) e(k )G
r (k ) e
Ge Zout
+ Kp,Ki u(k ) + +- 1 u (k ) Zout y (k )
+- - 1 Kp,Ki Gu u(k ) z - 1 u (k ) y (k )
z G z
z 1 e(k ) eGe Gu
e ( k  1)
e(k ) u(k  1)
-
e ( k  1)
- u(k  1)
+
+
Figure 8. Lighting system controller.
Figure8.8.Lighting
Figure Lightingsystem
systemcontroller.
controller.
 Energies 2017, 10, 1419 8 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 8 of 21

Start

False Override True

>0

False True
Ocupancy
>0 Activate
Manual
Control mode
Switch off the Lighting
power

Low High
Real time Pricing

Moderate

Load Normal operation

Load Economic Load Economic
algorithm – Serve all
operation algorithm – operation algorithm –
timed/cyclic loads +
Serve all critical and Switch all shedable
Critical/non shedable
non shedable loads loads
loads

Photo Sensor No
Day Light
>0

Yes

Activate
Activate Dim Normal
control control

Figure 9. 9.
Figure Lighting
Lighting load control
load control flow
flow chart.
chart.

Evv
AAwwτE
Lxinin =
Lx (6) (6)
A
in  ρ))
Ain ((11−
where Aw is surface area of window in square meter, τ is the light transmittance of the window, Ev is
where Athew isluminance
surface area of window
available in square
on the window in lux,meter, τ is
Ain is the theindoor
total light area
transmittance
of surfaces inof the window,
square meter, Εv is
the luminance
and ρ isavailable on the window
the mean reflectance in lux, Aarea
of the weighted in is of
thealltotal
indoorindoor areaFor
surfaces. ofdesign
surfaces in square
purpose, the meter,
following parameters have been considered in the analysis: building with a
and ρ is the mean reflectance of the weighted area of all indoor surfaces. For design purpose, the south-facing glass window
of area (2.75 m2 ), and total room area of 48 m2 , volume 138 m3 with reasonable thermal inertia, good
following parameters have been considered in the analysis: building with a south-facing glass
light transmittance of the window glazing with τ = 0.817, the reflectance of all room inner surfaces
windowconsidered
of area (2.75
as ρ =m0.4.), Total
2 and electric
total room area
lights of of 480–1000
13 lamps, m2, volume 138
lux, 950 W m3and
total, with reasonable
a shading beam. thermal
inertia, good light transmittance
The controller’s of theforwindow
reference set point glazing with
indoor Illuminance τ = 0.817,
= {500–800} the reflectance
lux. With these values of
theall room
inner surfaces
controllerconsidered
was validatedas ρ to =maintain
0.4. Total electric lights
the luminous of to
intensity 13the
lamps, 0–1000
preferred lux,based
set value 950 W on total,
the and a
other input parameters. Figure 10 shows the integration of lighting load control
shading beam. The controller’s reference set point for indoor Illuminance = {500–800} lux. With these system into the EMS.
If the user decides to disable automatic lighting control through EMS, override option can be used.
values the controller was validated to maintain the luminous intensity to the preferred set value
based on the other input parameters. Figure 10 shows the integration of lighting load control system
into the EMS. If the user decides to disable automatic lighting control through EMS, override option
can be used.
 Energies 2017, 10, 1419 9 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 9 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 9 of 21
SCL-A SCL-B CL-A CL-n
SCL-A SCL-B CL-A CL-n

Ocupancy
Ocupancy

Dim/Bright control,
Dim/Bright On/Off
control, On/Off
UtilityUtility
CB
CB

Micro
Micro Grid
Grid

V, I, Override input CB Control

V, I, Override input CB Control
command
command

Controller (Lighting)
Controller (Lighting)

