Research and Technology 1996 Annual Report of The Marshall Space Flight Center

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Researchand
Technology1996
Annual Report of the

Marshall Space Flight Center
NASA TM-108530
National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812
Introduction
As the world around us changes, new and complex

technological challenges greet us at every turn. At the Marshall
Space Flight Center, a talented team of scientists and engineers
with a synergistic spirit rises to meet those challenges with faith
in Marshall's credo: That our capabilities and successes are
possible by a continuing emphasis on scientific research and the
development of technology.
People across the country and around the world have benefited
by our work in ways that once were only imagined, and it is that
limitless imagination and the new ideas of the NASA "can-do"
spirit that form the very cornerstone of our Nation's space
program.
As we move toward the goal of increasingly accessible space

transportation and the next generation of propulsion systems and
launch vehicles, as well as long-term research aboard the
International Space Station, our scientific and engineering teams
continue to probe the vast frontiers of challenge and change. In
the following pages, you will see a sample of the scope and
diversity of the research and technology activities conducted
here and catch a glimpse of stimulating future goals for the
exploration of space.
J_Wa:ne L_.tl lesC_
Director
Marshall Space Flight Center
Acknowledgements
The point of contact and coordinator at MSFC for this report is Helen Stinson, Technology Investment Office,
(LA40/205-544-7239). She was assisted by an editorial committee consisting of Sherman Jobe, Axel Roth, Eugene
Urban, and Gabe Wallace. Detailed editorial support and production assistance was provided by MSI, a Division of
The Bionetics Corporation. The research and technology work at MSFC is a cooperative effort; however, due to
space restrictions, it is impossible to list all those involved in the projects described in this report.
To assist the reader, the MSFC contact, office code, telephone number, and e-mail address are included at the
beginning of each article. The sponsoring organization and university/industry involvement are given at the end of
each article. An abbreviations and acronyms list, an alphabetical index of contacts, and an index of key words are
presented at the end of this report.
This publication can be found on the Internet at: http://techtran.msfc.nasa.gov/96R&T/index.html.

Table of Contents
Beyond Our Boundaries viii
TechnologyPrograms
Introduction Grady S. Jobe 1
Advanced Space Transportation Projects
Magnetohydrodynamics: H20TSTUF Tony Robertson 2
Magnetohydrodynamics: Investigations of External MHD Slipstream
Accelerator Technologies Tony Robertson 3
Solar Thermal Propulsion Absorber/Thruster Harold E Gerrish 4
Low-Cost Booster Propulsion System Test Article Mark E Fisher 6
Integrated Propulsion Technology Demonstrator Joe L. Leopard 7
Uni-Element Injector Testing John M. Cramer 9
John J. Hutt
Thin Membrane Fresnel Lens for Solar Thermal Propulsion Vinson B. Huegele 11
Nuclear Fission Propulsion Bill Emrich 12
Fusion Propulsion Bill Emrich 13
Components for Beamed Energy Transportation Edward Montgomery 13

Advanced Reusable Transportation Technologies Project James E. Turner 14
Solar Thermal Propulsion Flight Experiment Leslie Curtis 15

Magnetic Lifter Joe Howell 17
Superconductor Interactions with Gravity Ron Koczor 21

Pulse Detonation Rocket Engines John M. Cramer 21
Propulsion and Fluid Management

Advanced Gas/Gas Injector Technology Huu P. Trinh 23
Tripropellant Effervescent Injector Study Huu P. Trinh 24
Pintle Injector Study for Liquid Bipropellant Engines Huu P. Trinh 26
Solid Rocket Motor Asbestos-Free Insulation John O. Funkhouser
Charles L. Martin 28
Revolutionary Reusable Technology Turbopump Mary Beth Koelbl 29
Electromechanical Actuator Testing at IPTD Rae Ann Weir 31
Propulsion System Design Reliability Modeling Michael Whitley 33
Magnetically Actuated Propellant Orientation George Schmidt 35
Jim Martin
Multipurpose Hydrogen Test-Bed Leon Hastings 37
Cryogenic Fluid Management for the Aerospace Industry Technology Program Leon Hastings 39
Tridyne Gas Reactor Sizing Patrick S. McRight 40
A Complex-Shaped Composite Feedline for Liquid Hydrogen Philip Tygielski 41
Soft Umbilical Test-Bed Rodney Krienke 43
Advanced Docking Mechanism Alan J. Bean 43
Automated Fluid Interface System Tony Tyler 45
Nick Johnston
Structures and Dynamics

TREETOPS Structural Dynamics and Controls Simulation System Upgrade George Myers 46
Experimental Determination of Preswirl Effects on Damping Seal Performance Eric M. Earhart 47
Measurement of Damping of Advanced Composite Materials
for Turbomachinery Applications Donald L. Harris 48
Analytical Model Improvement Using Singular Value Decomposition
With a One-Dimensional Line Searching Technique Matthew E Orr, Jr. 50
Automated Signal Processing System of High-Frequency
Dynamic Measurements for Engine Diagnostics Tony Fiorucci 54
Design ofaCeramicMatrixCompositeIntegrally
BladedTurbineDisk Katherine K. Mims 57
TestingofLow-ProfileCompositeDome Under
IntemalPressure Rafiq Ahmed 59
ACombined Micromechanics,Fracture
Mechanics,
andStatistical
Approach
forLifePrediction
ofCMC/MMC James B. Min 60
LifePrediction
Methodology forCeramic
MatrixComposites Rene Ortega 62
Elastic-Plastic
andFullyPlasticFatigue
Crack
Growth Wayne Gregg 63
Base Heating
TestingImprovements Mark Seaford 64
PropulsionChemistryforCFDApplications P. Kevin Tucker 65
AnalysisofFlowfieidsOverFour-Engine
DC-XRockets T.S. Wang 66
Thermokinetics
Characterization
ofKerosene/RP-
1Combustion T.S. Wang 68
Injector
SprayCombustion Modeling T.S. Wang 69
Real-TimeConditionMonitoringofPropulsion
SystemsThrough
High-Performance
Computing Tom Zoladz 69
Tony Fiorucci
Application
ofRapid
Prototyping
Methods
toHigh-Speed
WindTunnel
Testing Anthony Springer 71
Ken Cooper
FaultTolerant
Aerospace/Commercial
HeatExchanger Jon B. Holladay 73
Investigation
ofJetPump-Based
Two-Phase
Thermal
Control
System Jon B. Holladay 74
Melissa Y. Gard
Patrick L. Hunt
Fabrication,
Testing,
andAnalysis
ofaFlowBoiling
TestFacilityWithEnhanced
Surface
Characterization
Capability Jon B. Holladay 76
Melissa Y. Gard
Patrick L. Hunt
Insulation
System
forUltra-High Temperature Applications Dalton Nguyen 77
Interdisciplinary Thermal/Stress Analysis Greg Schunk 79
Thermal Conditioning Module for Ultra-High Temperature Applications Dalton Nguyen 80
Materials and Manufacturing Processes
Endoscopic Shearography Nondestructive Evaluation of Lined Pressure Vessels Samuel S. Russell 82
LH 2 Bearing Test Program Started at the Marshall Space Flight Center Howard Gibson 84
Fricton Stir Welding Robert J. Ding 86
Arthur C. Nunes, Jr.
The Reaction of Nitrogen with 2195 Aluminum-Lithium Alloy: Continued Arthur C. Nunes, Jr. 87
Environmentally Friendly Sprayable Ablator for the Solid Rocket Booster Carl N. Lester 88
Material Robustness Testing and Nondestructive Evaluation Methodology
Assessment for Liquid Rocket Engine Composite Nozzles Raymond Clinton 89
Sensor Technology
A Gaseous Hydrogen Detector System Based Upon a Solid State Silicon Microsensor William T. Powers 91
Gaseous Leak Imaging by Raman Radiation Capture William T. Powers 93
An OPAD System to Fly on DC-XA M. Clinton Patrick 96
Optical Plume Anomaly Detection--Engine Diagnostic Filtering System Anita Cooper 98
Nonintrusive Measurement of Fluid Flows in High-Pressure, High-Speed
Cryogenic Regimes William T. Powers 102
Development of 8-Channel, 16-Bit Smart Card for Pressure Transducers William T. Powers 104
Long-Term/High-Payoff's OMS IVHM Tested--First Pneumatic System With Fully
Automated Checkout William T. Powers 105
Software Technology
Vehicle Health Maintenance and Analysis Using Advanced Statistical Methods
and Adaptive Techniques Anthony R. Kelley 109
Modular Rocket Engine Control Software Update Richard H. Beckman 110
iv
Optical Systems
Large Optic Coating Facility Tommy Thompson 111
Technology Mirror Assembly Testing Ron Eng 112

Specialized Optical Coating Solutions for Astronomical Instruments Alan E Shapiro 113
Edward A. West
Fabrication of Normal Incidence Mirrors by a Nickel Replication Process John Redmon, Jr. 115
Next Generation Space Telescope Howard D. Hall 116

Replicated X-Ray Optics William D. Jones 117
Lidar Testing Steve Johnson 119

Technology Development for Satellite-Based Laser Wind Sensing Michael J. Kavaya 120
Mission Operations
Applied Virtual Reality at MSFC Joseph E Hale 124
Polymer Waveguide Output Couplers Michael D. Watson 127

Helen Cole
Expert System Software Assistant for Payload Operations Control Team Mark N. Rogers 129
Richard M. McElyea
Computerized Prediction of Extravehicular Activity Task Feasibility Charles Dischinger 130
Space Environments and Effects
Billy Kaufman 132
Space Environments and Effects Program
Research Programs
Introduction Gregory S. Wilson 135
Microgravity Science
Germanium Directional Solidification in United States Microgravity Laboratory-2 Charles R. Baugher 136
Utilizing Controlled Vibrations in a Microgravity Environment to Understand
and Promote Microstructural Homogeneity During Floating-Zone Crystal Growth Charles R. Baugher 137
Novel Directional Solidification Processing of Hypermonotectic Alloys Charles R. Baugher 139
A Demonstration Experiment to Study the Effects of Spacecraft Vibrations
on Thermal Diffusion Charles R. Baugher 140
Particle Engulfment and Pushing at Solidifying Interfaces Peter A. Curreri 142
Fundamental Studies of Solidification Using Real-Time X-Ray Microscopy Peter A. Curreri 143
Solidification of II-VI Compounds in a Rotating Magnetic Field Donald C. Gillies 145
Growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride Single Crystals Sandor L. Lehoczky 146
Crystal Growth of Selected II-IV Semiconducting Alloys by Directional

Solidification Sandor L. Lehoczky 147
Measurement of the Optical and Radiative Properties of High-Temperature

Liquid Materials by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Michael B. Robinson 150
A Study of the Undercooling Behavior of Immiscible Metal Alloys: The Absence

of Crucible-Induced Wetting and Nucleation Michael B. Robinson 151
MSFC 105-Meter Drop Tube Undercooling and Nucleation Studies Michael B. Robinson 152
Bridgman Crystal Growth in Static Magnetic Fields Frank R. Szofran 153
Containerless Processing of YBa2Cu307-d Superconductors Marcus Vlasse 154
Crystal Growth by Physical Vapor Transport Martin Volz 156

Diode-Laser Holographic Imaging System Applied to the Study of Fluids
in Microgravity William Witherow 157
Phase Shifting Interferometric Analysis of Protein Crystal Growth Boundaries
and Convective Flows William Witherow 158
Mechanics of Granular Materials Nicholas C. Costes 159
Integrated Optics in Films of Organic and Polymeric Materials Donald O. Frazier 162
Polydiacetylene Thin Films for Photonic Applications Donald O. Frazier 164
Protein
Crystallization
Apparatus
forMicrogravity Daniel C. Carter 167
Microgravity
LiquidContainmentVessel Dale M. Kornfeld 168
SpaceAerogel David Noever 170
AProteinCrystal
Growth Studies
Cell(Year
3of3) Marc L. Pusey 171
EarthSystemScience
Interannual
Variability
inTropical
Radiation
andWaterVapor Franklin Robertson 173
MarineBoundary-LayerClouds
andTheirRepresentation
inaClimate
Model Franklin Robertson 174
RemoteSensing
ofUrban LandUseandEffects
onClimate Dale A. Quattrochi 176
Jeffrey C. Luvall
TheUseoftheThermal ResponseNumber toCharacterize
LandSurface
EnergyFlux Jeffrey C. Luvall 178
Assessment
ofBiomass BurningontheHydrologic
Cycle oftheAmazon Anthony R. Guillory 179
High-Resolution
Infrared
Atmospheric
Remote Sensing
andApplications Gary J. Jedlovec 181
Testing
Global
Warming Theory WithSatellite
Passive
MicrowaveObservations Roy W. Spencer 182
Sensing
SeaSurfaceWinds WithPassive
MicrowaveTechniques Robbie E. Hood 184
RemoteSensingofWindsUsing Airborne
DopplerLidar Jeffry Rothermel 185
RemoteSensingofAerosolComposition
fromCO2LidarBackscatter Maurice Jarzembski 187
AConvective-Stratiform
Rainfall
Classifier
forComposite
RadarReflectivity
Maps Steven J. Goodman 188
TheLightning
ImagingSensorontheTropicalRainfall
MeasuringMission Hugh J. Christian 190
Solid-State
LightningFieldSensor William J. Koshak 191
Geophysical
FluidFlowCellExperiment Fred Leslie 193
Astrophysics
The Burst and Transient Source Experiment on the Compton Gamma-Ray
Observatory Gerald J. Fishman 194
Advanced Gamma-Ray Telescope Gerald J. Fishman 195
X-Ray Astronomy Research Brian D. Ramsey 196
Martin C. Weisskopf
Interferometric Imaging of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich Effect at 30 GHz Marshall Joy 199
The JACEE Measurement of the Cosmic Ray Proton and Helium Spectra James H. Derrickson 200
The Utilization of Direct Electron Pairs for the Energy Measurement
of Ultrarelativistic Cosmic Rays James H. Derrickson 202
Solar Physics
Self-Filtering Solar Telescopes John M. Davis 2O4
G. Allen Gary
Edward A. West
Alan E Shapiro
Coronal Heating Ronald L. Moore 206
Solar Flares Ronald L. Moore 208
Three-Dimensional Rendering and Image Analysis of Coronal Loops G. Allen Gary 209
Fractal Analyses of Sunspot Magnetic Fields Mitzi Adams 211
Space Physics
Ultra-Fast Measurements With the Pinhole Ion Velocity Imager Victoria N. Coffey 214
Plasmaspheric Total Densities Paul D. Craven 215
Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration Dennis L. Gallagher 216
Imaging the Aurora in the Far Ultraviolet James F. Spann 218
Tethered Satellite System Reflight Electrodynamic Characteristics Nobie H. Stone 219
vi
Advanced Studies
Introduction Axel Roth 223
Space Systems
Space Station Reboost Via Orbital Towing Vernon W. Keller 224
Connie Carrington
Station Tethered Express Payload System Charles C. Rupp 225
Electrodynamic Tethers for Transportation and Power Generation C. Les Johnson 226
C. Les Johnson 227
Atmospheric Tether Mission
Project ORION: Orbital Debris Removal Using Ground-Based Laser
and Sensor Systems Jonathan W. Campbell 228
Mark L. Stucker 229
Transportation Elements for the Human Lunar Return Study
Thomas D. Dickerson
Research
NASA Air Force Cost Model: A Potent Parametric Cost Estimating Tool Carey G. Thompson 234
The Virtual Research Center: An Experimental Intranet Daniel A. O'Neil 235
TechnologyTransfer
Introduction Sally Little 239
Technologies Pour Into American Industries, Spurring Growth in Employment
and New Products Robert J. Lessels 240
MSFC Small Business Innovation and Small Business Technology Transfer Programs Helen C. Stinson 242
Ceramics for Turbomachinery Systems Christopher J. Bramon 242
Mike Effinger
Innovative Development of Joining/Fitting Technology for Advanced Composite
Piping Systems Christopher J. Bramon 244
Thomas Delay
Robert J. Lessels 245
Maytag and NASA Team up to Do the Dishes
NASA Technology Helps American Horses Get a Jump on Their Competition
NASA Technology Helps Inventor Clean Up Robert J. Lessels 248
NASA Technology Gives Montana Students a Helping Hand Into Industry

and Amputees a Helping Hand in Life
Technology Transfer Alliance Industrial Outreach Effort Helping Louisiana Firm
to Recycle Used Tires
Portable Seat Lift Benefits the Disabled Robert J. Lessels 251
Marshall Center Book Lists Patents Available for Licensing Robert J. Lessels 252
Computational Fluid Dynamics, Not Crystal Balls, Help in Predicting the Future
at Marshall Space Flight Center
NASA Composites Technologies Available to Industry Robert J. Lessels 255
Marshall Begins Testing Hybrid Rocket Motor Technology
NASA Program May Revolutionize Rocket Propulsion and Air-Conditioning
NASA Helps Invent Revolutionary X-Ray Instrument
Sometimes It Does Take a Rocket Scientist... Robert J. Lessels 260
NASA, USBI Engineers Turn Into "Roads" Scholars
Space Shuttle Engine Technology Research Benefits Jet Engine Manufacturer
Abbreviations and Acronyms 265
Index of Contacts 268
276
Index of Key Words
vii
The heat insulatingproperties ofspace aerogel
are shownwith help from a little HersheyHugTM.
At Marshall, three interrelated areas of focus--space

transportation, microgravity research, and optics research--
continue the strides that will take humanity beyond mere
imagination in our quest for knowledge of the heavens and
how that understanding can benefit our own world.
NASA's space transportation efforts build on current tech-

nologies to transport payloads, research facilities, and
humans into space safely and efficiently. Marshall's vision is
to help our country maintain its role as the world's leader in
space transportation, in order to achieve that, we developed a
space transportation strategic plan that directly supports the
NASA Strategic Plan, and provides a 25-year transportation
vision to support anticipated future Agency and national
needs. To that end, NASA has begun concentrated efforts to
balance current space transportation systems with invest-
ments in improved technologies, with the potential to
significantly reduce these costs.
NASA has two strategic roles in these endeavors. The first is

to provide the technology base required to satisfy long-term
strategic plans for Space Science, Mission to Planet Earth,
and the Human Exploration and Development of Space. The
second is to perform the research and development necessary
to enable the U.S. launch vehicle industry to compete
globally in the ever growing space launch market. The
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) Technology Program and
Advanced Space Transportation Program (ASTP) will
develop and demonstrate the needed technologies and
operational systems to meet these needs.
The ASTP and RLV programs are complementary space

transportation technology development efforts. While the
RLV program addresses the relatively near-term technology
needs for a next generation reusable launch vehicle, the
ASTP provides space transportation technologies for all
other needs not addressed by the RLV effort. The RLV
program will provide technology demonstrations in support
of a national decision to either develop a new fully reusable
spaceship or to upgrade the Space Shuttle for use far into the
future. ASTP is a technology demonstration and '_alidation
program and has the charter for space transportation tech-
nologies from basic technology research to flight-system
demonstrations.
The scientific research that will be accomplished once the

International Space Station is in operation is being
An artist's conceptofthe X-33 RLV,a futureSpace

Shuttle, depictinga solar thermal array launch.
TheHighResolulion
Mirror
Assembly,
withall
fourHmirrors
installed
andvisible.
approached with the same practical strategies

that will put the Station in orbit. Biotechnology
and materials research conducted during Space
Shuttle Spacelab missions have paved the way
for investigations on the Space Station, with
experiments already having yielded valuable
results. Microgravity research facilities flown
on the Shuttle represent an integrated program
comprised of Government, academia, and
private industry participation, and by using
instruments developed by neighboring coun-
tries, this research helps broaden the basis for
international cooperation in space.
As the Lead Center for Microgravity Research, Marshall is Telescopes and other scientific instruments already have
responsible for all microgravity integrated program planning given us an exciting glimpse into a universe filled with
and direction, program resource management, program endless possibilities. Through the use of optics, Marshall
assessment, and program outreach and education to the provides support to NASA's Science Enterprise to examine
scientific and industrial communities, as well as the public. the content, structure, origin, and evolution of our galaxy and
Commercially, the Microgravity program seeks to promote the universe. In order to see vast distances in the universe in
industry participation and to facilitate the use of space for great detail, accuracies pushing beyond the existing capabili-
commercial products and services. The industry-driven, ties will be required. Fabricating the next generation of
high-technology program supports goals of implementing optical and x-ray telescopes will require state-of-the-art
research and development to enable commercial space delicate and precise cutting, grinding, shaping, and polishing
advances and expansion of current markets, and to enable tools for optical components. Special mirror coatings will
U.S. industry to develop new, profitable space industries. It is also be needed for various astronomical applications. Optics
this kind of concentrated effort and organization that brings work literally is in the details, and such precise operations
us closer each day toward stable, long-term research on require the finest "surgeons." At Marshall, a skilled team of
board the premier orbital laboratory, the International Space scientific artisans are the caretakers of the equipment and the
Station. knowledge that will help us find the answers to never-ending
questions about the final frontier.
The Marshall Center is steeped in tradition.

