Chapter 4

Cell Structure
BIO 121
Instructor: Dr. Marisa Khoo
 What, exactly is a cell?
• Cells, the simplest collection of
matter that can live, were first
observed by Robert Hooke in
1665
• Antoni van Leeuwenhoek later
described cells that could move
• He viewed bacteria with his own
hand-crafted microscopes
What, exactly is a cell?
 Components of All Cells
• All cells have at least three components in
common:
– Plasma membrane
– Cytoplasm
– DNA
 Components of All Cells

cytoplasm cytoplasm

DNA in DNA in
DNA
nucleus nucleus
cytoplasm plasma
plasma membrane
membrane plasma
membrane

Bacteria Plant Cell Animal Cell

 Cell Size and Shape
• The surface area of a cell is important for carrying out
the cell’s functions, such as acquiring adequate
nutrients and oxygen
• A small cell has more surface area relative to its cell
volume and is more efficient
• The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins.
– Some proteins form channels (tunnels) that shield ions and
other hydrophilic molecules as they pass through the
hydrophobic center of the membrane.
– Other proteins serve as pumps, using energy to actively
transport molecules into or out of the cell.
 3 1

1
3

Total volume 27 units3 27 units3

Total surface
area 54 units2 162 units2
Surface-to- 2 6
volume ratio

Checkpoint question To convince yourself that a

small cell has a greater surface area relative to
volume than a large cell, compare the surface-to-
volume ratios of the large cube and one of the
small cubes.
Cell Size and Shape
Cell Size and Shape
 How do we see cells?
• A variety of microscopes have been developed for
a clearer view of cells and cellular structure
• The most frequently used microscope is the light
microscope (LM)—like the one used in biology
laboratories
• Light passes through a specimen then through glass
lenses into the viewer’s eye
• Specimens can be magnified up to 1,000 times the
actual size of the specimen
Enlarges image Eyepiece
formed by objective
Ocular
lens
lens

Magnifies specimen, Objective lens

forming primary
image Specimen

Condenser
lens
Focuses light
through specimen
Light
source

Figure: Light microscope (LM)

 How do we see cells?
• Microscopes have limitations
• Both the human eye and the microscope have
limits of resolution—the ability to distinguish
between small structures
• Therefore, the light microscope cannot provide
the details of a small cell’s structure
 How do we see cells?
• Biologists often use a very powerful microscope
called the electron microscope (EM) to view the
ultrastructure of cells
• It can resolve biological structures as small as 2
nanometers (nm) and can magnify up to 100,000
times
• Instead of light, the EM uses a beam of electrons
• In the 1800s, early studies of cells led to cell
theory, which states that
– all living things are composed of cells and
– all cells come from other cells.
Light micrograph of the unicellular organism Paramecium (LM)
Scanning electron micrograph of Paramecium (SEM)
Transmission electron micrograph of Toxoplasma (TEM)
 Cell membrane
• The plasma membrane’s function is not
limited to physically separating a cell’s
external environment from its internal one
• Other functions include regulating the
crossing of substances into and out of cells
• Fluid mosaic model
– Membrane is composed of phospholipids, sterols,
proteins, and other components
– Phospholipids drift within the bilayer
 Phospholipids

• Consists of glycerol
backbone, 2
nonpolar fatty acid
tails and a polar
phosphate head.
• Main component of
cell membranes.
 Cell membrane

• Many proteins are embedded in or attached

to cell membrane surfaces
• Receptors, transporters, communication
proteins, and adhesion proteins
• Plasma (outer) membrane also incorporates
recognition proteins

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Cell membrane
A glucose transporter
allows glucose to cross
the membrane through
a channel in its interior.
An ATP synthase, A calcium pump
which makes ATP when moves calcium ions
H+ crosses a membrane across the membrane;
through its interior. requires ATP energy.