Photo
sensor
Photo
EMS
sensor
EMS
Cost of Energy
Cost of Energy
Demand forecast

Demand forecast
Figure 10. Lighting load control integration with EMS.
Figure Lighting load
10.Lighting
Figure 10. loadcontrol
controlintegration with
integration EMS.
with EMS.
2.4. Control of Water Pump Loads
2.4. 2.4. Control
Control
Water
of Water
of Water
pumps
PumpLoads
Pump Loads
constitute a considerable amount of load in a microgrid system. Hence the
efficient
Water control
pumpsand scheduling
constitute of water pump
a considerable amount control
of load is in
critical for EMS.
a microgrid The level
system. Hence of the
water from
efficient
Water pumps constitute a considerable amount of load in a microgrid system. Hence the
the storage
control will be detected
and scheduling using
of water a water
pump levelissensor,
control critical and this input
for EMS. is compared
The level of waterwith
fromthe theset point
storage
efficient control and scheduling of water pump control is critical for EMS. The level of water from
of the
will be required level and
detected using the error
a water signal is
level sensor, andsupplied
this inputto PID controller,
is compared thethe
with output of this
set point controller
of the requiredis
the storage
fed toand
level
will
servo be
the motor
detected
and inis
error signal
using
turn a water
operates
supplied
level sensor,
thecontroller,
to PID gave valve and
the
this input
tooutput
increase of or
isdecrease
this
compared
controller
with
theiswater the
fed toflow
settopoint
servo
of the required
maintain
motor andtheinlevel
turnand
required the error
level
operates of signal
thewater.
gave is supplied
Normally
valve the set
to increase topoint
PID
or controller,
is derived
decrease the fromthe output
water the
flow toofmaintain
upper this controller
level sensor,
the is
fed required
to
andservo
there motor
willofbe
level and
water. in turninoperates
a provision
Normally the set
the user the isgave
interface
point tovalve
derived enter
from to
atheincrease
manual
uppervalue or decrease
level to supersede
sensor, and the water
the
there flow to
sensor
will be
maintain
ainput the required
limit.in
provision Figure level
11 shows
the user of
interface water. Normally
thetocontrol
enter asystem the
manualblock set point
valuediagram
to supersedeis derived
for thethepump from
sensor the upper
controller. level
TheFigure
input limit. input11 sensor,
to
andshows
there
the willcontrol
controller
the becomes
a provision
fromblock
system in EMS,
the the user
diagram interface
andforFigure 12 to
the pump enter
shows a manual
the
controller. flow
Thechart value
input to supersede
fortothe
the control
controller the sensor
algorithm
comes
input based
from the
limit.onEMS,
real time
Figure and pricing.
11Figure
shows12the shows the flow
control systemchartblock
for thediagram
control algorithm
for the pump based controller.
on real timeThe pricing.
input to
the controller comes from the EMS, and Figure 12 shows the flow chart for the control algorithm
based on real time pricing. Ps Kp

-
+ K t /( R FPBs ) + R
PID KK
v
p
Set point s ( T m s  1) ARs  1
- Motor
Gate valve - Water Storage
+ K t /( R F B ) + R
PID Kv
Set point Water
m s  1)
s (TLevel ARs  1
- Motor
Gate valve
Water Storage
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Water
Waterpump
pumpcontrol
controlsystem
systemblock
blockdiagram.
diagram.
Water Level

Figure 11. Water pump control system block diagram.

Energies 2017, 10, 1419 10 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 10 of 21

Start

False Override True

>0

High Low
Water level Activate
Manual
Control mode
Off command to Pump
controller

Low High
Real time Pricing

Moderate

Load super
Run command to Pump
Load Economic economic operation
controller until reaching
operation algorithm algorithm to just
level
meet the requirement

Pump
Controller

Figure 12. Water pump motor control flow chart.

Figure 12. Water pump motor control flow chart.