The pride in excellence that was forged with
NASA's inception remains a driving force
behind the Agency's goal of providing a space
program that satisfies the needs of the Ameri-
can public. MSFC is well equipped with the
knowledge, courage, and a broad experience
base to help reach our Nation's goal, but it is a
limitless vision that will carry us beyond our
boundaries and into another realm. At
Marshall, we continue to dream. And what's
more, we turn those dreams into reality.
AXAFH1 mirror andalignment

system being loweredinto place. xi
_oIo_oIoIoIOIoIo
MSFC Researchand Technology 1996
AdvancedSpace Transportation
temperatures in which we would like to rocket. They plan to use a microwave

Magnetohydrodynamics:
operate. A single rocket would not be plasma generator to heat various propel-
H2OTSTUF capable of exploring this broad range of lants. A seeding system is being designed
parameters. A facility is needed where to seed these propellants with potassium. A
Tony Robedson/EP32 varied propellants can be heated and fed vacuum system is in place that will allow
into an MHD accelerator/generator. simulation of orbital conditions for
205-544-7102
upperstage applications. Spectrometers
E-mail:tony.robe_son@msfc.nasa.gov
Some key experimental data to be gained are available to determine temperature,
by this type facility are: pressure, and species concentrations in the
Two activities are underway in the area of • A velocity profile at the exit of the plume. Laser diagnostic equipment is being
magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). The first, accelerator/generator; sought to obtain velocity profiles at the exit
called H2OTSTUF, is an investigation of • Conductivity as a function of seeding and within the plume. Also, a strain gage
using high temperature water as the ratio, temperature, pressure, and other thrust stand is being designed to measure
medium for an MHD generator and plasma properties; the thrust from which the exit velocity can
accelerator. The second called "Investiga- • Boundary layer voltage drop/electrical be calculated.
tions of External MHD Slipstream loss;
Accelerator Technologies," investigates the • Validation of friction and heat transfer The thrust of this research is directed at
use of external electromagnetic fields to models used in existing codes; and validating the performance of H2OTSTUF,
accelerate the air flowing past the vehicle • The quantification of nonuniform a solar thermal/MHD water rocket. The data
for propulsion. velocity profiles, pressure distributions, obtained from this detailed study of water
temperature distribution, etc. and their will be directly applicable to the augmenta-
Several studies have examined the use effect on the plasma flow. tion of or power generation by a lox/LH 2
of MHD accelerators and generators to rocket, as water or steam is the primary
augment current chemical, nuclear, and The UAH Propulsion Research Center has combustion product from this rocket. Other
solar thermal rockets. These studies have proposed a facility that should be capable of propellants will be tested under this
relied heavily on analytical models and obtaining most of this data without firing a program in an attempt to determine the best
numerical codes to calculate performance.
Little experimental data is available to
verify these predictions. Among the Plasma
experimental works that have been /- Discharge
• Axisymmetric power coupling
performed are those of NASA Langley Stationary _:,,
Research Center and Arnold Engineering Short -"
Development Center. The work at these • Dielectric pressure plate does
centers on MHD accelerators for accelerat- //,; ) _, Pressure not detrimentally affect electric
field distribution
ing air in a hypersonic wind tunnel was Section
performed about 35 years ago. 1'2 During Swirl. _::_
this same time Dr. Vadim T. Alfyorov Flow I D • Conducting nozzle plate
_j S,
started a program to develop an MHD Injector m
augmented hypersonic test facility at the • Plasma discharge forms within
(1 of 3)
TSAGi research center. This work continues Resonant / inlet of nozzle
today, and a small-scale facility is opera- Length _;_
tional. It produces very high velocity flows, Adjustable / • Swirling propellant injection
Adjustable /
but at temperatures too high to simulate the ;/ improves plasma's axial
correct Mach numbers for hypersonic flow. 3 stability
/
While this work gives us a base point from Mounting • Resonant length = 15.87 cm
which to begin, it does not provide the Plate
necessary experimental data to validate • Testing with H e, N 2, NH3, H2
existing codes used to predict the perfor-
mance of MHD accelerators and generators.
Looking at the big picture of where MHD
augmentation can be used, we see a broad
range of propellant, pressure, and Fncoat1.--Microwave cavity electrothermal thruster prototype design.
Technology Programs
propellant combinations for MHD accelera- Magnetohydrodynamics: complicated hypersonic flow phenomena
tion/generation. Other chemical rocket created within MHD slipstream accelerators
exhaust can be studied in the system by Investigations of External and air ionization systems. Since there is
heating the products that would be obtained practically no data available in the open
in their respective chemical reactions with
MHD Slipstream literature on this technology, it is proposed
the microwave plasma generator. Also, air Accelerator Technologies to conduct a combined experimental,
could be heated and accelerated to verify theoretical, and computational investigation
necessary operational parameters in a Tony Robe_son/EP32 of the hypersonic flow for such MHD thrust
ducted MHD rocket. augmentation systems. A CFD algorithm to
205-544-7102
model this flow will be necessary for
E-maihtony.robe_son@msfc.nasa.gov
The development of this laboratory is the simulating the MHD slipstream accelerator
next logical step for the MHD program. (and air spike) performance along a
With the experimental validation of existing Electric propulsion systems, like the transatmospheric trajectory to orbiting
MHD codes, an optimal system can be external MHD slipstream accelerators, have velocity (i.e., Mach 25).
found through numerical simulation, thus excellent prospects for greatly improving
allowing a prototype of this optimal system the specific impulse of advanced rocket- The proposed research program will be
to be designed, built, and flown. The based combined-cycle engines designed for carded out at Rensselaer Polytechnic
expertise to accomplish these tasks is high-performance, reusable launch vehicles Institute in Troy, NY, and will involve
available by combining the resources and (RLV's) for Earth-to-orbit applications of hypersonic testing of two different MHD
personnel of the Marshall Center, the the future. These MHD thrust augmentation slipstream accelerator models (one perhaps
University of Alabama in Huntsville, and systems will require high-performance incorporating an air spike, an air ionization
the University of Tennessee Space Institute. rocket-driven MHD generators, as well as device).
special electromagnetic slipstream ioniza-
Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation tion systems that can enhance the electrical Five major goals for this research project
Program conductivity of slipstream air at the lower include:
hypersonic flight Mach numbers; beyond • To demonstrate the ability to control
University Involvement: UAH Von Braun Mach 18, naturally occurring conductivities slipstream electrical conductivity;
graduate fellow Jonathan Jones may suffice. • To prove that external MHD thrust
production is possible;
Biographical Sketch: Tony Robertson, of Current solid chemical-fueled rocket-driven
the Component Development Division in MHD generators have a propellant
the Propulsion Laboratory, has been serving utilization efficiency of 0.5 KJ/Kg, whereas
as an advanced propulsion engineer and 2.0 KJ/Kg may be feasible with
technical manager in several areas of advanced liquid fuels. In
- BASE FLAIR -
advanced propulsion since 1995, including contrast, utilization efficien- Thermal
magnetohydrodynamics and magnetic cies of laser-heated Insulation AirPlasma
levitation. Robertson provides support to hydrogen-fueled, "Paddle"
Housing for
Program Development and the Advanced rocket-driven MHD
Superconductors
Space Transportation Program in these and generators promise to
other advanced propulsion areas. Robertson be several orders of (12 cm dia.) _'_ _._ Applied
earned a B.S. in physics and mathematics magnitude higher (e.g., '_¢ Field
from the University of North Alabama in 300 to 800 KJ/Kg), esla)
Florence, AL, 1982; earned a master's in which could elevate (Current)/_i;
operations research from the University of specific impulses for Superconducting ,,,_ _i:i.
Alabama in Huntsville, AL, 1993; will soon such advanced beam- Fie dCoi,s
\
complete a second master's in engineering boosted RLV engines
management from the University of into the range of 6,000 to (1 MA-each) [_._
Alabama in Huntsville, AL, (mid- 1997);
and plans to seek a Ph.D. in engineering
16,000 sec--i.e.,
revolutionary
truly
advances.
( )11
External
management.
Strut/Electrode
To pursue this cutting-edge
research, it is necessary to
understand the physics of the FIGURE2.--External MHD accelerator.
• To determine the necessary levels of Solar Thermal Propulsion tungsten shell. The graphite is removed with
applied magnetic field and plasma current a drill bit and plastic bead blaster. Shell
density for efficient MHD acceleration; Absorber/Thruster length is cut using a brass wire electric
• To annihilate the bow shock wave with discharge machine (EDM). A hone device
external MHD forces, and confirm this HaroldE GerrishJr./EP42 using polyurethane pads, diamond powder,
accomplishment with Schlieren photos; 205-544-7084 and a glycerin slurry was used to polish the
and tungsten surface inside the absorber to
E-mail:harold.gerrish@msfc.nasa.gov
• To measure pressures (and perhaps heat 75 percent reflectivity. Figure 4 shows an
transfer rates) across the powered and outer shell made of tungsten. The tungsten
unpowered hypersonic models (i.e., with, In-house studies at MSFC show reduced shells are brazed to a nickel face plate,
and without the MHD accelerator costs for orbit transfer using solar thermal which has hydrogen inlet lines.
operating). propulsion (STP) systems. STP uses
concentrated sunlight inside an absorber Insulation is made of a rigidized graphite
Both slipstream accelerator experiments cavity to heat hydrogen (to 2,700 K) and felt to lower temperatures on the thruster's
will utilize Rensselaer's Mach 25-class expel it from a conical nozzle. STP systems outer surface to 444 K. Graphite diffuses
hypersonic shock tunnel (2-ft diameter test are low thrust (4.4 to 44 N) and require into tungsten at high temperatures. A
section) at Mach numbers of 8.5 to 25 and about a month to transfer payloads from protective coating of tantalum carbide (TaC)
stagnation temperatures up to 4,100 K. low-Earth orbit to geosynchronous-Earth or niobium carbide (NbC) is required at
orbit. Cost savings are primarily from each material interface to minimize a
Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation reduced weight and high specific impulses buildup of tungsten carbide.
Program (800 to 900 sec). A ground demonstration
STP absorber/thruster has been designed The next STP absorber/thruster will be
University Involvement: Principal and fabricated with two main objectives: made of a tungsten/rhenium alloy ($44/N)
Investigator: Leik N. Myrabo, Ph.D., • Develop a STP fabrication procedure; and which has better ductility. The fabrication
Associate Professor of Engineering Physics, • Verify expected STP performance with procedures developed from the first thruster
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Troy, NY. simulated ground tests. greatly reduces the time and cost associated
Co-Investigator: Professor Henry T. with expensive material.
Nagamatsu, Ph.D., Active Professor The design (fig. 3) of MSFC's first STP
Emeritus, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; absorber/thruster is cylindrical for simplicity Sponsors: Advanced Space Transportation
Troy, NY. and operates under the "direct gain" Program; Aerospace Industry Technology
principle (focused sunlight provides Program; Center Director's Discretionary
Biographical sketch: Tony Robertson, of immediate thrust). The inner cavity is highly Fund (CDDF)
the Component Development Division in reflective close to the front opening (833-K
the Propulsion Laboratory, has been serving surface temperature) and more absorbing Industry Involvement: Rockwell Interna-
as an advanced propulsion engineer and deep inside (2,700 K surface temperature) to tional Rocketdyne Division
technical manager in several areas of control light distribution of high-energy
advanced propulsion since 1995, including solar wavelengths. Heat transfer of solar Biographical Sketch: Harold P. Gerrish Jr.
magnetohydrodynamics and magnetic energy energizes the propellant, hydrogen. is an aerospace engineer for MSFC's
levitation. Robertson provides support to Propulsion Systems branch. He is principal
Program Development and the Advanced Tungsten ($4/N) is the refractory investigator for the STP project funded by
Space Transportation Program in these and metal with the highest melting point and CDDF and leads a small team charged with
other advance propulsion areas. Robertson was selected for the first thruster. Rhenium thruster design/fabrication and activation of
earned a B.S. in physics and mathematics ($133/N) has the next highest melting point, special test equipment for ground demon-
from the University of North Alabama in but is very costly. Tungsten is brittle and stratiuns. His 10 years in propulsion cover
Florence, AL, 1982, and earned a master's very difficult to machine at room tempera- solar thermal propulsion, nuclear thermal
in operations research from the University tures. A procedure has been developed that propulsion, and hypergolic combustion
of Alabama in Huntsville, AL, 1993. He fabricates inner and outer tungsten shells engines. He received a B.S. in aerospace
will soon complete a second master's in which, when joined, creates an absorber engineering from Auburn University, and an
engineering management from the Univer- cavity with helical flow channels and a M.S. in aeronautics and astrnonautics from
sity of Alabama in Huntsville, AL, (mid- nozzle. The procedure involves vacuum Purdue University. _._
1997), and plans to seek a Ph.D. in plasma spraying tungsten over a graphite
engineering management. _] mandrel with an outer surface designed to
meet requirements of the inner surface of a
TechnologyPrograms
Focal Plane
12.5 in
Tungsten
Focused
1.75 in
Sunlight
V
Tun
Innershell
Fiberform
TS1276 Gra[
Support /drogenInlet
2 Ibm/hr
2Oin
FIGURE
3.--Phase I solar thermal propulsionabsorber/thrusterdesign.
FtGURE
4.mTungsten outer shell with helical flow channelsand nozzle.
MSFC Research and Technology 1996
Low-Cost Booster feedlines, the pressurization system

including a heat exchanger, flight type
Propulsion System avionics and test instrumentation and the
Test Article 60-klbf thrust MSFC Fastrac engine. The
Fastrac engine is scheduled for use on the
X-34 program, therefore establishing this
MarkF,Fisher/EP42 test-bed as the engine development and
205-544-9503 verification facility for the X-34 engine.
E-mail:mark,fisher@msfc,nasa.gov
The PTA design began in May of 1996 and
had as one of its fundamental requirements
The propulsion test article (PTA) provides a the necessity to fire the engine and
flexible test-bed environment to evaluate propulsion system by January of 1998. The
low-cost hardware RP-l/lox options for use major milestones of the project are the
on a future small payload expendable systems requirements review held June 27,
boosters. The test-bed will be in a stacked 1996, the preliminary design review held
configuration as shown in figure 5 and will August 20, 1996, the critical design review
be tested in the 13-2 test stand at Stennis scheduled for December 16, 1996, cold
Space Center (SSCI. The maior components flow checkouts in November of 1997 and
of the PTA include the support structure, the the first hot fire in January of 1998.
lox and RP-I tanks, the RP-I and Iox
The t'TA will provide a system test-bed to
evaluate low-cost propulsion system
components developed by NASA, tradi-
tional and nontraditional industries, as well
587.5 as universities. The traditional industries
RP-1 Tank refer to the classic space contractors
possessing years of experience with flight
Strongback hardware. The nontraditional industries are
465,125 those business concerns which produce
446 components and materials which are FIGURE
6.--The Fastrac engine.
applied to commercial areas (i.e., gas
bottles for hospital use, gasoline storage personnel for the SSC serve as part of the
367
tanks for service stations). The heart of the test team. This close working relationship
Lox Tank
low-cost booster technologies program lies ensures the concurrent engineering required
in this canvassing of all of these groups to to complete this task in the aggressive
develop and test, both at a component and at schedule which has been undertaken. When
a system level components and materials the design is complete and the hardware is
which could eventually be applied to use on procured, it will be sent to SSC integrated
194.75
commercial launch vehicle, developed by and tested in the B-2 test stand.
172
Helium Tank industry, which would have an extremely
low-cost payload capability ($/lb). The PTA will provide development data on
96.5 a wide range of propulsion hardware which
The IrI'A design is being led by members of will allow the future development of an
Measurement MSFC and the SSC. The design approach extremely low-cost launch vehicle. This
0 has entailed the use of the product develop- capability will most likely be utilized in the
Fastrac ment team (PDT). The project design is launch of small payloads to a wide range of
centered around four PDT's. They are the potential orbital inclinations. These small
i .... 56,75 Engine
engine PDT, the Systems Integration PDT, payloads could include scientific and
(6O.0O) the Avionics PDT and the PTA PDT, which
-116.75 engineering payloads in the areas of
has responsibility for the coordination and medicine, materials and space manufactur-
integration of the hardware into the PTA ing. The design is based around a
FIGURE5.--The propulsion test article. and the test stand. The test operations 72-in-diameter tank set and would be
Technology Programs
representative of a booster with a 220-1b Integrated Propulsion MSFC, through a cooperative