LIPID B cell receptor. Recognition protein that

BILAYER It binds to bacteria, identifies a cell as belonging
other foreign agents. to one’s own body.

phospholipid protein filaments of the cytoskeleton CYTOPLASM

 Introducing the Prokaryotes

• Bacteria and archaea

- The simplest cells
- The groups with greatest metabolic diversity

• Biofilms
- Shared living arrangements of prokaryotes
 cytoplasm,
with ribosomes

bacterial flagellum

Most prokaryotic cells have a cell

wall outside the plasma membrane,
and many have a thick, jellylike
capsule around the wall. cell plasma DNA in
pilus capsule wall membrane nucleoid

Fig. 4.11, p. 58
Introducing the Prokaryotes
Bacteria biofilms
 Introducing the Eukaryotic Cell

• Eukaryotes contain organelles

• Membrane-enclosed organelles
compartmentalize a cell’s activities.
– Functions:
• Control the substances entering or leaving.
• Sustains in microenvironment.
• Concentrates substances for metabolic reactions,
• Isolates toxic substances
 NUCLEUS
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Rough
endoplasmic Chromatin
CYTOSKELETON
reticulum Microtubule
Microfilament
Intermediate
filament
Ribosomes

Peroxisome
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum Plasma
membrane

Golgi apparatus Centrosome

with pair of
Lysosome
centrioles
Mitochondrion
 NUCLEUS
Rough
endoplasmic Nuclear envelope
Smooth Nucleolus
reticulum
endoplasmic
Chromatin
reticulum
Mitochondrion
CYTOSKELETON
Microfilament
Microtubule
Central
Ribosomes vacuole

Chloroplast

Cell wall
Cell wall of Plasmodesma
adjacent cell Golgi
apparatus
Peroxisome

Plasma
membrane
Introducing the Eukaryotic Cell
The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic
instructions
• The nucleus controls the cell’s activities and is
responsible for inheritance
• Inside is a complex of proteins and DNA called
chromatin, which makes up the cell’s chromosomes
• DNA is copied within the nucleus prior to cell division
• The nuclear envelope is a double membrane with pores
that allow material to flow in and out of the nucleus
• It is attached to a network of cellular membranes
called the endoplasmic reticulum
• Subunits of ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus.
Components of the nucleus
Nucleus Nucleolus
Nuclear
envelope

Chromatin
Endoplasmic
Pore
reticulum

Ribosome
 Ribosomes make proteins for use in
the cell and export
• Ribosomes
– are composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
– Involved in protein synthesis according to directions
from DNA.
• Cells that make a lot of proteins have a large
number of ribosomes.
• Some ribosomes are free ribosomes; others are bound
• Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytoplasm
• Bound ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) associated with the nuclear envelope.
THE ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
 Many organelles are connected in the
endomembrane system
• Many of the membranes within a eukaryotic cell are part of
the endomembrane system.
• The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
vacuoles, and the plasma membrane
• Some components of the endomembrane system are able to
communicate with others with formation and transfer of small
membrane segments called vesicles, thus this important
results of communication are
• synthesis,
• distribution,
• storage, and
• export of molecules.
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a
biosynthetic workshop
• The ER is a membranous network of tubes and
sacs.
– Smooth ER lacks attached ribosomes, involves in
synthesizes lipids and processes toxins.
– Rough ER produces membranes, and ribosomes
on its surface make membrane and secretory
proteins.
 Rough ER

Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Rough ER
Smooth ER
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a
biosynthetic factory
• Smooth ER is involved in a variety of diverse
metabolic processes
• For example, enzymes produced by the smooth ER
are involved in the synthesis of lipids, oils,
phospholipids, and steroids
• Rough ER makes additional membrane for
itself and proteins destined for secretion
• Once proteins are synthesized, they are
transported in vesicles to other parts of the
endomembrane system
 Transport vesicle
buds off 4
mRNA
Secretory
Bound ribosome protein
inside trans-
port vesicle