3.
3. Modes
Modes of
of Operation
Operation
The
The microgrid
microgrid operation
operation has
has been
been classified
classified into
into two
two major
major categories:
categories: On On grid
grid mode
mode and
and Off
Off
grid
grid mode. During On grid mode of operation, the entire system is powered by the utility grid as
mode. During On grid mode of operation, the entire system is powered by the utility grid as
well
well as
as sustainable
sustainableenergy
energysources.
sources.TheThesharing
sharingofof
loads
loadsbetween
between DES DESis controlled by the
is controlled EMSEMS
by the as per
as
the defined control algorithm. In Off grid mode of operation, the entire microgrid
per the defined control algorithm. In Off grid mode of operation, the entire microgrid will be inwill be in islanded
mode from
islanded the utility
mode grid,
from the all the
utility connected
grid, all the loads will be
connected served
loads willfrom the local
be served energy
from sources
the local and
energy
storage
sources and storage system connected in the network. In Transition mode, all the critical loads the
system connected in the network. In Transition mode, all the critical loads are served by are
UPS and this mode is a state in between On grid mode and Off grid mode [17].
served by the UPS and this mode is a state in between On grid mode and Off grid mode [17].
3.1. On Grid Mode of Operation
3.1. On Grid Mode of Operation
Table 3 shows the power flow control between DES and loads based on the cost of energy. The EMS
Table 3 shows the power flow control between DES and loads based on the cost of energy. The
is designed for three main tariff classifications. When the cost of energy is low and PV generation is
EMS is designed for three main tariff classifications. When the cost of energy is low and PV
available, then all the loads are shared between the utility grid and PV source, and any surplus power
generation is available, then all the loads are shared between the utility grid and PV source, and any
is used for charging the UPS and BESS based on their SOC [4,18]. When the cost of energy is medium,
surplus power is used for charging the UPS and BESS based on their SOC [4,18]. When the cost of
the available power from the PV source is completely utilized to serve the load and only for any power
energy is medium, the available power from the PV source is completely utilized to serve the load
requirement deficit, the utility grid is used partially. BESS will also share the loads from the stored
and only for any power requirement deficit, the utility grid is used partially. BESS will also share the
energy. During this tariff mode, no power is being used for charging UPS and BESS, assuming there
loads from the stored energy. During this tariff mode, no power is being used for charging UPS and
are no surplus power available from DES. When the cost of energy is high, the load demand is shared
BESS, assuming there are no surplus power available from DES. When the cost of energy is high, the
by the DES as a priority and then partially from the utility grid for the deficit. Since the cost of energy
load demand is shared by the DES as a priority and then partially from the utility grid for the deficit.
is high, non-critical loads will be removed from the network and will be scheduled to operate later
Since the cost of energy is high, non-critical loads will be removed from the network and will be
during off-peak time. Also, the critical loads will be operated at optimum power consumption mode
scheduled to operate later during off-peak time. Also, the critical loads will be operated at optimum
to reduce the energy bill, like the cooling system will be operated to exploit thermal inertia without
power consumption mode to reduce the energy bill, like the cooling system will be operated to
compromising comfort levels along with using natural cooling to the possible extent. During this
exploit thermal inertia without compromising comfort levels along with using natural cooling to the
mode, all forecastable loads will be served as the energy will be preserved in storage devices for the
possible extent. During this mode, all forecastable loads will be served as the energy will be
loads based on the demand pattern.
preserved in storage devices for the loads based on the demand pattern.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 11 of 21

Table 3. Power sharing between DES, Grid and Loads during On Grid mode of operation.

Battery Critical Non-Secure &

Cost of Grid State of UPS Non-Secure &
PV Storage DG Secure Non-Critical
Energy Power UPS SOC Critical Loads
(BESS) Loads Loads
Share load &
Low Full Online Charge Charge Off Grid Grid Grid
charge BESS
Share load &
Medium Partial Online Off Supply Off Grid Grid + BESS Grid + BESS
charge BESS
High Partial Share load only Online Off Supply Off UPS BESS Shed All loads

3.2. Off Grid Mode of Operation

During Off Grid mode of operation, the utility gird will be completely shut off from the microgrid
network, and only DES will be present. There are three different combinations of DES operation in
Off Grid mode [3,19]. Considering sufficient PV generation is available, during this time, UPS will
serve all secured critical loads and BESS will be charged to serve during intermittency periods. All
non-critical loads will be erased from the network as it will be scheduled during surplus power flow.
When the BESS is drained, then the DG will be turned on and during this period, PV and DG will
share the load. UPS will serve all the secured critical loads and simultaneously will charge its back
up. Non-critical loads will be curtailed as they will only be served partially due to higher cost of DG
power generation. Table 4 shows the power sharing among DES during Off Grid mode [20].

Table 4. Power sharing between DES, Grid and Loads during Off Grid mode of operation.