(NCC8-47)
agreement
with Rockwell International,
capability to low-Earth orbit.
TechnologyDemonstrator developed this integrated propulsion system
The PTA will provide a flexible test-bed test-bed known as the IPTD. Figure 7
with the ability to test various propulsion Joe L. Leopard/EP13 illustrates the IPTD Phase I test configura-
components in a system environment, 205-544-3950 tion. Five major propulsion system
allowing NASA and industry to evaluate technologies were implemented and
E-mail ' larry.leopard@msfc.nasa.gov
these components, with the perspective of evaluated during Phase I IPTD testing. The
their use in a low-cost booster, providing majority of Phase 1 testing focused on
less expensive access to space. Improved propulsion system integration demonstrating complex facility/vehicle
methods are the answer to reduced flight checkout and launch operations which
Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation cost of any propulsion system. The could be integrated and automated to
Program Office propulsion system is a significant factor not provide "on-time" launches at reduced cost.
only in weight, but in both turnaround time Component/system technologies were also
Biographical Sketch: Mark Fisher is and operations cost of any reusable launch evaluated during the course of Phase I
member of the Propulsion Systems Branch vehicle. Historically, the design of such testing.
in MSFC's Propulsion Laboratory. He has systems has considered weight and
been an employee of NASA since 1990. "hardware" as the primary technical Automation of LO 2 component checkout
Fisher leads the PTA product development challenges. This type of approach has been and propellant loading was successfully
team, an interlaboratory, intercenter team demonstrated again and again resulting in demonstrated utilizing one operator,
charged with the design, development and uncoordinated and inefficient operations. computer hardware, and expert software.
test of the PTA system. He received a B.A. Bottom line: You have good designs and Following are details of the specific
degree in mathematics from Edinboro reliable hardware, but you can't launch it on accomplishments and their benefits.
University of Pennsylvania, and a B.S. and time and at low cost! The integration
an M.S. degree in mechanical engineering technology needs are basic and focus on LO 2 and LH 2 component checkout software
from Pennsylvania State University. P._ two areas: First, develop hardware designs was co-written by a small government/
based on operational efficiency, and second, industry team in G2 (expert system
implement automation for all operations. software) and executed within the propul-
Technology developed in both of these areas sion checkout and control system (PCCS)
will result in well-integrated, highly architecture to conduct automated checkout
efficient, and low-cost test/launch opera- tests. Five Shuttle checkout tests were
tions. The integrated propulsion technology chosen for automation demonstrations
demonstrator (IPTD) charter is to provide a where operation improvements could be
platform to make significant advancements quantified by comparing to existing Shuttle
in both of these areas. timelines and manpower estimates. A
reduction in manpower of 266 man-hours
The overall goal of the IPTD program is to (Shuttle) to 6 man-hours and a reduction in
enable NASA and industry to jointly actual clock time of 77 hr (Shuttle) to 1.5 hr
develop system requirements and validate was demonstrated for LO 2 system check-
integrated vehicle, engine, and subsystem out/retest. These quantified results and
requirements in the advanced conceptual technical expertise obtained during IPTD
design phase of a program through the testing provide the basis for implementing
preliminary design phase. This early significant cost savings via automation on
validation of requirements with empirically existing or future launch systems and
derived integrated performance and facilities.
operational data is necessary to enhance the
credibility of operational cost projections The IPTD team successfully demonstrated
for the next launch vehicle program. the total automation of LO 2 loading and
Advancements in integrating propulsion launch operations including real-time
systems, focused on operations costs and facility and vehicle reconfiguration upon
efficiency of launch and test operations, will anomaly detection. The demonstration
enable the United States to provide reliable consisted of one control workstation and
and repeatable low-cost access to space. operator automatically configuring the
MSFC west test area facility and the IPTD and very time-efficient vehicle and launch Electromechanical actuator (EMA)
for LO 2 actual loading, simulated launch, facility operations can be achieved by technology was evaluated by integrating and
sating, and securing. During this test, the implementing highly "integrated" propul- testing two EMA's in the LH 2 module. A
automated control and evaluation software sion health monitoring and control systems. MOOG, Inc.-designed EMA was installed
detected a limit violation during terminal in the LH 2 bleed line and a NASA-designed
count and automatically proceeded to scrub A full-scale 12-in-diameter composite feed EMA was installed in the LH 2 till and drain
safing which immediately safed the IFrD line was successfully integrated and tested line. Both actuators were successfully
LO 2 module and facility. The limit was in the LH 2 propulsion module (PM). The cycled during LH 2 testing. These EMA tests
reset and LO 2 flow was restored automati- feed line and composite flanges performed were the first to test EMA technology in a
cally within minutes. After loading was re- as designed when subjected to two full-scale cryogenic propulsion system
entered, the software automatically cryogenic cycles at LH 2 temperatures. This environment, allowing engineers to assess
proceeded to and through the appropriate was a first major milestone with full-scale the potential operation improvements/issues
chilldown and loading phases and advanced hardware that demonstrated composite feed related to implementing EMA technology in
to terminal count. Terminal count and lines and flanges can potentially be used in existing and/or future vehicles.
simulated launch was successfully demon- some cryogenic MPS systems applications
strated and was followed by module and for significant weight reduction. An MPS hazardous gas leak detection
facility sating and final securing. This major method which could potentially identify
IPTD milestone demonstrates that, low-cost leaks at a zone/component level was
demonstrated during LH 2 testing. The
method utilized mass spectrometry with
real-time gas sampling at multiple locations
Informed Maintenance Advanced Instrumentation (zones) in an enclosed compartment. The
Integration leak detection system performed as
• Electronic Parts ID
• Portable Maintenance Aids • Leak Detection designed and provided engineers with
- Heads-Up Display • Temperature Composite preliminary data for improving current
• Palm-Top Computers Press-Ducers state-of-the-art leak detection methods.
• Paperless Maintenace
and Logistics Industry designed and manufactured close-
• Automated Maintenance AETF Tank (Existing) coupled cryogenic pressure transducer
Planning technology was evaluated during Phase I
LO 2 and LH 2 testing. A TABER 2211LT
f Auto pressure transducer was installed on the
I Checkout/ LH 'To Vent' LO 2 module and another on the LH 2
\ Health 2, A ' _$2 module to provide data at both cryogenic
_,.. _1_ Monitoring | r-------J temp ranges. Both sensors tracked pressure
" changes very well, but exact magnitudes

were slightly off. Integration and evaluation
of these commercial transducers is a
classical example of industry/Government
,.o,..,,,o.
ChecKout & Loaoing t-rom Valves _ 'J' __.. [_ IL'_
partnership developed during IPTD testing
to benefit each party involved.
Control S.tom Ground Storage _ -__-_ "" J'" Rockwell's informed maintenance tech-
System Fault Prediction _ _' ( _1 yr_ niques were demonstrated throughout IPTD
Detection, Isolation, and _. _'1 12 in LH Line '[_ testing. These demonstrations were the first
i Reconfiguration ' _ _ Composite
2 steps toward proving that well-designed
software can detect errors, generate an error
Sensor/Signal End-to-end Checks _, _
report, recommend corrective action,
• Embedded Diagnostics Ground Ground
• Prototype Vehicle/Ground Data schedule work, and provide a work order
Processing Interface Storage Storage with associated procedures for component
repair or replacement. This type of "in-the-
loop" hardware operations testing will
FIGURE7.--IPTD Phase I tasting configuration. continue to help develop and validate the
Technology Programs
tools required for eventually implementing Uni-Element Injector An alternative method for characterizing
"airline"-type operations for launch vehicles injectors is to use a small combustion
and support systems. Testing chamber with windows to conduct extensive
evaluation of a single or a small number of
Sponsor: X-33 Program John M. Cramer/EP12 injection elements. Quantitative, as well as
205-544-7090 qualitative, data can be obtained using a
Biographical Sketch: Joe L. Leopard has combination of advanced optical diagnostic
E-mail: john.cramer@msfc,nasa.gov
been with MSFC's Propulsion Laboratory methods and conventional methods. A
since 1990 working in several areas John J. Hutt/EP12 facility has been established at MSFC for
including engine testing, analysis, and 205-544-7125 this type of advanced injector development.
expert systems design for test and flight E-mail: john.hutt@msfc.nasagov
operations. While working in Propulsion The combustion chamber currently being
Laboratory's Propulsion/Systems Branch, used, known as the uni-element injector test
he served as NASA's principle investigator In order to develop improved injectors for article, is on loan from Aerojet
on the IPTD project directing the day-to- liquid rocket engines, a low-cost, time- TechSystems. The combustion chamber,
day implementation of each technology effective method for evaluating injector which has a 3.42-in inner diameter, is
demonstration. He currently works in characteristics is needed. A new methodol- designed to accommodate windows with a
Propulsion Laboratory's Engine Design ogy and test facility are being developed for viewing diameter of 1.125 in. Three sets of
and Analysis Branch. this purpose at MSFC. windows provide optical access to the
combustion chamber at axial distances of
Historically, large subscale hardware at the x =0.5, 2.25, and 4.0 in from the injector
40,000-lb thrust level has been used for this face. At each axial location, windows are at
purpose. This test hardware is approxi- four circumferential positions: 0, 150, 180,
mately 5 to 15 percent of typical full-scale and 270 degrees. This configuration allows
hardware for launch vehicle applications. for a variety of optical techniques that
Because of the expense and limited data require the light source and receiving optics
quality of this test approach, injector to be oriented at different angles.
development programs using it are typically
limited to evaluating a small number of The uni-element hardware was used to
injector designs. These designs are usually examine an oxidizer-rich swirl injection
similar to injectors with an established element. The injection element was
performance data base. provided by the Pennsylvania State
_rSu r'
e:z77a%_\]_-_--_ r Oxidizer
oxoz r
Inlet
ii _ulus
Fuel
Inlet
RGORE8._xidizer-rich swirl injection element.

University's Propulsion Engineering coolant circuit at the injector periphery. The average of 35 individual images. This
Research Center (PERC), and it is identical GN 2 flowing into the chamber contributed average image shows a spray cone with
to elements that have been tested at PERC. significantly to the total chamber pressure. remarkable symmetry, with the region of
A cross-sectional diagram of this element is The mass flow rate of GN 2 was adjusted to highest flame intensity located very close
shown in figure 8. The central oxidizer post set the steady-state chamber pressure at to the injector face (<0.5 in).
has an inner diameter of 0.135 in and an approximately 400 or 800 psia.
outer diameter of 0.165 in. Angular Other diagnostic techniques under develop-
momentum, or "swirl," is imparted to the Several combustion diagnostic techniques ment include the phase doppler particle
oxidizer flow as it passes through the slotted are being applied or are being developed for analyzer (PDPA) system and Raman
openings in the swirl nut at the head end of application to this problem. For example, spectroscopy. PDPA is an established
the injector. The fuel annulus which ultraviolet (UV) images have been taken method for measuring the important
surrounds the oxidizer post has an outer with an intensified charge coupled device characteristics of a liquid spray, in particu-
diameter of 0.280 in. (CCD) camera and a UV filter. Figure 9 lar droplet size and velocity distributions.
shows a series of these individual images Refinement of this technique for rocket
Liquid oxygen (lox) and gaseous hydrogen taken at a gate speed of 3 ktsec. These engine injection elements is underway at
(GH 2) were used as the propellants. The lox images were taken at the first window PERC, and collaboration between PERC
mass flow rate was fixed at 0.25 lbm/sec or position (x=0.5 in), and the direction of and MSFC will continue in this area. Recent
0.40 lbm/sec. The GH 2 mass flow rate was flow is from left to right. White pixels experimental studies indicate that Raman
varied to provide mixture ratios (O/F) over indicate regions of high flame intensity. The spectroscopy is a promising technique for
the range of 50 to 175. Gaseous nitrogen instantaneous flame structure in these gathering local data on major species and
(GN2) was injected through the annular images is quite complex, and significant temperature with reasonable levels of
injector circuits (both fuel and oxidizer). variation can be seen from frame to frame. accuracy. MSFC's approach is to apply a
Additional GN 2 was used in the film The final frame in this sequence is an spontaneous Raman scattering technique
Face Nut
GIt2
Lox Flow
/f
Window
FISUnE9.--Ultraviolet Images of combustion zone at first window position (x=O.5 in).
10
Technology Programs
developed at ambient pressure to pressures Thin Membrane Fresnel controller on the Moore M-40 diamond
of interest for rocket engine applications turning machine at the MSFC Optics
(> 1,000 psia). This previous work demon-
Lens for Solar Thermal Branch. An aluminum blank was attached
strated a temporal resolution of 20 ns and a on to the machine and the grooves cut in the
spatial resolution of 0.4 mm. Comparable
Propulsion blank to make the mandrel. The mandrel
levels of resolution are expected at MSFC. was sent to United Applied Technology as
VinsonB.Huegele/EB52 part of a SBIR Phase 2 contract who cast
A new approach for assessing the perfor-
205-544-3475 the lens by pouring the dissolved polyimide
mance of liquid rocket engine injection E-mail:vinson.huegele@msfc.nasa.gov onto the mandrel and spinning it in a
element designs at MSFC has been temperature and humidity controlled
established. The test facility and test Solar concentrators made from deployable environment. The cured lens was returned
hardware are operational, and a range of thin membranes offer a significant size and to MSFC where it was optically tested. The
combustion diagnostic techniques to weight savings as a propulsion power lens was fully illuminated by a collimated
characterize important physical processes source for spacecraft upper stages. A laser beam and the focused spot was
are being developed. membrane cast into a fresnel lens can observed and compared to the design value.
collect and focus the sun into a thermal The lens was also attached to a heliostat and
Hutt, J.J.; and Cramer J.M.: "Advanced cavity so that the energy absorbed there by the size and power distribution of the solar
Rocket Injector Development at the a fluid creates a low thrust but a high initial image was measured. Four lenses were
Marshall Space Flight Center." AIAA specific impulse (Isp). MSFC is developing produced and studied.
96-4266, 1996 AIAA Space Programs a demonstration in space of this solar
and Technologies Conference, Huntsville, thermal technology with the shooting star The lenses showed the casting and
AL, September 24-26, 1996. flight experiment. production process to be consistent. The
measured optical performance was nominal,
Sponsor: Office of Space Access and A polyimide developed by Langley and the lens proved itself suitable as a
Technology; Space Transportation Division Research Center can be cast into an ultra- concentrator. The focal length and solar
thin, strong membrane tolerant of space image size were observed to be as pre-
University/Industry Involvement: Aerojet environments. Work has been ongoing dicted, but there were noticeable transmis-
Tech Systems; University of Alabama in since 1988 at MSFC on fabrication and sion losses through the lens due to the
Huntsville--Propulsion Research Center; testing of membrane reflectors with this scattering from the very small groove
Pennsylvania State University--Propulsion polyimide 1. The material has been pattern.
Engineering Research Center produced into specimens that are 0.001-in
thick and 8-ft wide. Although originally The success of this model allows the
Biographical Sketch: John Cramer and spin cast on flat plates, the material can be continuation of fresnel research and
John Hutt are aerospace engineers in the molded on a mandrel to produce a groove manufacturing to scale up to the full-size
Combustion Physics Branch of the pattern. The polyimide membrane can be lens for the flight experiment. By making
Propulsion Laboratory. Cramer is a graduate folded and stowed, then recover its shape and testing a thin membrane fresnel lens
of Purdue University and the University of when released and supported. from the polyimide, this investigation has
Wisconsin-Madison. Hutt is a graduate of expanded the data base and developed better
the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, and The shooting star flight experiment will use expertise to understand the fabrication
the University of Alabama in Huntsville. p,] a deployable 6-ft-diameter f/1.25 fresnel techniques and technology to make larger
lens to concentrate sunlight. A fresnel lens solar concentrators for upper stage
focuses light with a series of small propulsion. New designs and materials such
concentric circular prismatic wedges as this are essential to further advance space
instead of a curved surface, and can be deployable optics.
molded into the polyimide membrane. A
12-in-diameter scale model was made to _Huegele, V.B.: "Thin Film Electrostatic
test and prove the concept, specifically the Controlled Reflector." MSFC Research
fabrication technique and the optical and Technology Report 1991.
performance.
Sponsor: Office of Space Access and
The optical prescription for the fresnel lens Technology
was designed and converted into a groove
pattern compatible with the tooling
11
Industry Involvement: United Applied Nuclear Fission Propulsion nuclear rocket. This engine concept offers
Technology the possibility of even higher performance
levels than the solid core nuclear rocket
Bill Emrich/PS05
Biographical Sketch: Vinson Huegele is with specific impulses in the order of
205-544-7504
an optical physicist in the Optics Branch 1,500 to 5,000 sec. These engines use a
and is the optics lead for the shooting star E-mail:bill,emrich@msfc,nasa,gov fissioning uranium plasma to heat hydrogen
flight experiment. Huegele has been with gas to ultra-high temperatures before being
MSFC since 1980. He received his B.S. in Missions to Mars will almost certainly expelled through a nozzle. The technical
physics from David Lipscomb University require propulsion systems with perfor- difficulties associated with constructing a
and his M.S. in engineering from the mance levels exceeding that of today's best gas core NTR are formidible. Before a gas
University of Tennessee Space Institute. P.J chemical engines. A strong candidate for core nuclear engine can be constructed, it
that propulsion system is the Nuclear will be necessary to
Thermal Rocket or NTR. Solid core NTR answer fundamental
engines should have specific impulses in the feasibility questions
range of 925 sec as opposed to chemical related to maintaining 11
lox/hydrogen engines with specific uranium plasma
impulses in the range of 450 sec. NTR's stability, minimizing
operate by using a nuclear reactor to heat uranium plasma loss
hydrogen propellant to high temperatures through the nozzle,
and then expelling the resulting exhaust and maintaining
through a nozzle to produce thrust. separation of the
hydrogen propellant
In the early 1970's, a nuclear rocket from the uranium _
program was instituted called ROVER/ plasma while ,t:
NERVA which demonstrated a 75,000-1b maximizing their
thrust class engine. This engine was tested energy exchange.
in the Nevada desert by allowing the hot Research is being
hydrogen propellant exhaust to escape conducted with
directly into the atmosphere. Such testing LANL to answer FmURElO.--Nuclear
would not be permitted in today's regula- some of these gas thermal
tory environment; therefore, the current core issues, engine.
emphasis is on much smaller nuclear
engines with thrust levels of less than Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation
15,000 lb. These engines are small enough Program
to be tested in current closed-loop test
facilities, thus avoiding the expense of Biogaphical Sketch: Bill Emrich is an AST
constructing large, expensive test facilities Aerospace Flight Systems engineer. He
that would be required for the larger serves as a project engineer for advanced
engines. High values of thrust can be propulsion systems, developing analytical
attained, at the expense of specific impulse, and design techniques for advanced
by injecting and burning oxygen in the propulsion systems and defining ancillary
supersonic portion of the nozzle. Investiga- propulsion system elements. Emrich
tions are also being pursued for using these received his B.S. at Georgia Institute of
engines in "dual mode" operation--the Technology, his M.S. at Massachusetts
engine reactor could be used both for thrust Institute of Technology, and conducted his
and power production. Figure 10 illustrates post graduate work at Princeton University.
a nuclear thermal engine. Research is
underway with LeRC and LANL to
understand the benefits and problems with
oxygen augmentation and dual-mode use.
Another nuclear thermal engine concept

that is being investigated is the gas core
12
Technology Programs
Fusion Propulsion based main propulsion systems may begin