1 Sugar
chain
Glycoprotein
2
Growing
polypeptide Rough ER
• Checkpoint question Explain why we say that
the endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic
workshop.
• The ER produces a huge variety of molecules,
including phospholipids for cell membranes,
steroid hormones, and proteins (synthesized
by bound ribosomes) for membranes, other
organelles, and secretion by the cell.
 The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts,
and ships cell products
• The Golgi apparatus which consists of stacks of
sacs work in conjunction with ER, in which
products of the ER are processed and then sent
to other organelles or to the cell surface.
• Products travel in transport vesicles from the ER to
the Golgi apparatus
• One side of the Golgi apparatus functions as a
receiving dock for the product and the other as a
shipping dock
– Products are modified as they go from one side of the
Golgi apparatus to the other and travel in vesicles to
other sites
1. Vesicles move from ER to Golgi.
2. Vesicles coalesce to form new cis (receiving)Golgi cisternae.
3. Cisternal maturation: Golgi cisternae move in a cis-to-trans
(shipping) direction.
4. Vesicles form and leave Golgi, carrying specific proteins to other
locations or to the plasma membrane for secretion
Checkpoint question What is the relationship of the Golgi
apparatus to the ER in a protein-secreting cell?

The Golgi receives transport vesicles budded from the ER

that contain proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes. The
Golgi finishes processing the proteins and dispatches
transport vesicles to the plasma membrane, where the proteins
are secreted.
 Lysosomes are digestive
compartments within a cell
• Lysosomes house enzymes that break down
ingested substances and damaged organelles
• The enzymes and membrane are produced by the
ER and transferred to the Golgi apparatus for
processing
• The membrane serves to safely isolate these
potent enzymes from the rest of the cell
 Lysosomes are digestive
compartments within a cell
• One of the several functions of lysosomes is to
remove or recycle damaged parts of a cell
• The damaged organelle is first enclosed in a
membrane vesicle
• Then a lysosome fuses with the vesicle,
dismantling its contents and breaking down the
damaged organelle.
 Lysosome

Digestion
Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Lysosome fusing with a vesicle containing a damaged organelle and

then digesting and recycling its contents (phagocytosis)

Checkpoint question How is a lysosome like a recycling center?

It breaks down damaged organelles and recycles their
molecules.
 Vacuoles function in the general
maintenance of the cell
• Vacuoles are large vesicles that have a variety
of functions.
– Some protists have contractile vacuoles that expel
water from the cell.
– Plant cells contain a large central vacuole that
stores molecules and wastes and facilitates
growth.
– Pigment vacuoles in plants to provide color to
flowers
Contractile
vacuoles

Nucleus

LM 650×
Contractile vacuoles in Paramecium, a unicellular eukaryote
Central vacuole

Colorized TEM 9,840×

Chloroplast
Nucleus

Central vacuole in a plant cell

 A review of the structures involved in
manufacturing and breakdown
• The organelles of the endomembrane system
are interconnected structurally and
functionally.
• The following figure summarizes the
relationships among the major organelles of
the endomembrane system.
 1
Nuclear envelope is Nucleus
connected to rough ER,
which is also continuous
with smooth ER
Rough ER

2
Membranes and proteins Smooth ER
cis Golgi
produced by the ER flow in
Nuclear envelop
the form of transport vesicles
to the Golgi

3
Golgi pinches off transport
Vesicles and other vesicles
Plasma
that give rise to lysosomes and
membrane
Vacuoles trans Golgi

4 Lysosome available 5 Transport vesicle carries 6 Plasma membrane expands

for fusion with another proteins to plasma by fusion of vesicles; proteins
vesicle for digestion membrane for secretion are secreted from cell

Figure: Connection among the organelles of the endomembrane system

 A review of the structures involved in
manufacturing and breakdown
• Peroxisomes are metabolic compartments
that do not originate from the
endomembrane system.
• Some peroxisome breakdown fatty acids to be
used as cellular fuel, some detoxify harmful
compounds.
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy
from food
• Mitochondria are organelles that carry out cellular
respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells.
– Cellular respiration involves conversion of chemical energy in
foods to chemical energy in ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

• Mitochondria have two internal compartments.