Battery Critical Non-Secure,

DES Grid State of UPS Non-Secure,
PV Storage DG Secure Non-Critical
Availability Power UPS SOC Critical Loads
(BESS) Loads Loads
Serve
Share load & Dis
PV Off Secure Charge Off UPS PV Shed all loads
charge BESS charge
load
Serve
PV and Dis
Off Share load Secure Supply Off UPS PV + BESS Curtail
BESS charge
load
Serve
Share load &
PV and DG Off Secure Charge Charge ON UPS PV + DG Curtail
charge BESS
load

Stability and Power Sharing

In Off Grid mode it is essential that all the connected DES synchronize properly and form a
grid. For grid tied inverters, a reference voltage source is required for pumping PV power into the
microgrid [21]. In the proposed network, the UPS will provide the reference voltage and help the PV
inverter to build power. Once the grid is formed, the stability of the grid is to be maintained by proper
control of voltage (V), frequency (F), active power (P) and reactive power (Q). The grid impedance will
be checked by PV inverters to sense the grid presence. The PV inverter’s active power (P) is controlled
as a function of frequency (F) to ensure sustained operation in islanded mode. Figure 13 shows the
graph for power versus frequency control to maintain the microgrid stability. When the microgrid
frequency reaches a Fstart (50.2 Hz) then the PV inverter starts to reduce the active power generation.
Further, if the microgrid frequency increases and reaches a maximum allowable limit Fstop (54 Hz),
then the PV inverter disconnects from the microgrid network. The slope will define the derating as %
power reduction with regards to change in frequency. The slope can be configured by the user through
the HMI.
E·V E·V
Pe = sin δ ∼
= δ (7)
X X

E−V = ∼ XQ (8)
E
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 12 of 21

XQ
Energies 2017, 10, 1419
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 EV  12 of
12 of 21
21
(8)
E
dE  V  XQ
dδ
=ω ) EωMG
(t()t − MG
(8) (9)
(9)
dtdt
d
  (t )  MG (9)
Prated dt
100%

Prated Power Gradient

100%

Power Power Gradient

Power

Frated Fstart Grid Fstop

Frequency
Frated Fstart Grid Fstop
(Hz)
Frequency
(Hz)
Figure13.
Figure 13.Power
Powergradient
gradient diagram
diagram for
for active
active power
power (P)
(P) versus
versus frequency
frequency (F)
(F) control
control function
function in
inthe
the
PV Figure 13. Power gradient diagram for active power (P) versus frequency (F) control function in the
inverter.
PV inverter.
PV inverter.
The generic power equation for a generator and corresponding output is given in Equation (7),
The generic
The generic power equation
power equationfor foraagenerator andcorresponding
generator and corresponding output
output is given
is given in Equation
in Equation (7), (7),
where Pe is electric power delivered to Load, E and V are generated voltage and terminal voltage at
where where
Pe isPelectric
e is electric power
power deliveredtotoLoad,
delivered Load, EE and
and V V are
aregenerated
generated voltage
voltage andand
terminal voltage
terminal at
voltage at
loadload
respectively.
respectively.
 is isthe the angular
angular displacement
displacement betweenE Eand
between and V. V.
From From Equation
Equation (8), (8),
it is it is
load respectively. δ is the angular displacement between E and V. From Equation (8), it is understood
understood
understood that, thethe reactive power (Q) controls thevoltage
voltage(V),
(V), when reactive power increases, the
that, the reactivethat, power (Q) reactive power
controls the(Q) controls
voltage the
(V), when reactive when
power reactive power
increases, increases,
the outputthe voltage
output voltage
output voltagedecreases.
decreases.Figure
Figure14 14shows
shows the relationbetween
the relation between frequency
frequency versus
versus active
active power power
and and
decreases. Figure 14 shows the relation between frequency versus active power and voltage versus
voltage versus
voltage reactive
versus power.
reactive power.
reactive power. 
Here,Here, is the is the angularvelocity
angular velocity ofof the
the generator
generator(DG (DGororPVPV generator
generator output), MG is theis the
output),
Here, ω is the angular velocity of the generator (DG or PV generator output), ω MG is theMGangular
angular
angular velocity
velocity of the
of the microgridatatthe
microgrid thepoint
point of
of common
common coupling
coupling (PCC)
(PCC)[22]. TheThe
[22]. microgrid output
microgrid output
velocity
power
of the
(P)
microgrid
is controlled
atbythe point ofthe
changing
common
frequency
coupling
of the PV
(PCC) [22].
inverter or
The
prime
microgrid
mover
output
input
power
to theto the
power
(P) isDG, (P) is
controlled controlled
by changingby changing
the power the
frequency frequency of the PV inverter or prime mover input
and similarly the reactive (Q) isof the PV inverter
controlled or prime
by changing mover
the output inputortoexcitation
voltage the DG, and
DG, and the
similarly similarly
reactive thepower
reactive(Q) power
is (Q) is controlled
controlled by changing bythe
changing
output the output
voltage or voltage orto
excitation excitation
the DG.
to the DG. In Off grid mode, the secondary control is vital to ensure the stability as the sources are
to the
In OffnotDG.
grid In Off grid mode, the secondary control is vital to ensure the stability as the sources are
stiffmode,
and will theeasily
secondary
fall out control is vital to ensure the stability as the sources are not stiff and
of sync [23]:
not stiff and will easily
will easily fall out of sync [23]: fall out of sync [23]:
f f−fof =−
kkp ((P
P− PPo)) (10) (10)
o p o
f  f  k (P  P )
V − V o= −k p(Q − Qo ) (10)
(11)
V  Voo  k Q
Q (Q  Q o )
o
(11)
V  Vo  k Q (Q  Qo ) (11)
V
f
V
f
f0 V0