Componentsfor Beamed
and end at times convenient to meeting the
mission objectives rather than being Energy Transportation
Bill Emrich/PS05
artificially constrained by launch window
205-544-7504 considerations. These vehicles also mitigate EdwardE.Montgomery/PS02
E-mail:bill.emrich@nasa.msfc.gov the need for large space infrastructures 205-544-1767
which would be required to support the
E-mail:sandy.montgomery@msfc.nasa.gov
One of the great deterrents to the large-scale transfer of massive amounts of fuel and
exploration of the solar system has been and supplies to lower a performing spacecraft.
continues to be the tremendous cost The Beamed Energy Transportation (BET)
associated with putting the massive amounts Efforts are currently underway to examine program is a component of the Advanced
of equipment and infrastructure into space the various fusion concepts that have been Space Transportation (AST) program. The
to support such endeavors due to the relative developed over the years to determine objective is to exploit recent R&D advances
low specific impulse available from which configurations are most suitable for such as high average power lasers, atmo-
chemical engines. Ideally, for solar system use as propulsion systems. Three concepts sphere compensating beam directors, and
exploration, one would want a vehicle with currently being studied for possible use as high specific impulse space propulsion in
specific impulses in the range of 10,000 to propulsion systems include the gasdynamic order to achieve the capability of transfer-
200,000 sec and at least moderate levels of magnetic mirror, the colliding conical theta ring large amounts of power over great
thrust. Fusion engines, if they can be built pinch, and the field reversed configuration. distances. Such a capability would remove
in reasonable sizes, match these require- Other concepts will also be considered if from the launch vehicle and space transfer
ments quite closely and would be most evaluations appear to show their viability as stages those systems needed to generate
suitable as the primary propulsion system propulsion systems. Figure I 1 illustrates a power, thus improving the overall mass
for an interplanetary vehicle. Such a vehicle vehicle design based upon a Gasdynamic fraction. In addition, the availability of large
would be quite capable of accomplishing Mirror Fusion Engine. amounts of energy to propulsion systems
manned missions to any planet in the solar enables more efficient high specific impulse
system. Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation propulsion technologies. Microwave
Program rectenna power transmission, while limited
Several manned missions to various planets in range, may be a useful augmentation for
have been analyzed to determine fuel Biographical Sketch: Bill Emrich is an Earth-to-orbit transportation. The develop-
requirements and launch windows for AST, aerospace flight systems engineer. ment of laser-photovoltaic power transmis-
vehicles employing such propulsion He serves as a project engineer for sion may also provide the basis for new
systems. For all cases studied, the fuel advanced propulsion systems, developing capability in supporting orbiting spacecraft
weight remained a minor component of the analytical and design techniques for propulsion from the ground. A spinoff for
total system weight regardless of when the advanced propulsion systems and defining NASA will be a capacity to support
missions commenced. In other words, the ancillary propulsion system elements. scientific, life support, and other housekeep-
use of fusion propulsion virtually eliminates Emrich received his B.S. at Georgia ing operations for space stations and lunar
all mission window constraints and Institute of Technology, his M.S. at bases. Also, long distance high-bandwidth
effectively allows unlimited manned Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and communications will be made possible.
exploration of the entire solar system. conducted his postgraduate work at Initially, within the next 20 years or so, the
Missions employing vehicles with fusion- Princeton University. technology will be used to transmit power
from the ground, where it is relatively
plentiful and inexpensive to obtain, to space
where power generation is one of the major
design constraints on orbital systems. As
access to space becomes more routine and
,_ _ • ,
...._i, _ i _ , less expensive, the power generation
I .... capabilities will be available in orbit, and
the transmitters will also be based in space.
The current program goals of the BET are

to provide a demonstration before the year
FmURE11.mlnterplanetary vehicle using a gasdynamic mirror fusion 2000 which verifies that beamed energy can
propulsion system. be used to remotely power a space
13
transportation system, and to follow that engine performance, and engineering Advanced Reusable
demonstration with an initial operational implications for a flight demonstration
capability of a launch system by 2004 and drone will be determined. Transportation
a space transfer stage by 2006.
Technologies Project
Karpinsky, John; Lindsey, Randall: "Final
The technologies being developed will be Report: Demonstrator for an Innovative
critical to the transport of payloads to space Mirror Segment Edge Sensor." SY JamesE Turner/EE61
and in space using transportation systems of Technology, Inc., Contract Order 205-544-2679
low mass and cost. #H-25794D, Huntsville, AL. E-mail:jim.e.turner@msfc.nasa.gov
At MSFC, the BET program is going Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation The primary goal of the Advanced Reusable
forward in three main thrust areas: Efficient Program; Office of Space Access and Transportation Technology (ART]') project
high average power lasers, economical large Technology; Advanced Concepts; Center is to reduce by a factor of 100 over today's
aperture beam directors with adaptive Director's Discretionary Fund costs the payload transportation cost to low-
optics, and innovative propulsion concepts. Earth orbit by maturing technologies
Biographical Sketch: Edward Montgom- beyond X-33 for medium class launch
MSFC is leading the development of an ery is an Advanced Space Transportation vehicles (fig. 12). In doing so, the project's
efficient high-power laser based on the (AST) aerospace engineer at the Marshall technology goals focus on combined cycle
concept of building an array of many small Space Flight Center. He earned a B.S. rocket-based propulsion systems and
semiconductor laser diodes (SLD's) similar degree in aerospace engineering at Auburn advanced materials (e.g., structures, tankage
to those used in compact disk players and University, and received a master's degree and TPS). These rocket-based combined
bar code scanners. Two approaches are in science and engineering from the cycle (RBCC) engines transition from an
being pursued. MSFC, in conjunction with University of Alabama in Huntsville. _m] initial air-augmented rocket mode takeoff to
USAF Philips Laboratory and the Univer- ramjet mode, then to a scramjet mode and
sity of Alabama in Huntsville, has been finally to an all rocket mode for orbital
engaged in the development of a method of insertion.
phase-locking fiber optic device that can
efficiently coordinate a large array of The state-of-the-art all rocket single stage to
SLD's. In conjunction with the Lawrence orbit vehicle must have approximately
Livermore National Laboratory, the 90 percent propellant and 10 percent inert
production of higher power and more mass. This inert mass must include the
compact, but less efficient incoherent diode vehicle structure, propulsion hardware and
arrays are being researched. In the future, the vehicle's payload. Modern operational
research into free electron lasers and engines, such as the SSME and the
efficient microwave generators is antici- RD-OI20, are essentially at the technical
pated. limit of rocket propulsion; further technol-
ogy gains will only increase rocket
MSFC is also sponsoring the testing of performance (Isp) slightly. The use of
innovative beam-energized "accelerator- RBCC propulsion may provide lsp gains of
class" advanced engine concepts with approximately 50 to 150 sec. These types of
Dr. Leik Myrabo of the Rensselaer increases in mission average Isp would
Polytechnic Institute in Troy, NY, utilizing result in doubling the allowable launch
the high-energy laser system test facilities at vehicle inert mass fraction available for
White Sands, NM. A variety of experimen- launch vehicle design. This additional
tal apparatus are being used in these tests margin could be utilized as increased
including dynamic impulse pendulums, a operating margin by making the design
fully instrumented static impulse plate more robust or to reduce the overall launch
(equipped with numerous piezoelectric vehicle size. Either or both of these
pressure transducers) to measure time- approaches would directly contribute to a
resolved pressures, several parabolic major reduction in both operational costs
receiving mirrors and 0.5 Tesla permanent and cost of payload to orbit.
magnets. This experimental data will be
compared with theoretical predictions for
14
Technology Programs
Solar Thermal Propulsion

Flight Experiment
LeslieA.Curtis/NA01
205-544-2486
E-mail:leslie.curtis@msfc.nasa.gov
One of the space transfer technologies of

promise in the Advanced Space Transporta-
tion Program is solar thermal propulsion.
This type of propulsion system could be
used for advanced upper stages that could
provide low-cost transportation of payloads
from low-Earth orbit to geosynchronous-
Earth orbit and beyond. Solar thermal
propulsion requires large lightweight
concentrators, high-temperature materials
RGUaE12..--Artist's concept of RBCC flying through atmosphere. for the engine, integrated controls and
pointing, and long-term storage of cryo-
genic hydrogen. Several of these technolo-
The ARTY project currently in progress A large percentage of the launch vehicle gies are being matured to support solar
focuses on ground testing those technolo- cost reduction goal will be achieved by thermal propulsion including a flight
gies deemed critical for the successful incorporation of RBCC propulsion. experiment to demonstrate a solar thermal
demonstration of an RBCC engine. However to achieve a 1/100 reduction in the propulsion system in space operation. This
Attention is being focused on the ability to vehicle recurring cost, additional technolo- experiment is called the shooting star
design, fabricate, install and demonstrate gies will be required. Along with the RBCC experiment (SSE) and will be flown in
small rockets in a carrying structure. These technologies, advanced vehicle technologies FY99. Deployed configuration is shown in
rockets will be required for the initial will also be pursued. The main focus of this figure 13.
takeoff and low-speed operation of the activity will he on primary structures,
launch vehicle. The rockets will then be cryogenic tankage and thermal protection The shooting star experiment will demon-
turned off as the engine transitions to ramjet systems, and avionics. strate the deployment of a lightweight
and scramjet modes. The rockets will finally inflatable support structure, precise sun
be turned back on and the engine inlet Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics and Space acquisition and collection, high-temperature
closed for orbital insertion. The results of Transportation Technology engine operation resulting in high specific
this testing will be incorporated with flow impulse (Isp). The experiment is designed
path work currently ongoing. The engines Biographical Sketch: Jim Turner is the to concentrate solar energy with a fresnel
will be subscale, on the order of 1/6 scale, chief engineer for the Advanced Reusable lens that will be connected to an inflatable
and will be flight-like but not flight-weight. Transportation Technologies Project. He torus which will be supported by three
Tests will include direct connect and freejet holds a bachelor's degree in chemical inflatable struts. The concentrated solar
testing of these rockets in various test engineering and a master of materials energy will be focused into a thermal
facilities, both industrial and government, in engineering from Auburn University, and storage engine where stored propellant will
this country. has worked for MSFC for 14 years. D_" be used to provide a small thrust. The
inflatable concentrator system will be
The incorporation of a supercharging fan launched deflated and packaged in a
increases the operability of a RBCC vehicle container to protect it during pre-launch
by adding a self-ferrying capability and processing and launch environments and to
additional abort-mode option. Technology reduce the launch vehicle payload volume.
issues associated with a supercharging fan
will be addressed and tested in the AR'lq" The spacecraft bus is the physical structure
project. to which all the subsystem components will
be attached and will interface to the launch
15
functions are controlled in flight by the

OBCS. There is no capability for ground
control after launch.
The successful space demonstration of

several key technologies in this flight
experiment will help mature solar thermal
propulsion to the point where full-scale
development of an upper stage using this
technology could be undertaken.
Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation

Program
University/Industry Involvement: Univer-

sity of Alabama in Huntsville; United Applied
Technologies; Plasma Processing, Inc.
FIGURE13._eployed flight configuration of shooting star experiment.
Biographical Sketch: Leslie A. Curtis serves
vehicle via the payload adapter interface. It The electronic heart of the SSE is the on- as manager for the Space Transfer Technolo-
also provides the thermal protection to all board computer system (OBCS), (fig. 14), gies project in the Advanced Space Transpor-
subsystems from the thermal engine module. and the inertial measuring unit (IMU). The tation Program office. She has responsibility
The thermal engine assembly is designed to OBCS contains and executes the pro- for in-space transportation technology
convert the solar energy focused into the grammed sequential and housekeeping including upper stages, transfer stages, and
engine inner cavity, store it as heat and software and the IMU provides navigational on-board propulsion systems. Curtis has
transfer the energy to a gaseous propellant and stability measurements. All experiment worked for NASA at MSFC for 13 years.
injected into the engine heat exchanger,
resulting in an increased Isp over that
obtained by just flowing the monopropellant
through the engine nozzle. For SSE, the
engine is operated in pulse mode, (i.e., it is
thermally charged and then discharged by
injecting the propellant when the operating
temperature is reached). During the
experiment operation, multiple cycles will
be attempted, at increasing start-point
temperatures. The final goal is 2,760 °C. At
this temperature, it is estimated the resulting
lsp should approach 800 sec.
There will be a Sun-centering detector

system to direct the focused solar flux into
the engine cavity. The cavity diameter is
about 3.8 cm. Part of the Fresnei lens will
be dedicated to provide a light ring at the
approximate outer diameter of the bus
where four optical detectors will be located.
The centering processor will forward
commands to the guidance and control
software for corrections to keep the energy
centered. A lost Sun mode has been
baselined in order to reorient the SSE lens
from any orientation back toward the Sun. FmunE14._hooting star control system.
16
TechnologyPrograms
Magnetic Lifter the space age. In a marketplace dominated Shuttle provides many important new
by expendable launch vehicles grounded in capabilities, it did not significantly lower
the technology base of the 1950's and space launch costs. During the same period,
Joe T. Howell/PS05
1960's, diverse innovative approaches have a variety of other launch requirements (e.g.,
205-544-8491 been conceived since 1970 for reducing the for vehicle research and development and
E-maihjoe.howell@msfc.nasa.gov cost per pound for transport to low-Earth microgravity experiments) have been met
orbit. For example, the Space Shuttle--a by relatively expensive, typically rocket-
Achieving an affordable and reliable launch largely reusable vehicle--was developed in based solutions (e.g., rocket sleds and
infrastructure for low-cost, routine access to the 1970's with the goal of revolutionizing sounding rockets).
space is one of the enduring challenges of Earth-to-orbit transportation. Although the
HRV "_k
Other Facilities ReleasePoint \
Not Shown \
(e.g., Control _ - -
............ GasMembrane --_ \ .d Launcn
Ct_l Itt_/, LdHUlHLJ , . _%. _
Area' Storage' (DeslgnOptl°n)_X -_/45deg

..
,.,,._ _ 45q .(
55deg .
etc.) . Engine Start for Pre- _ _' j_. _. _ Design Option) Approximately
PrisaysrytP°wer R_DeaSeg#_Ct_jO)ut _'_+_'_ _-_---/_-_'_"_-_ Total_A

'000ftsc
i_
(e.g.,SMES _ 2.5 miles r'_/._ _,, Dece!erat°r I Approximately
Option) I I / ._ ./.,,4_r- L_uloewayI 6,500 ft
Is;;t'ng
I _ 0.5-1.0 mile _ _ Approximately
rat;"''Y I_l_he'c_"
;u_" "/'" - _--_- Power Storage 3,500 ft
/ Accelerator Substations
/ Guideway
Reference Vehicles
.." Tunnel " . no_e[ "--,'.u m,u /
• ,,/_.,. ..... .__, : ................................ 4 at 600 mDh | ..... •
• / LueLuu:_lylluptlUll/
:" -; Highly ReusableVehicle ICombined
I_
Cycle_<1.0MiDI
" . I "
:
" : (HRV) / at 1.000 mph J :
• I I =
: : -
• m •
°pw \ -
• m
• Structural Supports :
Maglev : : Carrier Vehicle (Distribution of Loads •
. Perle ic o Guideway .- - •
- Storage Units • : on PayloadVehicle)
"m System • •• ••
- Cross Section .• " •
#IIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII III_"
FIGURE
15.--MagLifter Space LaunchSystem(configuration "i "): Notional, full-scale system concept. Thisversion of MagLifter
is configuredfor a highlyreusable vehicle that doesnot involvethe use of aerodynamic lift duringlaunch (i.e., a
ballistic ascenttrajectory).
17
There are several basic strategies for cost from air-breathing hypersonic Earth-to-orbit of "cannons," such as rail guns and coil
reduction, including: (l) reducing the cost vehicles like the National Aerospace Plane guns. Despite significant theoretical
of hardware expended in launcher systems to advanced rocket concepts such as space advantages, these systems have had both
per pound of payload, (2) increasing the nuclear thermal propulsion. Some exotic technical and programmatic difficulties in
reusability per flight of highly reusable concepts involving "gun-type" systems have maturing beyond research and development
vehicles, and (3), for both of these, reducing also been studied. and prototype-level demonstrations.
the cost of launch operations. A variety of
space launch concepts is still under study in However, past analyses of launch systems A new approach, involving the use of
this context, ranging from single-stage-to- involving electric propulsion have been superconducting, magnetically levitated
orbit vehicles to "big, dumb boosters," and largely limited to electromagnetic versions ("maglev") and propelled vehicles, has been
Other Facilities
Not Shown
(e.g., Control A-HRV
Center, Landing Release Point "x
Area, Storage, \
etc ) Engine Start for Pre- _ Launch
.... ' Release Check-Out \ _ Annroximatelv
Primary Power (Design Option) -_ /,,_',, ,_-_ 15-20 deg. "_0,000 ft "
System
..... I \ _ I Total Ascent:
(e g _Mt_
• " . Approximately
Option) I_ _ 6-9 mlles--'_--__n _ ,_,,_ _,_ "'_Decelerator 6 50rift
]S_tagi_ - -... _,,,_,,,j_r , ........ Guideway ' "
i ac,,w Approximately
, , _._ "[ -\ x.. Power Storag e 3.500 ft
/ Accelerator.X Substations i" ............. _
/" i .eleroncevemcies t
.,,rt_,,
:
........ _:;.,_o:,_o,,J
Sudace Option
Guideway ......
." ......................
/
I
Rocket_<2.0 Mlb
at 600 mph
/
| .... ,.
: " : Aerodynamic-Highly / A/B-R _<1.0 MIb / :
: -" _ RousabIeVohicIo(A-HRV) L atl,2OOmph j i

- _ : : _ _..-- .__,,, :
: ' ' I=r_ age i i Maglev Accelerator --/

. Penodm Power Guideway . - " r' r .... Structural Supports .
-_ Storage Umts . . uar =e vemcm (Distribution of Loads -"
i System -" -" on Payload Vehicle) :
FIGURE16._agLifter Space Launch System (configuration "j"): Notional, full-scale system concept. This version of MagLifter
is configured for a highly reusable vehicle that does involve the use of aerodynamic lift during launch.
18
Technology
Programs
developed. Three configurations of the draws on a heritage of electromagnetic demonstration. A strong synergism exists
MagLifter concept shown in figures 15, 16 launch concepts and technical literature, but between the magnetic lifter technologies
and 17 combine the technology base of embodies several new technical characteris- and the multi-use technology applications
maglev systems being proposed and tics which have not been thoroughly involving other Government agencies and
demonstrated for terrestrial applications considered to date. private industries.
with the best planned improvements in
expendable launch and/or highly reusable The Magnetic Launch assist shown in figure Sponsor: Office of Space Access and
vehicle systems. Together, the results 18 depicts the goal of a magnetic launch Technology; Advanced Space Transporta-
suggest dramatic improvements in Earth-to- assist concept, potential developing tion Program
orbit costs may be possible. The MagLifter technologies, maglev testing and flight
Other Facilities
Not Shown
(e.g., Control
Center, Landing A-HRV
Area, Storage, Release Point -k
etc.) k
Engine Start for Pre- \
Prim ary Power Release Check-Out
System (Design Option) -_
(eg.... SMES t \ _ _ Launch Decelerator
.
Optton) I= 6-9 mtles -- .- _ .
,.--_ I_Fuvele';Clend I -o''" -- % . ( "_ _ -_ _ Approximately
/_ccelerator _x / _-- 0.5 mile

................. / Guideway //
liD lllllllllll Illl gill I IIII I IIII/ D_lmn_ L_t¢_ r_ ¢1_ J
o . ........... y_ f %
: Surface Option : Substations / Reference Vehicles /
i : / Rocket <2.0 MIb /
i
•
•
" -
I I lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
1 at 600 I lillllj
,
: : : Aerodynamic-Highly l AhI-R <1.0 MIb / :
•" k _ 4 i :. Reusable Vehicle (A-HRV) L at 600-1,200 mph J ::

i
•
Peri '
Maglev
Guideway
':"L
"
:
:
.
• Storage Units
• Maglev Accelerator- Structural Supports "
" System -l
: Carrier Vehicle (Distribution of Loads "
• Cross Section
; o • on Payload Vehicle) -"
w
Illmllilllllllllllilllllll Ill IIi
i
ii
I1_Ii ii i iii i i iii i l i l l i i ill l i I I I I I III I I III III I I III I I I I I I I I I l I_I
FUGUnE
17._agLifter Space Launch System (configuration "k"): Notional, full-scale system concept. This version of MagLifter
is configured for a highly reusable vehicle that does involve the use of aerodynamic lift during launch and runs
horizontally--0-degree inclination--at release of HRV.
19
MSFCResearchandTechnology1996
105 _ Maglev Advanced