1. The intermembrane space is the narrow region between
the inner and outer membranes.
2. The mitochondrial matrix contains the mitochondrial
DNA, ribosomes, and many enzymes that catalyze some
of the reactions of cellular respiration.
Mitochondrion

Outer membrane
Intermembrane space

Inner
membrane

Mitochondrial
matrix
Cristae
 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to
chemical energy
• Chloroplasts are the photosynthesizing
organelles of plants and algae.
– Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
from the sun to the chemical energy of sugar
molecules.
• Chloroplasts are partitioned into
compartments
• The important parts of chloroplasts are the
stroma, thylakoids, and grana
Chlorophyll molecules are embedded in the thylakoid membranes
of the chloroplasts, where the site of photosynthesis occurs.
 The cell’s internal skeleton helps
organize its structure and activities
• Cells contain a network of protein fibers, called
the cytoskeleton, that functions in cell structural
support and motility.

• The cytoskeleton includes microfilaments,

intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Their
functions include
– maintenance of cell shape,
– anchorage and movement of organelles,
– amoeboid movement, and
– muscle contraction.
Microfilaments
(actin filaments)
support the cell’s
shape and are
involved in motility
7 nm

Actin protein

Microfilament
 Nucleus

Intermediate
filaments reinforce
cell shape and
anchor organelles
10 nm

Fibrous proteins
coiled together

Intermediate filament
Microtubules (made of
Nucleus
tubulin) shape the cell
and act as tracks for
motor protein

25 nm

Tubulin protein

Microtubule
 Cilia and flagella move when
microtubules bend
• Both flagella and cilia are made of microtubules
wrapped in an extension of the plasma
membrane
– Flagella, longer than cilia, propel a cell by an
undulating, whiplike motion.
– Cilia work more like the oars of a boat.
– Although differences exist, flagella and cilia have a
common structure and mechanism of movement.
• A ring of nine microtubule doublets surrounds a
central pair of microtubules
• This arrangement is called the 9 + 2 pattern and is
anchored in a basal body with nine microtubule
triplets arranged in a ring
 Cilia

Colorized SEM 940×

Colorized SEM 5,000×

Cilia on cells lining the respiratory tract
Flagellum

Undulating flagellum on a human sperm cell

 Outer
microtubule
doublet
Colorized TEM 290,000×

Central
microtubules

Cross-linking
proteins
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Plasma
membrane

Internal structure of a eukaryotic flagellum or cilium

 Cell surface specialization
• Most prokaryotes, protists, fungi, all plant
cells have a cell wall around their plasma
membrane
– Protects, supports, maintains cell shape
– Primary and secondary cell walls
• Plasmodesmata across cell walls connect plant
cells
 Walls
of two
adjacent
plant cells

Vacuole

Plasmodesmata

Primary cell wall

Secondary cell wall

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane

Figure : Plant cell walls and cell junction.

Cell surface specialization
The extracellular matrix of animal cells
functions in support and regulation
• Animal cells synthesize and secrete an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM), which
– binds tissue cells together,
– supports the plasma membrane, and
– communicates with the cytoskeleton.
• The ECM may attach to the cell through other
glycoproteins that then bind to membrane
proteins called integrins.
– Integrins span the plasma membrane and connect to
microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
Checkpoint question :
Describe the structures that provide support to the plasma membrane.
The membrane is attached through membrane proteins to microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton and to connecting glycoproteins and collagen fibers of the ECM.
 Three types of cell junctions are found
in animal tissues
• Adjacent cells communicate, interact, and
adhere through specialized junctions between
them
• Tight junctions form leakproof sheet and prevent
leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of
epithelial cells
• Anchoring junctions fasten cells together into
strong tissue.
• Gap junctions are channels that allow molecules
to flow between cells.
free surface of
epithelial tissue

different kinds of
tight junctions

gap junction

basement membrane adhering junction

(extracellular matrix) Fig. 4.23, p. 67
 Animal cell VS Plant cell
•Although there are many similarities
between animal and plant cells, differences
exist
•Lysosomes and centrioles are not
found in plant cells
•Plant cells have a rigid cell wall,
chloroplasts, and a central vacuole not
found in animal cells