f0 V0

P Q
P0 Q0

P andand Q
Figure 14.Figure 14.power
Active Active (P)
power (P) vs Frequency
vs Frequency (F) relation
(F) relation Reactive
Reactive power
power (Q)vs.
Q(Q) vs.Voltage
Voltage (V)
(V) relation
relation at PCC.
at PCC. P0 0

Figure
Table 514.lists
Table Active
thepower
5 lists the (P) vsand
voltage
voltage Frequency (F) relation
andfrequency
frequency trip and Reactive
limits
trip limits power (Q) vs. disconnection
andcorresponding
and corresponding Voltage (V) relation
disconnection
and and
at PCC.
reconnection
reconnection time for an Indian grid; these limits are critical for both on grid and Off grid mode ofmode
time for an Indian grid; these limits are critical for both on grid and Off grid
of operation [24]. When the line to neutral voltage limit falls below 195.5 V, then within two seconds
Table should
the system 5 listsdisconnect,
the voltage and frequency
similarly when the trip limits
line to neutraland corresponding
voltage goes abovedisconnection and
310 V, then within
2reconnection
s the systemtime shouldfor cease
an Indian grid; these
operation limits
to avoid anyare criticaltofor
damage theboth on gridequipment.
connected and Off gridThemode
sameof
conditions have been tested and validated for reliable operation and control.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 13 of 21

Table 5. Power sharing between DES, grid and loads during Off Gr.

Parameter Limit Value

Under voltage LV1 195.5
Tripped value (V) V
Under voltage LV1
≤2 s
Tripping Time (s)
Over voltage LV2 310.5
Tripped value (V) V
Over voltageLV2 ≤50
Voltage limits and disconnection time Tripping Time (s) ms
Under voltage LV2 195.5
Tripped value (V) V
Under voltage LV2 ≤100
Tripping Time (s) ms
Over voltage LV1
253 V
Tripped value (V)
Over voltage LV1
≤2 s
Tripping Time (s)
Under frequency LV1
49 Hz
Tripped value (Hz)
Under frequency LV1 ≤200
Tripping Time (s) ms
Grid frequency limits and disconnection time
Over frequency LV1
51 Hz
Tripped value (Hz)
Over frequency LV1 ≤200
Tripping Time (s) ms
20–300
Reconnection Time (s)
s