Current Development and
0
I,M Maglev Flight
104 _ Demonstrator
___ystems Test
"U
RLV Goal
¢} Maglev Component
103
m
¢I.
Technology Development and
,,m Proof of Concept Test
102 HRST
Goal
10 I I I 1 L I
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
FIGURE
18.--Magnetic launchassist, technologies,and goal.
Biographical sketch: Joe T. Howell is an conceptual and preliminary design in mechanical engineering. He received a
aerospace engineer. He serves as a project definition studies, and analyses of space master's in engineering science at the
lead with responsibility for performing systems for advanced concepts. Howell University of Tennessee.
advanced systems planning involving attended Auburn University, earning a B.S.
2O
Technology Programs
Superconductor supportable rigor, whether the reported Pulse Detonation

effect is real and measurable.
Interactions With Gravity Rocket Engines
The test apparatus consists of a disk of
RonKoczor/EA01 high-temperature superconducting ceramic JohnM. Cramer/EP12
205-544-3078 (YBCuO material) levitating and rotating in 205-544-7090
a magnetic field. Measurements will be E-maihjohn.cramer@msfc.nasa.gov
E-maihron.koczor@msfc,nasa.gov
taken of the local gravity field surrounding
the disk before, during, and after operation.
NASA's Advanced Space Transportation Several independent methods will be used The pulse detonation engine (PDE) is an
Program (ASTP) is charged to investigate to monitor the gravity field. As the innovative concept for producing thrust for
technologies and concepts which will result properties of this material are highly an aerospace vehicle. The PDE injects low-
in future reductions in the cost of space variable and very dependent upon process- pressure fuel and oxidizer into a tube and
travel. The program has established an area ing, considerable effort will be expended initiates a detonation. The detonation wave,
of investigation in breakthrough propulsion characterizing both the superconducting which travels through the tube at a very
physics. These basic investigations focus material and disk processing. high velocity (~Mach 4 to 6), compresses
on ideas which are beyond our present the combustion products behind it. This
capability to implement, yet offer some l Podkletnov, E.; Niemanen, R.: "A high-pressure gas acts on the closed, head
theoretical or experimental basis to warrant Possibility of Gravitational Force end of the tube to produce thrust. By
further research. Shielding by Bulk YBa2Cu307-x operating at a high repetition rate, the PDE
Superconductor." Physica C 203, pp. generates a quasi-steady thrust.
One of these areas involves the possible 441--444, 1992.
gravitomagnetic effects of high-speed Because the propellants are injected at low
rotating superconductors in strong 2Li, N.; Torr, D.G.: "Effects of a Gravito- pressure, the PDE feed system hardware is
magnetic fields. Published reports I indicate magnetic Field on Pure Superconduc- less complex than that of a conventional
a possible gravity shielding effect with tors." Physical Review D, pp. 457-459, liquid rocket engine. The transient nature of
such an apparatus. Podkletnov devised an 1991. the PDE combustion process means that the
experiment in which a large disk of high- tube walls are exposed to hot gases for only
temperature ceramic superconducting 3Li, N.; Torr, D.G.: "Gravitational Effects a small fraction of each cycle, unlike a
material was magnetically levitated and on the Magnetic Attenuation of Super- conventional engine that is continuously
rotated at high speed (up to several conductors." Physical Review B, vol. 46, exposed to hot gases. Because of these short
thousand r/min) in the presence of an no. 9, pp. 5489-5495, 1992. exposure times to hot gases, active cooling
external magnetic field. In the course of the of the the detonation tube may not be
tests he noted that objects above the 4Torr, D.G.; Li, N.: "Gravito-electric required. These simplifications should result
rotating disk showed a variable but Coupling via Superconductivity." in a significant reduction in development
measurable loss in weight (variable from Foundation of Physics letters, vol. 6, no. and production costs of a PDE.
less than 0.5 to around 2 percent). He had 4, pp. 371-383, 1993.
no explanation for this effect and went Another potential advantage of the PDE
through a self-described rigorous effort to Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation involves the nature of the combustion
eliminate systematic or other possible Program; Center Director's Discretionary process. A conventional rocket engine bums
sources of error. Having done so, he found Fund propellants continuously at constant
that the effect remained. The effect, while pressure. Thermodynamic cycle analysis
small, offers significant potential for University Involvement: University of shows that the constant volume combustion
propulsion, if real. Alabama in Huntsville process of the PDE is inherently more
efficient than constant pressure combustion.
Dr. Ning Li, University of Alabama in Biographical Sketch: Ron Koczor is chief However, the actual efficiency improvement
Huntsville (UAH), has established a theory engineer for the Advanced Systems and suggested by this analysis is yet to be
which establishes a theoretical basis for Technology Office at MSFC. He has a demonstrated.
such gravity-superconductor interac- degree in physics and has been with NASA
tions. 2,3,4 Based upon the reported for 8 years. ___ Although advanced development of the
experimental data and the Li theory, MSFC PDE has focused on air-breathing applica-
and UAH are preparing a cooperative tions in recent years, a similar concept can
experiment to determine, with scientifically be applied to rocket engines. MSFC has
21
FIGURE19.--Prototype hardware for a pulse detonation engine.
conducted a rocket engine system design Eidelman, S.; Grossmann, W.; Gunners, Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation
study to identify potential PDE configura- N.E.; Lottati, I.: "Progress in Pulsed Program
tions for applications such as upper stage Detonation Engine Development." AIAA
engines and small-scale booster engines. 94-2721, 30th Joint Propulsion Confer- University/Industry Involvement: Adroit
The study has identified the key technology ence, Indianapolis, IN, June 27-29, 1994. Systems Incorporated (ASI); Advanced
issues, and it has defined a technology Projects Research Incorporated (APRI)
development plan for addressing these Sterling, J.; Ghorbanian, K.; Humphrey, J.;
issues. Sobota, T.; Pratt, D.: "Numerical Biographical Sketch: John Cramer is an
Investigations of Pulse Detonation Wave aerospace engineer in the Combustion
A technology development program is Engines 7 AIAA 95-2479, 31 th Joint Physics Branch of the Propulsion Labora-
underway to address the major technical Propulsion Conference, San Diego, CA, tory. He is a graduate of Purdue University
issues. In FY97 MSFC will begin testing July 10-12, 1995. and the University of Wisconsin--Madison.
subscale PDE hardware provided by one or
more contractors. The product of this task Bussing, T.; Pappas, G.: "An Introduction to
will be a prototype PDE that will generate Pulse Detonation Engines." AIAA 94-
approximately 1,000 lbf of thrust by FY99. 0263, 32nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting,
The next step in the advanced development Reno, NV, January 10-13, 1994.
program will be to develop and test a PDE
at the 10- to 20,000-1bf thrust level.
22
Technology Programs
Propulsionand Fluid Management
Advanced Gas/Gas Injector TABLE1 .--Swirl coaxial injector dimensions.
Technology
Huu P. Trinh/EP12
205-544-2260
0.210 in (5.33 mm) 0.250 in (6.35 ram) 0.290 in (7.37 mm)
E-maih huu.trinh@msfc.nasa.gov
0.277 in (7.04 mm) 0.317 in (8.05 ram) 0.357 in (9.07 mm)

To provide a rocket engine injector
technology base for supporting the 0.370 in (9.40 mm) 0.410 in (10.4 mm) 0.450 in (11.4 turn)
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) engine
development, a study of high-performance
injectors associated with various engine the same for the 75-degree and 90-degree
cycles has been performed by MSFC and propellants were well-mixed and combusted swirl injectors. The high temperatures
Pennsylvania State University (PSU) under at this axial location. The other two indicate that the energy release for the swirl
the NASA Research Announcement (NRA) derivative injectors also behaved in a similar coaxial injector is close to the face, and
Cooperative Agreement NCC8-46. The manner. hence, the possible use of this type of
recent effort in this activity focused on the injector for actual rocket engines will
advanced gas/gas injector. Based on the Injector face temperature was measured require face-cooling schemes.
results of previous investigations on other with the aid of a type "K" thermocouple
injector types, it was suggested that a swirl silver brazed at a location 0.425-in from the In conclusion, the results of this investiga-
coaxial injector may provide effective injector center line. The temperature tion suggest that the generic swirl injector
propellant mixing; hence it was selected for measurements, sampled at 200 Hz for the for a gas/gas propellant system will have
this study. Three variations of the swirl 2-sec duration rocket firings, as plotted in efficient propellant mixing/combustion
coaxial injector, having oxidizer swirl figure 21, show that the injector face characteristics. However, actual implemen-
angles of 60, 75, and 95 degrees, were temperature is lowest for the 60-degree tation of this type of injector will require a
fabricated and tested in a hot-fire environ- oxidizer swirl angle injector and nominally tradeoff between injector face temperature
ment. Detailed dimensions of the three
injectors are summarized in table 1. The
1.0
injectors were designed for a gaseous
oxygen/hydrogen propellant system at an
oxidizer/fuel mixture ratio (MR) of six with
the chamber pressure of 1,000 psia. The
0.8
purpose of the experiments is to evaluate
the mixing/combustion processes and the
injector face heat U'ansfer characteristics.
0.6
The experiments were conducted with a
M..
2- by 2-in square uni-element combustor
(¢1
equipped with helium-cooled windows. The --
windows allow optical access into the _ 0.4
combustion chamber for laser-based H2 . ./k**|.A ., _i I/_. I1_/I
diagnostic techniques. Raman spectroscopy ._ L "_,1 :/ ! I % _ I_ LI"
was used to measure the major species at 0.2
3.5 in downstream of the injector face. The
species Raman signals were calibrated and t
presented in terms of the species mole

fraction, as shown in figure 20, for the test 0.0
I l I I I
-20 -10 0 10 20
results of the 60-degree swirl-angle injector.
The measured data indicate uniform r(mm)
distribution of species in the radial
direction, which suggests that the gaseous FIGURE
20._verage GH2 and H20 mole fraction for a 60 ° swirl inject or at pc=993 psia.
23
90O
Tripropellant Effervescent
85O
Injector Study
800
75-Degree Swirl--_,_
A
750
Huu P. Trinh/EP12
7O0 f %f 90-Degree Swirl 205-544-2260
E-mail: huu.trinh@msfc.nasa.gov
6OO
650
55O To advance the state-of-the-art with respect
to the development of injection elements for
_- 500
the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) engine,
45O
Pennsylvania State University (PSU) has
4OO designed an effervescent atomizer, as shown
35O in figure 22. This design has a potential
application on a tripropellant RP-1/oxygen/
3OO
hydrogen rocket engine. The injector type is
250 - I I I I similar to a shear coaxial element. The
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 major difference is that both fuels, RP-l
Time (sec) and gaseous hydrogen, share the center
post. The gaseous hydrogen flow enters the
Figure 21.--Injector face temperature for the three coaxial injectors having 60-, 75-, liquid RP-1 through three holes located
and 90-degree swirl angles. upstream of the center post-exit plane and
forms the effervescent fluid. The inside
diameter of the center post is 0.15 in,
requirements and mixing/combustion combustion at MSFC since 1987. He has whereas the inner and outer diameters of the
efficiency. used computational and analytical models gaseous oxygen annulus are 0.18 and 0.5 in.
to analyze rocket engine performances. Drop-size measurements and photographic
Sponsor: Office of Space Access and Currently, he monitors a project of visualizations of the flowfield for cold flow
Technology providing technologies for main chamber conditions, using gaseous nitrogen and
and preburner injectors. The effort is water as simulants, indicate that for high
University/Industry Involvement: Robert conducted under a PSU NRA cooperative gas-to-liquid volumetric flow ratios, the
J. Santoro and Charles Merkle, The agreement to support the RLV program. In flow exiting the injector is an extremely
Propulsion Engineering Research Center of addition, he evaluates injector performance dense cloud of small liquid drops.
the Pennsylvania State University. of the Fastrac engine and analyzes proposed
Bantam main and gas generator injectors. A hot-fire test series was conducted using a
Biographical Sketch: Huu E Trinh has 2- by 2-in square combustor equipped with
worked in the area of liquid rocket engine windows on the chamber walls for the
purpose of using a laser-based diagnostic
technique. These windows were cooled with
a nitrogen purge. To identify the injector
performance, the experiments were set up to
measure RP-1 drop size and combustion
efficiency (C*) for hydrogen mass flow rate
additions from 2 to 10 percent with
chamber pressures (Pc) from 230 to
500 psia. This pressure range covers the
sub-, trans-, and super-critical regimes of
RP-1 propellant. Performance enhancement
due to hydrogen addition is also evaluated
from this study. An overall optimum
mixture ratio of oxidizer to fuel was based
upon an established mixture ratio of
24
Technology Programs
GO2
GH2
!
l
RP-1
FIGURE22.--Schematic of effervescent injector element used for RP-1/GH2/GO 2 tripropellants.
oxygen/RP-1 of 2.4 (yielding high

performance) together with the stoichiomet-
ric mixture ratio for oxygen/hydrogen of 1.0
Mean C* (with N2) Pc=500 psia
8.0 (producing the maximum temperature). []
li Mean
Mean C*
C* (without
(without N2)
N2) Pc=320
Pc=500 psia
psia
Mean C* (without N2) Pc=230 psia 0
The RP-I drop sizes in the combusting
flowfieid were measured using phase
Doppler interferometry. Measurements at a []
0.9 Z_
location (x=6 in and r=0.2 in), as shown in
figure 23, are compared for three chamber x
g_ 0
pressure conditions of 230, 320, and
call
.m
500 psia. The results show that drop sizes Zk
ttl
could be measured at both transcritical
(320 psia case) and super-critical conditions
0.8 0
(500 psia case). 0 []
[]
The effects of hydrogen mass addition on
C* efficiency for subject injector are
presented in figure 24 for three chamber
pressure cases. For comparison purposes, 0.7
J I I [ I
the C* efficiencies at a chamber pressure of 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
500 psia were calcualted both with and
without the nitrogen purge. The results GH2% Addition (of RP-1 Flow)
clearly show that the combustion efficiency
increases with the increase of hydrogen FIGURE23.mRP-1/GHz/GO 2 rocket C* efficiency for increasing flow rate of GH2 (percentage
mass flow rate. The measurements are of RP-1 flow).
25
0.06
Pintle Injector Study
x=6 in; r=0.2 in
for Liquid Bipropellant
Uncorrected Drop Size for 2-Second Firing Engines
Uncorrected Counts
at 230 psia >13,900 Drops Huu P Trinh/EP12
at 320 psia >8,900 Drops 205-544-2260
at 500 psia >1,950 Drops E-mail: huu.trinh@msfc.nasa.gov
As a part of advancing the injector

0.04 i
technology base in support of the Reusable
0.02 Launch Vehicle (RLV) engine development
:_, _ P=230 psia
and other future rocket engines, an effort of
_1:3
h _ P-320 ps!a I studying a pintle injector for a liquid
bipropellant engine system has been
performed at Pennsylvania State University
(PSU) under a NASA Research Announce-
0 ment (NRA) cooperative agreement with
0 50 1O0 150 MSFC. A typical pintle injection element
has design characteristics as shown in
Diameter (I.Lm)
figure 25. For this study, RP-1 fuel is
injected into the combustion chamber from
FZGURE
24.--Measured RP-1 drop size probability density functions for the central post, whereas liquid oxygen
three chamber pressure conditions. GH2 flowrate equal to
10 percent of RP-1 flowrate.
O = f (TMR, BF)
consistent for the tested chamber pressures Currently, he monitors a project of (Mdot * U)RP
TMR =
of 230, 320, and 500 psia. For the efferves- providing technologies for main chamber (Mdot * U)Lox
cent injector, atomization is clearly and preburner injectors. The effort is
improved with the addition of hydrogen. conducted under a PSU NRA cooperative
Blockage ,T,Width of Slots
The fast reaction rate of hydrogen/oxygen agreement to support the RLV program. In =
Factor (BF) Perimeter of Tube

as compared to that of RP-l/oxygen addition, he evaluates injector performance
translates to a high-temperature oxidizer- of the Fastrac engine and analyzes
rich environment near the injector face. proposed Bantam main and gas generator
Effective Momentum TMR
Consequently, the two aforementioned injectors.
effects would enhance the combustion Ratio (EMR) BF
efficiency.

Technology
University/Industry Involvement:
J. Santoro and Charles Merkle, The
Robert
x,
Propulsion Engineering Research
the Pennsylvania State University.
Center of
L\\\\\\\\\\) 1
Biographical Sketch: Huu P. Trinh has _-- Combined
worked in the area of liquid rocket engine Spray
combustion at MSFC since 1987. He has
used computational and analytical models Figure 25.--Pinlle injector design
to analyze rocket engine performances. characteristics.
26
Technology Programs
0.030 in m_ 0.010 in--_ _--

Injector #1 0.010 in _ Injector #2 Injector #3
4 Horizontal 24 Vertical 24 Horizontal
Slots
Slots 0.020 in--' Slots
Area=0.007 in2 Area=0.007 in2 Area=O.O05 in2
BF=0.8 BF=0.3
0.010 in_-
BF=0.6
0.013,n
i
0.020,n i
0.062 in--_ 0.062 in_-_ ,,_
FIGURE26. m Pintle injector tip designs for three injector elements.
(lox) is issued from the outer annulus. Since

the design of the central post is crucial for
achieving good mixing and combustion,
three variations of subject injector configu-
ration, as shown in figure 26, are being
examined.
Cold-flow tests, using water as a propellant

Injector #1-4 Horizontal Slots Mdot "RP-1 "=0.05 Ibrn/sec Mdot "RP-1"=0.20 Ibm/sec
simulant, were conducted for the three
injectors. The matrix of 3 by 3 images from
the test results, as shown in figure 27, were
captured using a 35 mm camera. The three
images in the first column were taken by
positioning the camera directly beneath the
pintle tip with flow only ejected through the
central post. The first image for injector one
shows four liquid sheets emanating from the Injector #2-24 Vertical Slots Mdot "RP-I"=0.05 Ibm/sec Mdot "RP-1"=0.20 Ibm/sec
four horizontal slots, whereas the next two
images show 24 liquid jets. The middle and
last columns of images were taken by
positioning the camera such that the line of
sight is perpendicular to the injector axis.
The middle column of images for the same
central and outer annular flows display the
P
effects of the injector geometry on the
Injector #3-24 Horizontal Slots Mdot "RP-1"=0.025 Ibm/sec Mdot "RP-1 "=0.125 Ibm/sec
resulting spray field. The spray cone angle
for the first injector, which has 4 horizontal Central "RP" Low TMR High TMR
slots, is larger than the one from the 24-slot Flow Only Mdot "Lox"=O.3 Ibm/sec Mdot "Lox"=O.6 Ibm/sec
injectors. Finally, the last column of images
shows the spray field for flow conditions FIGURE
27._ Cold flow visualizations for three Pintle injectors.
27
Solid Rocket Motor