4. Simulation Results
The proposed microgrid network shown in Figure 1 has been modelled in MATLAB/Simulink
brick by brick and the simulation results are presented in Figures 15 and 16. In the simulation, all
the individual sources and loads are modelled using the Simulink libraries. The sources and loads
are integrated and simulated for the different operating scenarios. Figure 15 shows the simulation
results of On grid mode. From 0 to 0.6 s, only the utility grid and PV generation sources are supplying
the entire load and charging the storage units, at t = 0.6 s, the storage unit started sharing loads by
discharging its stored energy, hence reducing power drawn from the utility grid. Initially BESS charge
was 77 percentage of its full capacity and UPS was at 80 percentage of full charge. From 0 to 0.6 s, the
cost of energy from utility is low, at 0.6 s; the system goes to islanded mode of operation, hence the
utilization is optimized to ensure reliable operation. During this entire period, DG is in off condition,
and the results are captured for active and reactive power supply from all the sources.
Figure 16 shows the simulation results for change in mode of operation from Off grid to On grid
mode of operation. From 0 to 0.6 s, the system operates in islanded mode, at t = 0.6 s, the utility
grid is restored and the entire network is supported by PV and utility. In the absence of the utility
grid, the UPS will continue to provide the reference voltage to the PV inverter and that will ensure
continuity of PV generation. All the secure loads are served from the UPS and non-critical loads are
curtailed to preserve energy. DG is in off condition during this period. Initially the SOC of the BESS is
considered as 77 % and that of the UPS is 80 %. From time 0 to 0.6 s, the BESS discharges and load
consumption is optimized to serve all critical loads for a longer duration. The results are confirmed
to match the intended results and the transition from one mode to other mode is achieved smoothly
without disturbing the system stability and dynamics. Figure 17 shows the results for a change in
utility energy tariff, the moment the tariff increases, immediately the EMS controller changes the load
sharing pattern and Figure 18 presents the results for load sharing by DES.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 14 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 14 of 21

to match the intended results and the transition from one mode to other mode is achieved smoothly
to match the intended results and the transition from one mode to other mode is achieved smoothly
without disturbing the system stability and dynamics. Figure 17 shows the results for a change in
without disturbing the system stability and dynamics. Figure 17 shows the results for a change in
utility energy
Energies 2017, tariff, the moment the tariff increases, immediately the EMS controller changes
10, 1419 the
14 of 21
utility energy tariff, the moment the tariff increases, immediately the EMS controller changes the
load sharing pattern and Figure 18 presents the results for load sharing by DES.
load sharing pattern and Figure 18 presents the results for load sharing by DES.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Simulation
Simulation results
results in
in On
On Grid
Grid mode
mode during
during low
low cost of energy tariff.
Figure 15. Simulation results in On Grid mode during low cost
cost of
of energy
energy tariff.
tariff.

Figure 16. Simulation results in Off Grid mode with PV and BESS as source.
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Simulation
Simulation results
results in
in Off Grid mode
Off Grid mode with
with PV
PV and
and BESS
BESS as
as source.
source.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 15 of 21
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10, 1419
1419 15 of
15 of 21
21

Figure17.
Figure
Figure 17.Simulation
17. Simulationresults
Simulation resultsfor
results forpower
for powertransition
power transition in
transition inon
in ongrid
on gridmode
grid modeduring
mode duringutility
during utilitytariff
utility tariffchange
tariff changefrom
change from
from
lowto
low
low tohigh.
to high.
high.

Figure
Figure
Figure 18. Simulation
18. Simulation
18. Simulation results
results
results for load
for
for load load sharing
sharing
sharing by DES
by
by DES DES ingrid
in onin on grid
on grid mode
modemode during
during
during tariff
tarifftariff
changechange
change from
fromfrom low
low
low to high.
to high.
to high.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 16 of 21

Figures 17 and 18 present the response of various sources and the control action by the EMS for
the change in tariff for the cost of energy from low to high. Figure 17 shows the grid availability; it is
available throughout the simulation period. From 0 to 0.6 s the cost of energy is low and during this
period, the BESS stores energy and PV source and grid share the entire load and changes the storage
units connected in the network. At 0.6 s, the tariff changes and cost of energy becomes high, the change
in graph 1 to 3 represents per unit value, as the increase denotes the change is three times the cost
that was present till 0.6 s. Immediately the EMS controller activates economic mode of operation to
optimize the consumption and save cost of operation. The charging of BESS and UPS is stopped and
the load sharing is done by the BESS, PV and grid. This enables minimum consumption from the
utility and facilitates economic operation. However, the consumption from the PV source is unchanged.
Figure 18 shows the active and reactive power supplied by PV, BESS and utility grid for the change in
tariff condition at 0.6 s.