Asbestos-Free
Insulation
John O. Funkhouser/EP12
205-544-7105
E-mail: john.funkhouser@msfc.nasa.gov
Charles L. Martin/EP12
205-544-7098
E-mail: charles.martin@msfc.nasa.gov
Substantial progress has been made to

further develop and qualify an asbestos-free
internal case insulation design for NASA's
reusable solid rocket motor (RSRM). The
presently used asbestos/silicon dioxide-
filled, acrylonitrile butadiene rubber internal
case insulation material is being replaced
due to health hazard concerns and decreas-
FIGURE28.-- Panoramic photograph of RP-1/Iox rocket firing for Pintla injector.
ing availability of all materials containing
asbestos. The primary objective is to
where the central to outer annular mass flow Biographical Sketch: Huu E Trinh has develop and qualify an asbestos-free
rate ratios are higher than that for the worked in the area of liquid rocket engine internal case insulation design that will
images shown in the center column. combustion at MSFC since 1987. He has demonstrate similar or better erosion
used computational and analytical models performance at a reasonable cost.
The initial series of bot-fu'e tests for this to analyze rocket engine performances.
injector was also conducted with an Currently, he monitors a project of The f'trst full-scale test with the two
optically accessible unielement combustor. providing technologies for main chamber candidate materials was conducted on
A panoramic photographic image of a and preburner injectors. The effort is November 16, 1995, at the Thiokol
rocket firing is shown in figure 28. The conducted under a PSU NRA cooperative Corporation Space Operations test facilities
flame luminosity of RP-1/lox combustion is agreement to support the RLV program. In located in Utah. The RSRM flight support
extremely high as evidenced by the light addition, he evaluates injector performance motor-5 (FSM-5) was used for this test.
level that passed through a neutral density of the Fastrac engine and analyzes proposed Aramid-filled, ethylene propylene diene
filter positioned in front of the window. Bantam main and gas generator injectors. monomer (EPDM) was utilized for both
candidate materials. Both the 7 percent and
At present, PSU continues performing 11 percent aramid-f'flled materials were
paramelric bot-fire tests to provide details installed in the high-impingement aft dome
of the combustion flow field and injector area. The 7 percent aramid-filled insulator
performance characteristics of this injector was installed starting at the forward end of
type. the aft dome and terminated 85 in forward
of the nozzle boss (cylinder area). Erosion
Sponsor: Office of Space Access and performance prevented the sole use of either
Technology candidate material in the high-impingement
aft dome area adjacent to the submerged
University/Industry Involvement: Robert nozzle. The erosion performance of the
J. Santoro and Charles Merkle/The 11 percent aramid-filled material was
Propulsion Engineering Research Center of superior to that of the 7 percent material, as
the Pennsylvania State University. was anticipated from analysis of the
subscale 48-in test motor data. In order to
achieve the desired safety factors in the aft
28
Technology Programs
dome, it was necessary to use the present reasonable approach to establish initial Revolutionary Reusable
RSRM sandwich design with the 11 percent design thickness limits. It was further
aramid-filled material replacing the stipulated that the minimum design TechnologyTurbopump
substrate asbestos material next to the case thicknesses would be no less than the
wall The currently used carbon fiber-filled maximum losses (with appropriate safety MaryE.Koelbl/EP32
EPDM adjacent to the propellant has a high factors) experienced at any measurement 205-544-7073
cure shrinkage thus limiting the amount that station.
E-mail:mary.koelbl@msfc.nasa.gov
can be installed.
Erosion performance data for the two
Manufacturing and accurate analysis asbestos-free internal case insulation The revolutionary reusable technology
become much more difficult with the use of materials described above should be useful turbopump (RRT£) is a NASA/MSFC
multiple layers of insulation. It is impos- information for anyone associated with technology program intended to demon-
sible to determine the exact prefire solid rocket motor design and performance strate a substantial reduction in the time and
thickness of each of the multiple materials. evaluation. All component systems will cost to produce reusable turbomachinery. A
Each material will undergo a different have to be asbestos-free in the near future. reusable liquid oxygen turbopump sized for
percentage of shrinkage during the cure The subjective nature of the methodology is a full-flow staged combustion cycle engine
cycle. A relatively large erosion data base is unavoidable due to the unique circum- at a thrust of 400,000 lbf was selected as the
currently available with the presently used stances. Further static testing and subse- demonstration turbopump. The goals of the
surface material thus enhancing reliability quent Space Shuttle flight evaluation will program were: (1) to define the design,
and confidence. The substrate material verify the validity of the analytical perform the required analyses, fabricate the
erosion rate must be estimated based on the technique utilized. hardware, and assemble the turbopump
one (FSM-5) full-scale motor test. If the within 18 months; and (2) to limit the
substrate material is occasionally penetrated Sponsor: Space Shuttle Projects Office recurring fabrication and first unit cost to
during the test, any statistical analysis is of less than $600,000. This is a factor of three
little value. It is impossible to determine the Industry Involvement: Thiokol Corpora- reduction in schedule and a factor of five
exposure times or exact erosion for each tion Space Operations reduction in cost from traditional rocket
material. engine turbomachinery. Rocketdyne was
Biographical Sketches: John Funkhouser selected as the contractor for the program
Analysis of the 7 percent aramid-filled is a NASA aerospace engineer in the which began in September 1995.
material in the cylindrical area of the Marshall Space Flight Center Propulsion
FSM-5 test indicated that this material will Laboratory. He is responsible for the NASA To achieve the aggressive schedule goal, a
perform satisfactorily as a sole insulator for space shuttle RSRM internal case insulation document called a product and process plan
the entire motor except for the aft dome. design and verification. of action (PPPOA) was jointly written
Erosion performance was predicted for the between Rocketdyne and NASA/MSFC. It
untested portion of the motor using ratios Charles Martin is a NASA aerospace combined an engineering design and
from previous RSRM data. The erosion engineer in the Marshall Space Flight analysis plan, a manufacturing plan, a
performance predictions for both of the Center Propulsion Laboratory. He is quality plan, and a product validation plan
asbestos-free materials will be evaluated responsible for the NASA Space Shuttle into a single document which was approved
with three additional full-scale motor tests RSRM ballistics analysis and statistical by both Rocketdyne and NASA prior to
prior to the first Shuttle flight. evaluation of all applicable motor systems. initiation of the design phase. The PPPOA
also defined, in detail, all of the ground
Data evaluation methodology with a limited rules, assumptions, and the required level of
data base remains an undesirable and analysis for each part.
somewhat unique situation. The cost of full-
scale testing precludes an adequate number A product development team (PDT) was
of tests for standard statistical evaluation. established with members from all of the
Subjective decisions are necessary to appropriate disciplines at Rocketdyne,
determine which analysis technique will NASA/MSFC, and the appropriate vendors.
produce a reasonable design with an Each team member was an active partici-
acceptable risk. Thiokol and NASA pant in the design phase to ensure the
engineers agreed that erosion performance schedule and cost goals could be achieved
analysis using median material losses plus while still meeting the design requirements.
three standard deviations would be a The manufacturing and inspection process
29
RR'Iq" is not man-rated flight hardware but

is typical of future reusable turbomachinery.
o The life requirements for the RR'I_ were
°t
0
derived from the number of tests necessary
to characterize the turbopump and to
validate the processes used during the
design and fabrication.
Considerable effort was spent during the

design and analysis phase on the turbine
design. The design was challenging due to
the requirements of an oxygen-rich turbine.
Materials were carefully chosen for oxygen
compatibility and extensive material testing
was performed to validate the material
selection.
The RRTT hardware is currently in

fabrication. To date the program is only one
month behind and 6 percent over the cost
goal. The assembly of the turbopump is
FIGURE29._evolutionary Reusable Technology Turbopump (RRTr) currently planned to be complete by
cross section. April 1997.
Sponsor: Long-term, high-payoff project
development was begun concurrently with This process was significantly cheaper and Biographical Sketch: Mary E. Koelbl has
the design process to minimize schedule quicker than fabricating conventional hard been a design engineer in the
and cost risk. With this approach, the tooling to produce wax patterns. The Turbomachinery Branch of Propulsion
process development is an essential element electronic drawings were also downloaded Laboratory at Marshall Space Flight Center
of the design itself. In addition, the to the vendor numerically controlled (NC) for 10 years. She works on SSME fuel
three-dimensional computer aided design machines. turbomachinery as well as turbomachinery
(CAD) models were electronically linked technology programs, p,_
with stress and thermal analysis packages to A cross section of the turbopump is shown
enable rapid design generation and in figure 29. The turbopump consists of a
iterations. The vendors were part of the high-pressure liquid oxygen pump driven by
electronic drawing transfer as well. The a single stage turbine using an oxygen-rich
three-dimensional models were used to working fluid. The fluid requirements for
produce rapid prototype casting patterns. the turbopump are shown in table 2. The
TABLE2.mRRTT fluid conditions.
Pump Turbine
Fluid Lox Oxygen-Rich
Steam
(02 + H20)
Inlet Pressure (psia) 200 5,034

Inlet Temperature (deg R) 169 1,145
Discharge Pressure (psia) 6,404 3,315
Flow Rate (Ibm/sec) 922 860
3O
Technology Programs
Electromechanical Actuator harmonic drive is directly mated to the and drain line on the liquid hydrogen side of
actuator output spline. Position feedback is the propulsion module (fig. 31). The control
Testing at IPTD provided by a resoiver, which is mounted on electronics and the power source for the
the output of the harmonic drive. Bread- actuator were remotely located on the test
Rae Ann Weir/EP32 board control electronics for the EMA were stand to protect against the environment.
205-544-7146 developed by the Astrionics Laboratory. The The cable length from controller to actuator
electronics utilize both motor current and was approximately 40 ft. The actuator was
E-mail: rae weir@msfc nasa.gov
actuator position to provide actuator remotely controlled from the blockhouse by
control. The actuator was designed to meet the Rockwell Propulsion Checkout and
Electromechanical actuation technology is the performance requirements of the Space Control System (PCCS), which also
currently being investigated and is consid- Shuttle Main Engine's main oxidizer valve provided for remote monitoring of the
ered the likely candidate for future (MOV) actuator. Several years after the position feedback during checkout and test.
replacement of the hydraulic systems EMA had successfully completed labora-
utilized in most aerospace actuation tory performance testing, MSFC's Propul- Before testing, redlines were developed for
applications today. Marshall recently sion Laboratory was provided with the operation of the EMA. The presence of the
demonstrated the maturity of the electrome- opportunity to integrate this component into EMA introduced an order of magnitude
chanical actuator (EMA) technology by a higher systems level test. increase in electrical power (1 (30 Vdc/
integrating a simplex valve EMA into a 100 A) previously seen in the potentially
system-level test of the Rockwell Interna- Rockwell International and NASA under an explosive environment of the IPTD.
tional X-33 Phase I Integrated Propulsion X-33 Phase I task agreement developed a Activation of the EMA was therefore based
Technology Demonstrator (IPTD). propulsion system test-bed (IPTD) for the on the absence of hydrogen in the area. In
demonstration and development of addition, the actuator was bagged and
The Simplex Valve EMA used in this propulsion technologies and operations purged with nitrogen to prevent hydrogen
demonstration was originally designed for concepts. System level integration and accumulation and moisture from entering
and tested as an EMA technology "proof of operation of MSFC's EMA was identified the EMA or electrical connections.
concept." The design (fig. 30) consists of a as a viable test for IPTD. The actuator was Temperature redlines were also set on the
three-phase brushless motor that drives a installed on an SSME main fuel valve actuator to prevent overheating and damage
120:1 reduction harmonic drive. The which had been integrated into a 4-in fill to the motor. Motor current redlines were
.u_
• 5-hp dc PM Motor
• 120:1 Harmonic Gear Reduction
• 100 V-100-A Pulse-Width Modulation Spline Mates
Motor Controller With Current
• Resolver Feedback SSME MOV
F_r.URt30.--MSFC Simplex Valve EMA.
31
alleviate performance degradation due to

the environment. A similar procedure is
followed on the SSME with the hydraulic
actuator. During both the cold shock and
flow tests, the actuator performed without
anomalies, successfully demonstrating the
EMA technology at a systems level, under
cryogenic conditions.
Demonstration of this technology in a

propulsion system environment was not the
only benefit of these tests. A valuable
integration and operations data base was
generated which will be directly applicable
to future testing and vehicle implementa-
tion of EMA's. Possible design improve-
ments and considerations for operations in
flight-type environments (such as place-
ment of electrical components away from
thermal paths and dry lubrication for
cryogenic operations) were noted as well as
integration and operation issues established
for use in the design of EMA's and of the
systems in which EMA's will be utilized.
Sponsor: Reusable Launch Vehicle

Program
Biographical Sketch:
Rae Ann Weir is an electrical engineer in
the Turbomachinery and Control Mecha-
nisms Branch of MSFC's Propulsion
Laboratory. She received a B.S. electrical
engineering degree from the University of
Tennessee in 1989. She has been employed
by NASA since that time and has 7 years
experience in the field of electromechanical
actuators.
FiGURe31.--EMA Integrated into the IPTD.
also established. During actual test, position 500 gal/min) using the PCCS. During
error was monitored in order to provide actuator operation, the valve temperature
information for manual cut of actuator was -130 °E The EMA had not been
power from the blockhouse in case of designed for operation under the cryogenic
actuator failure. condition presented by the presence of LH 2,
and the possible reduction in performance
Actuator testing consisted of remotely due to temperature was a concern for these
cycling the actuator after liquid hydrogen tests. Both a thermal isolator between the
(LH2) cold shock of the system and later valve and EMA and a heater blanket around
cycling during LH 2 flow (approximately the throat of the EMA were utilized to
32
Technology Programs
Propulsion System Design with probabilities of occurrence assigned to changes in the main combustion chamber
failure initiation events. Quantitative model fuel flow rate affect combustion mixture
Reliability Modeling logic propagates the failure initiation event ratio, it is important to be able to predict the
probabilities to the probability that a system failure propagation path for these failure
Michael R. Whitley/EP42 event will occur, such as system premature modes. Figure 33 shows the failure propaga-
205-544-7059 shutdown. These probabilities of occurrence tion logic for these failure modes, including
may be either point probability estimates or failure mitigating effects of the engine safety
E-mail: michael.whitley@msfc, nasa.gov
probability distributions. Applications of system. This model assumes that when the
quantitative models include identification of fuel turbine bypass valve fails fully closed,
The Propulsion Laboratory of MSFC design/operational characteristics that may the fuel flow reduction due to increased
currently supports several propulsion adversely affect reliability, determination of resistance is greater than the fuel flow
system design efforts. In response to both design reliability metrics, and providing increase due to increased turbine hot gas
internal and industry partner requirements, input to performance and cost models. flow, and when the bypass valve fails
the propulsion systems operability and Failure logic models may also be used to partially closed, the fuel flow reduction due
performance team has been tasked to determine the effect of operation time on to increased resistance is less than the fuel
develop and maintain a propulsion systems system reliability by assigning failure flow increase due to increased turbine hot
hardware design reliability analysis probability verses time distributions for gas flow. The fully closed failure mode
capability. This design reliability analysis parts and components. The model logic, includes partially closed conditions which
capability will support design trades, from these inputs, constructs system event have the same affect as a fully closed failure.
provide an assessment of design against probability verses time distributions by a Assignment of probabilities to these failure
reliability requirements, and focus reliabil- incremental sampling of the inputs. These modes are based on a probabilistic predic-
ity-related design modifications to high-risk time-domain models may be used in tion of the degree of valve closure and the
design elements. Recent research and analyzing component/part life requirements timing of failure propagation. When the
development efforts supporting this task and operations planning. models are completed and each of these
have focused on the development of a failure modes are assigned the probability of
methodology for failure environment To better illustrate the modeling approach, occurrence, the probabilities of inadequate
analysis which includes failure propagation consider the segment of a full-flow engine
logic modeling and time domain analysis. cycle schematic shown in figure 32. Hot
Propulsion system design failure propaga- fuel-rich gas from the fuel gas generator
tion models have been developed to drives the fuel turbine before being burned
demonstrate the applicability of this design in the main combustion chamber. A portion
reliability analysis approach. of the hot gas flow is diverted around the Fuel
fuel turbine and is controlled by the fuel Pump
Design failure propagation logic models turbine bypass valve. Since the power
represent the propagation logic of failures delivered by the fuel turbine is determined
from initiation to system events of interest, by the hot gas flow through the turbine, the Engine
including failure mitigating factors, such as fuel turbine output may be controlled by Fuel
safety system functions, and correlation controlling the flow of diverted hot gas. System
between system failures. The models Consider the failure modes where the fuel
developed may be used for qualitative and turbine bypass valve suddenly fails partially
quantitative analysis. Qualitative models, closed or fully closed. Closure of this valve
operating with true and false states, are used has two effects. One is an increase in hot
in two ways. One is to determine what gas flow through the turbine, thereby Gas Combustion
effects given failure initiation events may tending to increase fuel pump output and Generator Chamber
have on the overall system. The other is to fuel flow to the main combustion chamber.
determine what failure initiation events may The other effect is a temporary increase in t Fuel Main
cause a given system effect. Applications of engine fuel flow resistance, which tends to Engine
qualitative models include the identification reduce the fuel flow to the main combustion Oxidizer
of common causes of failure, effect of dual chamber. The net result of these opposite System
effects on main combustion chamber fuel Engine Fuel System
point failures, and minimum cutsets, as well
as improving communication among design flow rate depends on the degree of valve
and reliability organizations. Quantitative closure and the time required for the fuel FmunE32.--Full flow engine cycle
models represent failure propagation logic pump to respond to the valve closure. Since (partial schematic).
33
Inadequate Engine Premature Engine Catastrophic Engine Failure logic incorporated into these models
Performance Shutdown Failure was acquired from system configuration
D
information, engineering expertise,
a,nCo u. t
description of health management func-
tions, applicable failure reports, and existing
failure assessments. Quantification of these
conceptual design failure logic models was
Main Combustion l from four data sources: test data, quality
Main Combustion data, operational data derived from systems
Chamber Chamber
Chamber Mixture similar to the conceptual design, and a
Stoichimetric ky) Stoichimetric
Ratio Decreased priori estimates made from an engineering
Operation J
assessment of the conceptual design and
Operation related existing systems. Currently,
Mitigated _
additional data sources and applicable
reliability metrics are being identified.
Propulsion system concept design failure
Main Combustion propagation logic models developed to date
have demonstrated the feasibility of using
Chamber Fuel ( )
Flowrate Increased- Safety System \ Safety System Fails: these models for design reliability assess-
Functions Properly: P (Faiture)=O.O0001 ment and have resulted in the incorporation
P (Success)=O.99999 of this approach into current propulsion
Fuel Pump
( Main Combustion Chamber
Potential Stoichimetric
system development plans.
Propulsion system design reliability models

Increased ( Operation
will benefit NASA and the aerospace
Output
industry by providing designers a tool to
better understand the failure environment
Main Combustion Chamber of their designs, to assess the design against
Mixture Ratio Increased reliability requirements, and to focus
Fuel Turbine
reliability related design modifications to
Increased ( high-risk design elements. This capability
Power
will result in more reliable and dependable
Engine Total Fuel
propulsion systems.
Flowrate Decreased
Resulting From Increased Sponsor: Reusable Launch Vehicle
Program Office
Industry Involvement: Sverdrup Technol-
AY, Fuel Side Resistance ogy Incorporated, Huntsville Office
Fuel Turbine Bypass Valve Fuel Turbine Bypass Valve Biographical Sketch: Michael Whitley is a
Fails Partially Closed: Fails Fully Closed: propulsion engineer in the Propulsion and
P (Failure)= 1.5E-13 P (Failure)=2.5E-13 Mechanical Systems Division of MSFC. He
is responsible for the development of
FIGURE33.--Fuel turbine bypass valve partial failure propagation logic model. propulsion system design reliability
assessment methodologies. Whidey earned
his B.S. in mechanical engineering from the
engine performance, premature engine vehicle (RLV) and electromechanical University of Alabama and his M.S. in
shutdown, and catastrophic engine failure actuator concepts. These efforts demon- computer science from the University of
are determined. strate the applicability of the failure Alabama in Huntsville. He has worked for
propagation modeling approach and have NASA for 14 years. _._
Recent efforts have focused on developing identified information resources needed for
failure logic models for reusable launch propulsion system model development.
34
Technology Programs
Magnetically Actuated respect to the tank outlet. Proper design of magnetic fields to control large fluid
engine feed or propellant transfer systems quantities in microgravity appears feasibile,
Propellant Orientation requires methods to control liquid orienta- and could enable low-g settling, venting, fill
tion and an understanding of fluid motion in and acquisition without the need for
George Schmidt/EP42 response to disturbances and imposed capillary retention systems or propulsive
205-544-6055 accelerations. Traditional approaches for firings. Some of these potential applications
controlling and positioning cryogenic are shown in figure 34.
E-mail: george.schmidt@msfc.nasa.gov
liquids, such as periodic thruster lrwings and
Jim Martin/EP42 capillary retention devices, exhibit several This project is currently evaluating the
205-544-6054 drawbacks that could he mitigated by feasibility and practicality of magnetically
E-maih jim.martin@msfc.nasa,gov employing systems which exploit the actuated propellant orientation (MAPO) for
inherent paramagnetism of liquid oxygen spacecraft applications. The scope has been
(lox) and diamagnetism of liquid hydrogen restricted to lox primarily because:
In a low-g environment, acquisition of (LH2). With the advent of lightweight, high- • Control of lox offers the nearest term
vapor-free propellant is complicated by the temperature superconductors and high-flux application of MAPO technology;
indeterminate location of bulk liquid with density, rare-Earth magnets, the use of
Paramagnetic Fluid
(Iox)
Tank-
Encircling
Diamagnetic Fluid
(LH2)
Reorientation and Tank Fill

Expulsion Long-Term In-Spa©e
Storage
FmURE34.--Low-gravity fluid orientation concepts using magnetic fields.
35
• The magnetic properties of paramagnetic

fluids are well known; and
• Lox behavior has been tested before in
low-g on a laboratory scale.
One of the primary objectives is to

determine the range of magnetic field
strengths required to perform reorientation
and maintain liquid orientation during tank
fill and expulsion. This range will provide a
basis for evaluating whether these magnetic
field requirements fall within the capabili-
ties of current or anticipated superconduct-
ing magnet technology.
The project involves iow-g experiments

using NASA's reduced gravity workshop
(a KC-135 aircraft). All experiments
employ several subscale hardware setups,
one of which is shown in figure 35, and a
noncryogenic ferrofluid that simulates the
paramagnetic behavior of lox. The
ferrofluid is a commercially available water-
based solution containing a suspension of
extremely fine ferrous particles. Several
properties of this fluid (i.e., particle density,
viscosity and surface tension), along with
tank diameter, flowrates and magnetic field
intensities, are being scaled to model lox
behavior in a spacecraft-type application.
Design and assembly of the test articles has
been completed and one flight aboard the
FIGURE35.--Low-gravity fluid orientation and transfer tests aboard KC-135 aircraft.
KC-135 was made in September 1995.
Three other flight tests will be conducted in
September and October 1996 and February field geometries and advanced concepts, is responsible for research and development
of 1997. such as liquid hydrogen. Videotaped of advanced propulsion and fluid manage-
recordings of fluid motions taken from the ment technology. Prior to joining NASA
Scaling analyses have shown that magnets low-g tests will be used to validate the 7 years ago, Schmidt worked on a variety of
in the size range of I to 10 Tesla should be revised CFD model. spacecraft programs, including the
adequate for propellant reorientation in a International Space Station.
full-scale lox application. These results, Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary
however, are rather limited since the fields Fund James J. Martin is an aerospace engineer in
can typically assume very complicated the Systems Evaluation and Analysis
geometries, which are difficult to character- Biographical Sketch: Dr. George Schmidt Branch of MSFC's Propulsion Laboratory.
ize in terms of dimensionless groupings. is a lead engineer in the Systems Evaluation He received a B.S. and M.S. in aerospace
Consequently, another aspect of this activity and Analysis Branch of MSFC's Propulsion engineering from the University of Missouri
is focused on modifying an existing compu- Laboratory. He received a B.S. and M.S. in at Rolla in 1989. Since 1989, he has been
tational fluid dynamic (CFD) to include the mechanical engineering from Stanford employed by NASA and has accumulated
body and surface forces arising from the University in 1981, an M.S. in aerospace 7 years of experience in the development
interactions between the fluid and magnetic engineering from the University of and testing of cryogenic fluid management
field. This will provide a more rigorous Washington in 1985, and a Ph.D. in systems. D_"
means of assessing fluid behavior, and will mechanical engineering from the University
enable the modeling of more complicated of Alabama in Huntsville in 1993. His team
36
Technology Programs
Multipurpose
Hydrogen
Test-Bed
Leon Hastings/EP42
205-544-5434
E-mail: leon.hastings@msfc.nasa.gov
The development of high-energy cryogenic

upper stages is essential for the efficient
delivery of large payloads to various
destinations envisioned in future programs.
A key element in such upper stages is
cryogenic fluid management (CFM)
advanced development/technology. Due to
the cost of and limited opportunities for
orbital experiments, ground testing must be
employed to the fullest extent possible.
Therefore, a system level test-bed termed
the multipurpose hydrogen test-bed
(MHTB), which is representative (in size
and shape) of a fully integrated space
transportation vehicle liquid hydrogen
propellant tank, has been established. The
MHTB is currently being implemented to
evaluate CFM technology in support of the
solar thermal propulsion.
The MHTB tank is ASME coded, is 10 ft in

diameter by 10 ft long, has a 639 ft 3
capacity, and is made from 5083 aluminum.
The tank design is based on enabling
accommodation of various CFM concepts
as updated or alternate versions become
available. Major accommodations include: a
24-in diameter manhole; 1-in diameter
pressurization and 2-in diameter vent ports;
a 1-in diameter fill/drain line (through tank
FIGURE36._ssembled multipurpose hydrogen test-bed.
top); the Rockwell pressure control system
enclosure interface provisions; a 3-in dia-
meter drain at the tank bottom for future Upper stage studies have often baselined the protection in the vacuum environment of
growth; a liquid-level capacitance probe; foam/multilayer insulation (FMLI) space and is designed for an on-orbit
two liquid temperature rakes; wall tempera- combination concept; however, hardware storage period of 45 days. The foam
ture measurements at selected locations; experience with the concept is minimal and component consists of an isofoam SS-1171
ullage pressure sensors; pressure control/ it was therefore selected for the MHTB. The layer, with an average thickness of 1.3 in,
relief safety provisions; internal mounting foam element is designed to protect against bonded to the tank wall.
brackets for future equipment and sWuctural ground hold/ascent flight environments, and
"hard points" for temporary scaffolding, to enable a dry nitrogen purge as opposed to The MLI consists of a double aluminized
ladder, etc; and low heat leak structural the more complex/heavy helium purge mylar (DAM) MLI blanket with an average
supports. subsystem normally required with MLI in layer density of approximately 25 layers/in,
cryogenic applications. The MLI provides which is composed of 45 radiation shields
37
Vent Exit fluid thereby cools the fluid circulated

through the mixing element of the spray bar
and removes thermal energy from the bulk
liquid. In an orbital propellant transfer
scenario the spray-bar concept can also be
utilized to assist tank refill. By filling
through the spray bar/heat exchanger the
inflowing fluid can be cooled and used to
mix the tank contents, thereby assuring the
accomplishment of a "no-vent fill" process.
The zero-g vent subsystem testing was
concentric tube completed in October 1996 and the data
evaluation is in progress.
JTV
Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics
Circulation pump
Biographical Sketch: Leon Hastings,
State-of-the-Art TVS MHTB TVS
currently assigned to the MSFC Propulsion
Laboratory, received his B.S. in mechanical
FIGURE37._HT8 TVS concept---spray bar with external active components.
engineering and an M.S. in engineering
science. Assignments at MSFC since 196 l
have centered on heat transfer, fluid
with coarse Dacron net spacer material. tional complexity (Centaur and Saturn/ mechanics, and thermodynamics, and he
Unique features of the MLI concept include S-IVB). The thermodynamic vent system has over 15 years of specialized experience
a variable density MLI (reduces weight and (TVS) concept enables venting without in low-gravity fluid management and heat
radiation losses) and fewer but larger resettling, but its utilization is constrained transfer. He has often served on agency-
perforations for venting during ascent to by a lack of on-orbit experience. The TVS level committees to assist in formulating
orbit. The tank barrel section MLI was concept selected for the MHTB differs from plans/policies for low-gravity propellant
installed utilizing a commercially estab- those previously tested in that the active management research and technology. _,_
lished roll-wrap process. It is estimated that components (a Joule-Thompson (J-T)
the roll-wrap approach will save about expansion valve, subsystem pump, and
2,400 man-hours, compared with the isolation valve) are located external to the
standard blanket installation process, on a tank, as opposed to inside the tank, in a
10-ft diameter LO2/LH 2 tank set. The stainless steel cylindrical enclosure which is
process reduces heat leak due to the lack of attached to the bottom of the MHTB tank.
seams and is less susceptible to structural Such an approach enables modification or
damage during ascent flight. changeout of TVS components without
entering the tank. In the mixing mode, fluid
Thermal performance testing was conducted is withdrawn from the tank by the pump and
during three test series conducted between flows back into the tank through a spray bar
September 1995 and May 1996. Preliminary positioned along (or near) the tank
results indicate that the orbital boiloff was longitudinal axis. The fluid expelled
reduced by 40 to 50 percent compared with radially into the tank through the spray bar
the best MLI previously tested, i.e., boiloff forces circulation and mixing of the tank
losses were about 0. l 1 percent per day with contents regardless of liquid and ullage
a warm boundary temperature of 520 °R. position, assuring destratification and
The foam evidently performed as expected minimum pressure rise rate. When pressure
but further evaluation is required to quantify relief eventually becomes necessary, a
its reusability characteristics. portion of the circulated liquid is passed
through the J-T valve (expanded to a lower
Thrusters have traditionally been used to temperature and pressure) then through the
settle the liquid prior to orbital tank venting heat exchanger element of the spray bar,
with penalties in performance and opera- and t'mally is vented to space. The vented
38
Technology Programs
four channels spaced at 90 degrees around

Cryogenic Fluid acquisition
expulsion,
device (LAD), pressurization/
and multilayer insulation. the tank, with each leg about 1.6 m in
Management for the Basically, the propellant management length. The LAD/TVS subsystem is
subsystem concept consists of utilizing the designed to feed 0.9 kg/hr (2 lb/hr) to the
Aerospace Industry thruster at 172 kPa (25 psia). Testing will
LAD and thermodynamic vent system
TechnologyProgram (TVS) to flow 100 percent vapor to the first be conducted to establish the baseline
thruster during burn cycles, i.e., the thermal performance (heat leak/LH 2
Leon Hastings/EP42 insulation is configured to match the LH 2 boiloff) for the MLI system. The LH 2 feed
boiloff with the thruster flowrate and system will then be operated to simulate a
250-544-5434
mission burn cycle (typically 100 to 30-day mission with 140 burns (vent
E-mail: leon.hastings@msfc.nasa.gov
200 burns). cycles). The test article assembly is
complete and ambient leak checking has
The solar thermal propulsion concept The multilayer insulation (MLI) consists of been conducted in preparation for installa-
requires that a number of technologies be 100 layers of double-aluminized Kapton tion and testing in the 66 m (20 ft) vacuum
matured prior to undertaking full-scale with B4A Dacron net spacers to achieve a chamber at test position 301. Testing is
development including the subcritical liquid predicted total heat leak of (20.5 Btu/hr). expected to be conducted late 1996 through
hydrogen (LH2) storage/feed system. MSFC The TVS includes an active mixer to assure early 1997.
is participating with an Aerospace Industry a homogenous distribution of the thermal
Technology Program (AITP) consortium in energy within the propellant and a Joule- Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics
the design and performance testing of a Thompson (J-T) expansion valve. The cold
2 m 3 LH 2 storage/feed system for the solar fluid from the J-T valve flows through Biographical Sketch: Leon Hastings,
thermal upper stage demonstrator tubing brazed into the apex of the LAD, currently assigned to the MSFC Propulsion
(STUSTD) program. Elements included are: thereby assuring subcooling both the LAD Laboratory, received his B.S. in mechanical
Zero gravity venting, capillary screen liquid liquid and bulk liquid. The LAD consists of engineering and an M.S. in engineering
science. Assignments at MSFC since 1961
have centered on heat transfer, fluid
mechanics, and thermodynamics, and he
has over 15 years of specialized experience
in low-gravity fluid management and heat
transfer. He has often served on Agency-
level committees to assist in formulating
plans/policies for low-gravity propellant
management research and technology.
FIGORE
38.--AITP cryogenic fluid management subsystem tank.
39
Tridyne Gas Reactor Sizing investigate these potential uses, NASA and The Tridyne study is organized into four
the U.S. Army are conducting a joint phases. Using the apparatus shown in
research program to study the chemical figure 39, Phase I will compare the activity
Patrick S McRight/EP42
reaction characteristics and potential uses of of candidate catalysts by measuring tempera-
205-544-2613
Tridyne gas. ture increase across the catalyst bed as a
E-mail: patrick mcright@msfc.nasa.gov function of flow rate and inlet temperature.
Tridyne research began in the mid-1960's The selected catalyst will then become the
Tridyne is a stable mixture of hydrogen, when Rocketdyne performed a series of subject of Phase II, which will evaluate the
oxygen, and an inert gas such as helium or experiments designed to reduce the weight reaction rate coefficient as a function of
nitrogen. In this mixture, the inert gas is the of a propulsion system's pressurization temperature for a range of mass flow rates.
primary constituent, usually 90 to 95 percent subsystem. 1 The approach was to reduce the Phase II1 will seek to estimate the expulsion
by volume. Tridyne's usefulness stems from required pressurant mass by increasing its efficiency for a pressurization system using
the ability of hydrogen and oxygen to react temperature. The reduction in mass also led Tridyne as a pressurant. Finally, Phase IV
in the presence of a catalyst to form water. to reductions in storage volume of gas and will examine thruster performance using a
As this reaction proceeds, it releases thermal hence mass of the storage tank. Later truncated nozzle installed immediately
energy causing the Tridyne mixture to warm experiments addressed the use of Tridyne as downstream of the catalyst bed.
and expand. Tridyne shows promise for two a monopropellant for attitude control
potential spacecraft propulsion applications: thrusters. 2,3 Catalyst beds were sized At the time of this writing, the test article is
• As a pressurant gas for pressurizing empirically rather than analytically--an 98 percent complete. Testing is currently
propellant tanks; and approach which makes it difficult to scale projected to begin and conclude in the
• As a propellant for attitude control bed sizes for other applications. summer of 1997.
thrusters.
The purpose of NASA's ongoing research is As described above, the primary benefits of
Tridyne offers the advantages of reducing to bring the Tridyne concept to a higher level Tridyne are expected to be mass reductions
spacecraft weight by eliminating heat of technology readiness by determining for spacecraft pressurization systems and
exchangers and/or reducing the storage reaction rate coefficients for use in reactor decreased risks associated with handling
volume required for pressurant gases. To sizing. storable monopropellants. The decreased
MSFC Helium Trailer
2,200 psia Vent
®.,ooop ia® Vent ._