5. Experimental Results
To test and validate the proposed microgrid energy management system, an experimental
prototype microgrid setup has been developed comprising a PV generator (25 kW), BESS (10 kW),
UPS (8 kW) and utility grid [25]. The control of individual bricks is achieved by a TMS320F28335
programmable digital signal processor chip from Texas Instruments (Dallas, TX, USA). The overall
centralized controller was developed using a model M258LF42DT Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC, Modicon, Schneider Electric, Reuil-Malmaison, France). For communication between the
subsystems, a TSXETG100 (Schneider Electric, Reuil-Malmaison, France) serial to TCP/IP converter
communication module is used.
To set the parameters, a FDM 121 Human Machine Interface (HMI) has been used (Schneider
Electric, Reuil-Malmaison, France). The energy management control algorithm has been programmed
in the PLC. To emulate the load conditions, lamp load and resistive load banks were used. Figure 19
shows the experimental set up used for this analysis. Detailed testing has been done to validate the
performance of EMS under different load and source operating conditions. Figure 20 shows the active
power output from the PV generator in islanded mode of operation. In islanded mode of operation,
with the reduction in load, the network voltage will increase. To ensure stability of operation, the
active power to be derated for the increase in voltage, if the voltage increases to the cut-off limit, the
PV generator to be shut off. Figure 21 shows the control of active power as a function of grid frequency
in islanded mode of operation [26]. Under this condition, if the generated power from DES is more
than the load demand, the surplus power generated from PV source will be diverted to charge the
BESS. Immediately after the battery reaches full charge level, the BESS unit will increase the frequency
of its output. On detecting this increase in frequency, PV inverter active power to be curtailed as
a function of frequency to follow the predefined gradient. The PV generation will ramp up if the
BESS voltage level goes down. The results are in conformance to the design. Figure 22 presents the
oscilloscope waveform for under frequency fault condition in islanded mode of operation, at instance
‘a’ the frequency has been reduced to 48.9 Hz, immediately all the loads got shut down command
from EMS controller within 120 ms. Figure 23 shows a snapshot of the EMS control screen where the
user can activate and deactivate the sources, and loads and change the modes of operation and set the
operating parameters.
Energies 2017,
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Energies 2017,10,
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UPS
UPS BESS
BESS PVGenerator
PV Generator
UPS BESS PV Generator

Figure19.
19. Experimental
Experimental test set up with EMS controller andand
DESDES
withwith
loadload
banks.
Figure
Figure 19. Experimental testtest
setset
upup with
with EMS
EMS controller
controller and DES with load banks.
banks.
Figure 19. Experimental test set up with EMS controller and DES with load banks.

PowerVs
Power Vs Frequency
Frequency
6000 Power Vs Frequency
6000
in Watts

6000
5000
Active Power in Watts

5000
in Watts

5000
4000
4000
PowerPower

4000
3000
3000
2000
3000
ActiveActive

2000
1000
2000
1000 0
1000
50.1250.05
50.1350.12
50.1650.13
50.1850.16
50.18
50.18
50.28
50.34
50.3250.32
50.4350.43
50.4850.48
50.5850.58
50.5650.56
50.6550.65
50.7650.76
50.7550.75
50.8450.84
50.9550.95
51.03
51.05
51.15
51.25
51.2551.31
51.3151.38
51.3851.40
0
0
50.05

50.18
50.28
50.34

51.03
51.05
51.15

51.40
50.05
50.12
50.13
50.16
50.18
50.18
50.28
50.34
50.32
50.43
50.48
50.58
50.56
50.65
50.76
50.75
50.84
50.95
51.03
51.05
51.15
51.25
51.31
51.38
51.40
Frequency in Hz

Frequency in Hz
Frequency
Figure 20. Active power control for the variation in Hz in islanded mode.
in frequency

Figure 20. Active power

Active control
power forfor
control the variation in frequency in islanded mode.
Figure
Figure 20.
20. Active power control for the
the variation
variation in
in frequency
frequency in
in islanded
islanded mode.
mode.
PV Generator Output
30,000
25,000
PV
PVGenerator
GeneratorOutput
Output
Power in Watts

30,000
20,000
30,000
25,000
15,000
Power in Watts

25,000
Power in Watts

20,000
10,000
20,000
5,000
15,000
15,0000
10,000
10,000 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
5,000
5,000 Grid Voltage in Volts
0
0
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
180
Figure 21. Active190 200 with
power derating 210increase
220in grid
230
voltage240 250 260 270 280
Grid Voltage in Voltsin islanded mode of operation.
Grid Voltage in Volts

Figure 21. Active power derating with increase in grid voltage in islanded mode of operation.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Active
Active power
power derating with increase
derating with increase in
in grid
grid voltage
voltage in
in islanded
islanded mode
mode of
of operation.
operation.
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 18 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 18 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 18 of 21

Figure 22. Microgrid system disconnection during under frequency fault in Off-grid mode of
Figure 22.
Figure 22.Microgrid
Microgrid system
system disconnection
disconnection during
during underunder frequency
frequency fault in fault in mode
Off-grid Off-grid mode of
of operation.
operation.
operation.

Figure 23. EMS

EMS control
control screen
screen snapshot from HMI.
Figure
Figure 23.
23. EMS control screen snapshot
snapshot from
from HMI.
HMI.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this paper, a detailed study of a microgrid system has been carried out with the objective to
In
In this
this paper,
paper, aa detailed
detailed study
study ofof aa microgrid
microgrid system
system has
has been
been carried
carried out
out with
with the
the objective
objective to
to
formulate an efficient control algorithm to integrate, manage and control the various power
formulate an efficient control algorithm to integrate, manage and control
formulate an efficient control algorithm to integrate, manage and control the variousthe various power generation
power
generation sources like PV, DG, BESS, UPS and utility grid with the connected loads. The complexity
sources
generation likesources
PV, DG,like
BESS,
PV,UPS
DG, and
BESS,utility
UPS grid with the
and utility gridconnected loads. The loads.
with the connected complexity lies in the
The complexity
lies in the smooth transition of load sharing from the PV source to a BESS or the utility grid during
smooth transition of load sharing from the PV source to a BESS or the utility grid
lies in the smooth transition of load sharing from the PV source to a BESS or the utility grid during the clouding
during
the clouding effect on the PV source. Since the penetration of PV sources are on the rise, the
effect on the PV
the clouding source.
effect Since
on the PVthe penetration
source. of PV
Since the sources are
penetration ofonPVthe rise, the
sources areintermittency
on the rise, will
the
intermittency will pose a bigger concern to ensure the stability of microgrid operation during those
pose a bigger concern to ensure the stability of microgrid operation during those conditions
intermittency will pose a bigger concern to ensure the stability of microgrid operation during those [27–30].
conditions [27–30]. This problem was tackled by having coordinated control of PV generation and
This problem
conditions was tackled
[27–30]. by having
This problem wascoordinated controlcoordinated
tackled by having of PV generation
controlandof BESS management
PV generation and
BESS management for sharing of loads in the network. The authors have proposed a solution to
BESS management for sharing of loads in the network. The authors have proposed a solution to
effectively manage the DES and load to achieve stable operation and economic load dispatch in the
effectively manage the DES and load to achieve stable operation and economic load dispatch in the
Energies 2017, 10, 1419 19 of 21

for sharing of loads in the network. The authors have proposed a solution to effectively manage
the DES and load to achieve stable operation and economic load dispatch in the entire microgrid
network [15]. Faster communication topologies were deployed to achieve better response time for the
control commands at local as well as centralized controllers. This work can be enhanced by interlinking
multiple microgrid networks with a more complex source and load system. The load management and
control can be further improvised by using artificial intelligence and optimization techniques as future
work. A robust control methodology has been developed and demonstrated in a deterministic way to
operate the microgrid network in a sustainable mode. The proposed methodology largely depends on
the historical data of load consumption pattern, power generation forecast, and demand forecast.

Acknowledgments: There were no funding sources for the proposed investigation, research and its results decimation.
Author Contributions: All authors involved and contributed for the proposed research work, and articulated the
manuscript for its current decimation format.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

List of Acronyms
EMS Energy Management System
PV Photovoltaic
UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
DES Distributed Energy Sources
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
DER Distributed Energy Resources
DRM Demand and Response Management
SOC State of Charge
DG Diesel Generator
PCC Point of Common Coupling
ESS Energy Storage System
HMI Human Machine Interface
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
PLC Programmable Logic Controller

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