Heat Exchanger
300 R<Tout<730 R
_--Sample Bottle
Gas K-Bottles
300 psia<Pout<500 psia
2,000 psia
List Of Symbols Regulator _ Solenoid Valve Catalyst Bed
M Globe Valve _<3 Needle Valve _ Vacuum Pump Venturi
D<] Gate Valve ,_ Relief Valve (_) Pressure Orifice
Dr<:] Hand Valve (generic) Check Valve [] Temperalure
FIGURE39.--Tridyne gas characterization fluid schematic for Test Phases I and II.
40
Technology Programs
handling risk comes from the fact that A Complex-Shaped The work performed in 1995 formed the
Tridyne is a stable mixture and does not first building block in a whole new area of
require some of the precautions required for Composite Feedline using composite materials. The next logical
hydrazine and its derivatives, which are step is to expand and improve upon the
toxic and carcinogenic.
for Liquid Hydrogen previous DC-XA vehicle composite
feedline work. In October of 1995 a small
The primary commercial application for
Philip Tygielski/EP43 team of engineers from the Propulsion
Tridyne technology is expected to be
205-544-7169 Laboratory and Materials and Processes
propulsion systems for commercial launch E-mail:philip.tygielski@msfc.nasa.gov Laboratory proposed to the Advanced
vehicles and spacecraft, with the same mass Propulsion Technology Office here at
reductions and risk mitigation described One of the many technological needs in MSFC a plan for enhancing the prior
previously. making a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) composite feedline work. This plan was
vehicle a reality is being able to reduce accepted and funded by the MSFC
Through the test program described above, component weight. Making components Advanced Propulsion Technology Office. In
the MSFC Propulsion Laboratory is lightweight can lead to an increase in mass this plan the MSFC team will design,
seeking to determine the Tridyne reaction fraction and vehicle performance. One area analyze, manufacture, and test in-house a
rate constants to enable spacecraft designers with potential for substantial SSTO weight composite feedline that will demonstrate
to size Tridyne catalyst beds analytically. savings is the use of composite feedlines for three more key technology features:
As this capability is developed, Tridyne the vehicle propulsion system. Typical • The ability to manufacture a composite
should become a more readily available feedlines for vehicles are made from feedline that has a more complex
technology, offering the benefits of mass aluminum or stainless steel materials. It is geometry and do it in one piece with
reductions and risk mitigation for future estimated that a substantial weight savings composite flanges on both ends.
spacecraft propulsion systems. over conventional metallics could be
achieved by using composite feedlines. The The prior composite feedline work for the
1Barber, H.E.: "Advanced Pressurization potential weight savings makes the use of DC-XA vehicle contained several
Systems Technology Program Final composite materials a very attractive feature individual composite components
Report." AFRPL-TR--66-278, 1966. for future SSTO vehicles. (elbows and flanges) that were joined
together using a composite splice joint.
2Anonymous (Rocketdyne): "Lightweight In 1995 under a cooperative agreement Although demonstrating the ability to
Advance Post-Boost Vehicle Propulsion contract (NRA8-11 ) between MSFC and make joints in a composite feedline was
Feed System." AFRPL, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace, the first one of the program objectives for the
F04611-77_C-0068, 1977. composite feedline for liquid hydrogen DC-XA vehicle feedline, it is not the
service was developed. This feedline ideal way to make a composite feedline.
3Barber, H.E., et al: "Microthrusters successfully demonstrated five key Every bonded joint in a composite
Employing Catalytically Reacted Gas technology features that are fundamental in feedline is another potential structural
Mixtures, Tridyne." AIAA Paper no. being able to use this material for a feedline failure point and leak point. The MSFC
70-614, 1970. application. These five features were the use team will build a feedline with no bonded
of graphite/epoxy material, the manufacture joints, thus eliminating those potential
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary and use of composite elbows, the manufac- failure points.
Fund. ture and use of composite flanges, the
ability to join a composite tube to a The prior composite feedline work also
Biographical Sketch: Patrick McRight composite tube, and finally the ability to demonstrated a complex geometry;
works as a liquid propulsion systems join a composite tube to a metallic tube. however, it was only in one plane. On
engineer in the MSFC Propulsion Labor- The feedline was designed by McDonnell current engines and launch vehicles, the
atory. He routinely analyzes and models Douglas and manufactured and tested here packaging volume is so tight that
subsystems within main propulsion systems, at MSFC. The feedline is a part of the feedlines are sometimes required to be
troubleshoots propulsion test articles, serves auxiliary propulsion system on the DC-XA routed in all three geometric planes, thus
as principal investigator of the Tridyne gas Reusable Launch Vehicle and has been taking on a very complex geometry. This
characterization study, and coordinates other successfully flown on the vehicle. Details MSFC team will build a feedline with a
MPS test programs. He holds a bachelor of on this composite feedline can be found in much more complicated geometry than
science degree in engineering (chemical) the 1995 MSFC Research and Technology the DC-XA composite feedline and do it
from the University of Alabama in Hunts- Annual Report. in two geometric planes. The geometry
ville (1987). _,] proposed will be more typical of those
41
used in feedsystems on launch vehicles. area of how best to seal the composite articles pass these tests, the full-scale line
An isometric drawing of the feedline to flanges against LH 2. The MSFC team will be manufactured and it also will go
be built is shown in figure 40. will evaluate the best flange face design through a series of similar tests.
to use along with the best comercially
available seal for a composite feedline. It is anticipated this program will be
complete by August 1997. The success of
In summary, this technology program will this program will again advance the
build a composite feedline for LH 2 service. technology of using composite materials for
The feedline will have composite flanges on launch vehicle feedline applications. This
both ends. The feedline design will have a program will not only address the techno-
complex geometry by bending in two planes logical aspects but also the issue of making
and will have a large diameter of 8 in. It it cost effective.
will be manufactured in one piece with no
bonded joints and will also incorporate the Tygielski, P.: "A Lightweight, Composite,
best seal system for the composite flanges. Liquid Hydrogen Feedline." 1995 MSFC
Performance requirements for the design Research and Technology Report.
include:
FIGURE40.--Liquid hydrogen • Operating pressure: 100 lb/in 2 Sponsor: Office of Space Access and
composite feedllne. • Temperature range: -423 degrees Technology
Fahrenheit to +150 degress Fahrenheit
• Service life: 20 temperature and pressure Biographical Sketch: Philip Tygielski
• The ability to manufacture large diameter cycles graduated from the University of Alabama
composite feedlines. • Leakage rate: Less than 1.0 x 10E q37 in Huntsville in 1982 with a bachelor of
standard cm3/sec of gaseous helium at science degree in mechanical engineering.
The prior composite feedline work for the room temperature. Less than 0.14 He currently works in the Mechanical
DC-XA vehicle was for a 2-in-diameter standard cm3/sec of hydrogen at Systems Design Branch of the Propulsion
feedline. Although the feedline demon- cryogenic temperatures. Laboratory at MSFC. Tygielski has been
strated the potential for using composites • Material: IM7/977-3 graphite/epoxy involved in several different vehicle and
and saving weight, it did it on a some- material or an equivalent. engine propulsion feedsystem designs for
what small scale (2-in-diameter line size). many years. He most recently managed the
If maximum advantage of using compos- Currently the MSFC team is completing the composite feedline technology program for
ites to save weight is to be taken, then detail design of the composite feedline. A the DC-XA vehicle.
using this material for the large diameter detail sa'uctural analysis of the design is
feedlines found on launch vehicles being performed. This analysis will
should be looked at as well. These large optimize the number of plies and angles in
diameter feedlines are typically found in order to meet the performance requirements
the feedsystem located between the while minimizing weight. On the manufac-
propellant tank and engine turbopump turing side, the team is evaluating simple
interface. On the Space Shuttle these line and low-cost methods for manufacturing the
sizes range from 6 to 17 in in diameter. tooling necessary to hand-layup the
With these larger diameter feedlines there feedline. Several proof-of-concept compos-
is significant potential weight savings. ite elbows have already been made using a
The MSFC team will build an 8-in- foam mandrel.
diameter composite feedline to investi-
gate any potential scale-up problems in Once the best tooling methods have been
going from the previous 2-in-diameter selected, several development articles will
composite feedline. be manufactured. These articles will be
subjected to a rigorous test program at
° The ability to seal composite flanges. MSFC to gain confidence in the design and
manufacturing process. Planned tests
Since the use of composite flanges for include: Pressure tests, thermal cycle tests,
LH 2 service is new technology, there has hydrogen leakage measurement, strength
been very little work performed in the tests, and vibration tests. Once the test
42
Technology Programs
Soft Umbilical Test-Bed be designed and tested to ensure proper Advanced Docking
isolation capability. The soft umbilical test-
bed will be used to measure the forces Mechanism
RodneyKrienke/EP43 produced by these umbilical sets in order to
205-544-4346
verify that proper isolation will be possible AlanJ. Bean/EP43
E-mail:rodney.krienke@msfc.nasagov during on-orbit operation. 205-544-9401
E-maihalan.j.bean@msfc.nasa.gov
The Space Station Furnace Facility (SSFF) The soft umbilical test-bed consists of a
is a centerpiece for the material science to 6-degrees-of-freedom load cell mounted on
be conducted on the International Space a three-axis motion system operated by Docking technology began with the
Station. This facility will accommodate computer control. This assembly is mounted development of the Gemini and Apollo
several different types of furnaces used for on a large optical table which can accom- docking systems by the United States, and
semi-conductor crystal growth in space. In modate any foreseeable size of umbilical the successful probe and drogue series of
order to maintain the proper environment member. One end of the umbilical is held docking systems by the Soviet Union. These
for optimal crystal growth, these furnaces fixed, and the other end is attached to the early systems laid the groundwork for the
are mounted in isolation systems to protect load cell. The load cell is moved throughout development of the Apollo-Soyuz docking
them from unwanted vibrations and motion the operating range of the isolation system system from which the current manned
generated by the Space Station. The current while force and moment data are continu- spacecraft docking hardware is derived, the
generation of furnace isolation systems ously collected. These data can be displayed U.S. Space Station Phase B docking/
performs well, and maintains the proper visually, as well as saved to disk for later berthing system and the Russian automated
environment for crystal growth. The retrieval. The control program is written in payload attach system (APAS). Both U.S.
drawback to these systems is that they Labview, which is a graphically oriented and Russian docking experts have recog-
cannot tolerate excessive loads during data acquisition language, along with nized a new approach, termed capture-
operation. The main source of excessive Motion Toolbox, which is used to operate berthing, as a leading candidate for the next
loads is the set of umbilicals used to supply the motion control system. The motion generation of spacecraft mating hardware.
station resources to the furnaces. These control and data acquisition occur simulta- Traditionally, docking systems rely on the
umbilicals consist of electrical power neously, and act as a standard computer loads generated by contact of the two
cables, data cables, gas and cooling water application requiring minimal operator mating spacecraft to enable the docking
hoses, and vacuum lines. Each furnace training. process. This leads to potentially high loads
requires a unique set of umbilicals that must in the spacecraft being mated. Capture-
Utilizing the soft umbilical test-bed will berthing, however, is a process by which
allow Space Station engineers to test all one spacecraft "reaches out," attaches to,
required configurations of furnace umbili- and mates with the other spacecraft after the
cals. Future additions to this system will two spacecraft are station-keeping within
allow the testing of the entire umbilical set close proximity of each other. This process
in one operation, saving considerable greatly reduces the potential loads which
development time. could be generated in both spacecraft.
Sponsor: Space Station Furnace Facility The proposed effort seeks to take one of the
current docking system designs, the Space
Biographical Sketch: Rodney Krienke is Station Phase B docking/berthing system,
currently a cooperative education student in and modifying it to develop a capture-
his senior year of mechanical engineering at berthing system and then characterize the
the University of Alabama in Huntsville. He systems performance. The present design of
is in his third work term here at NASA the space station Phase B docking/berthing
working in the Mechanical Systems Design system lends itself well to the application of
Group of the Propulsion Laboratory. As an capture-berthing. The system was devel-
avionics technician in the United States oped in a joint program between MSFC and
Marine Corps for over 4 years, Rodney has McDonnell Douglas Aerospace during the
extensive experience with electronic Phase B phase of the Space Station
systems especially including computer- Freedom program.
FIGURE41.--Large subscale solid rocket controlled, automated test equipment. __]
combustion simulator.
43
roll, to the suspended ring to simulate the

Strong relative motion of two spacecraft in close
Back proximity.
In developing and proving the new

Suspended
technology, the proposed activity seeks to
Ring
lay the groundwork for the next generation
of spacecraft mating hardware. The new
approach, capture-berthing, combines many
of the strengths of previous systems while
avoiding many of their problems and
thereby enabling many different spacecraft
to be mated on orbit.
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary

Fund
Biographical Sketch: Alan Bean has

worked with mechanism design since April
1990 in the MSFC Propulsion Laboratory.
Bean obtained his spacecraft mating
expertise during his work as a design
engineer for the Space Station Freedom
common berthing mechanism. Bean has
also been involved in the development of
advanced proximity sensors which are used
for spacecraft mating.
Active Extendable
Mechanism Ring
FIOUaE42._tive docking mechanism.
Work has begun on the project. Figure 42 of a video guidance sensor which has been
shows the hardware setup. The active developed by MSFC and this 6-degrees-of-
mechanism represents the chase spacecraft freedom target data is used by the control
and the suspended ring represents the target program to determine the positioning of the
spacecraft. The active mechanism has an extendible ring. The control program was
extendible ring which is attached by six developed utilizing Labview, an icon driven,
linear actuators. These actuators, through graphical, data acquisition and control
the use of a control program, position the program in conjunction with Motion
centroid of the extendible ring on the Toolbox, an application used to control the
centroid of the suspended ring, thus actuators. The control program uses the
enabling the capture-berth. The actuators target location and the geometry of the
then damp the motion of the suspended ring active mechanism to determine the required
and pull th_ captured ring down to be mated lengths of the six actuators to bring the two
with the active mechanism. The target centroids together. The test stand provides
centroid location is obtained through the use 5-degrees-of-freedom motion, excluding
44
Technology Programs
Automated Fluid interface for on-orbit consumable transfer. operations are accomplished by one
The AFIS is capable of transferring actuator. This actuator rotates protective
Interface System propellants, fluids, gases, power and covers, locks the two spacecraft sides
cryogens from a tanker craft to other together, and engages couplings for transfer
Tony Tyler/EP43 spacecraft. This technology could be of consumables. The actuator accomplishes
205-544-2135 utilized for any on-orbit systems requiring this by providing two motions. The actuator
resupply, including the International Space extends a shaft linearly out and then at the
E-mail: tony.tyler@msfc,nasagov
Station, satellites, and spacecraft. This end of stroke, rotates 45 degrees and
Nick Johnston/EB44 technology could greatly increase the life linearly retracts again.
205-544-2055 and flexibility of future satellites.
E-mail: nick.johnston@msfc.nasa.gov The engineering unit is currently undergo-
An engineering unit has been designed and ing testing at MSFC. The purpose of the
built as a joint venture with MOOG, Inc. testing is to determine the acceptability of
The automated fluid interface system This design is lightweight, reliable and the design and determine additional
(AFIS) is an advanced development flexible. This can be attributed to an improvements required. This testing
program aimed at providing a standard innovative design in which all required consists of functional, load, simulated
docking and engagement, thermal vacuum,
and vibration. Most of the testing is
complete. The design has been proven to
satisfy requirements well. However, some
improvements and changes have been
determined and will be implemented in the
next generation design.
This program has laid the groundwork for a

flight qualified system which can be easily
adapted by future users requiring on-orbit
consumable resupply. The future for this
program is to build, qualify, and fly a flight
experiment based on this technology.
Sponsor: Advanced Projects Office, NASA

Headquarters
Biographical Sketch: Tony Tyler has

worked in mechanism design since May
1989 in the MSFC Propulsion Lab.
Nick Johnston has worked as an electrical

engineer in the robotics group since 1989 in
the MSFC Astrionics Laboratory.
FtGuat43.mAutomated fluid interface syetemflhree-point docking mechanism (AFIS/

TPDM). Flal floor test autodocking of AFISfrPDM before capture.
45
Structuresand Dynamics
TREETOPSStructural control-related issues of complex flexible features to obtain numerical results. In a

structures. The code has been used to simulation development environment,
Dynamics and Controls analyze and design controllers for a emphasis has been placed on documenta-
number of large space systems including tion and design details.
Simulation System
the Hubble Space Telescope. TREETOPS
Upgrade is capable of simulating the dynamics and This upgrade will provide a format for
control of flexible systems as complex as maintaining the current tools as well as
the Space Station mission, the rendezvous accommodations for future enhancements.
George Myers/ED12
205-544-1477 and docking of spacecraft and the robot
tasks and manipulations. As part of the upgrades and enhancements,
E-mail: myers@ed12L.msfc.nasa.gov
geometric nonlinearity was implemented.
TREETOPS, a multibody dynamics and This implementation is of the general form
The objective is to provide current and controls analysis tool, has undergone of nonlinear foreshortening effects in
complete upgrade for the TREETOPS suite various upgrades to improve its applicabil- TREETOPS. It gives rise to the theoretical
of analysis tools. TREETOPS is a time ity as well as modeling fidelity. These background on nonlinear differential
history simulation of the motion of a upgrades have included basic formulation stiffness, motion stiffness and the general-
complex multibody flexible structure in a enhancements as unrestricted boundary ized active force due to the foreshortening
tree topology with active control elements. conditions for flexible bodies, accommo- effects.
TREETOPS refers to the simulation dation of effects due to geometric
program, TREETOPS plus two interactive nonlinearities, additions of sensor and Test were done on beam-buckiing and
preprocessors, TREESET and TREEFLX, actuator math models and revisions to plate-buckling type problems to address
an interactive postprocessor, TREEPLOT increase computational performance. the foreshortening effects. This enhance-
and an adjunct program, TREESEL. TREETOPS development efforts have been ment offers a tremendous improvement to
performed largely in a research and the analytical results.
The simulation provides an advanced development environment, where the
capability for analyzing the dynamics and emphasis has been on adding analysis
Beam Properties Q Regular Node 1 .Q ,f Y

L=8M
© Special Node
E = 6.895E10 N/M^2
I = 8.2181E-9 MA4 C] Sensor (Gyro)
/
A = 7.2986E-5 M^2
Mass = 1.6154 kg V Actuator (Jet)
TREETOPS
Model
I
:
i
I
Q :
I
I
:
,
I
FIGURE44.mTREETOPS model of spin-up beam.
46
Technology Programs
Beam Spin-Up Example

0.20
Experimental
Determination of Preswirl
0.00
Effectson Damping Seal
Ew -0.20
Performance
==
E -0.40 EricM. Earhart/ED12
205-544-2417
_ Includes K_G
.m -0.60 E-mail:eric.earhart@msfc.nasa.gov
0
.... No K_G
The destabilizing forces generated by the

I i. I I seals, turbines, splines, and impellers of a
turbopump increase with pump speed.
5 10 15 20
These whirl drivers are opposed by the
Time (sec) stabilizing damping forces associated with
the seals and bearings of the pump. At high
FIGURE45.--Effect of geometric stiffening (K_G) on tip response. speeds the destabilizing forces exceed the
stabilizing forces and the rotor will whirl at
frequencies near the lowest critical
Sponsor: NASA Headquarters, Office of large space structures. He has coordinated frequency of the rotor. This self-excited
Equal Employment Opportunity, Histori- activities related to TREETOPS with vibration is potentially destructive and
cally Black Colleges and Universities universities and the aerospace industry, in imposes limits on turbomachinery perfor-
Program the field of multibody modeling. He has mance. For example, a high-pressure
served as the focal point for TREETOPS oxidizer turbopump was destroyed early in
Industry Involvement: Boeing Aerospace, multibody modeling activities for over the development program by
McDonnell Douglas, Martin Marietta, l0 years. subsynchronous vibration and a speed limit
Rockwell International Space Division, had to be imposed on the turbopump. The
General Motors Company whirl problem was eliminated by adding
two shaft pilots and replacing two labyrinth
University Involvement: Stanford seals with damping seals.
University, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Georgia Institute of Technol- Computer codes developed at MSFC have
ogy, University of Iowa, University of shown that damping seals inhibit
Toronto, University of Alabama, Auburn subsynchronous whirl by providing more
University, University of Alabama in damping than whirl forces. These codes
Huntsville, Howard University, University indicate seal roughness and fluid preswirl
of Maryland, and University of Colorado. have important effects on the seal's
stabilizing capacity. The objective of this
Other Involvement: Johnson Space Center, program is to experimentally assess the
Goddard Space Flight Center, Langley effect of roughness and fluid preswirl on
Research Center, Stark Draper Laboratory, damping seal performance. The effect of
Sandia National Laboratory, Oak Ridge roughness will be established using an
National Laboratory existing test rig to compare the performance
of a smooth seal and a seal with an isogrid
Biographical Sketch: George Myers has a roughness pattern. Tests will be performed
B.S. and M.S. in applied mathematics with at 5,000-, 10,000-, and 15,000-r/min and
16 years of experience in control systems. 1,000-, 1,500-, and 2,000-1b/in 2 delta
He has experience in structural dynamics, pressure. The effect of fluid preswirl will
control system design and attitude control then be established by repeating this test
of multibody systems. He has over 10 years series with a new shaft that will greatly
of experience in multibody modeling for increase the tangential velocity of the fluid.
47
Resulting data will be compared to Measurement of Damping Currently, nickel-based super alloys, like
computer program predictions, and Inconel 718, are used in rocket engine
anchored programs will then be used to of Advanced Composite turbomachinery applications. Fiber-
reinforced ceramic matrix composites can be
design new turbomachinery. Materials for
used to replace the current selection of metal
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary Turbomachinery alloys due to their high-strength, low-weight,
Fund high-temperature capability and increased
Applications damping capacity. With the increased
Industry Involvement: Wyle Laboratories material damping in CMC's, additional and
DonaldL. Harris/ED23 often complex mechanical dampers will not
Biographical Sketch: Eric Earhart holds a 205-544-6265 be needed to allow the component to
B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from E-mail:don.harris@msfc.nasa.gov withstand higher dynamic loading.
the University of Wisconsin. He has been
with the Marshall Space Flight Center for This damping study is in its final phase and
7 years and specializes in rotordynamics. The previous phases of this task have shown is tentatively scheduled for completion by
that advanced composite materials in June 1997. The study was approved in
general, and specifically fiber reinforced October 1993. Phases 1, 2 and 2a were
ceramic matrix composites (CMC's), do completed by the summer of 1996 and
indeed possess higher damping properties consisted of damping tests on many beam
than the baseline metal sample, lnconel 718. specimens.
l°I [] 1st Bending

[] 2nd Bending
[] 1st Torsional
a--
E
m
L'I
0.1
0.01
-_, -_, _
_ _ _ -_ _ ._ - _ E_
,p-.
Material Name
FlnURE46._DDF/CBLISK beam samples damping results (FYg6).
48
Technology Programs
allow the engine to run at higher tempera-

tures which would increase performance.
With the addition of higher inherent
material damping, additional external
mechanical dampers would not be needed,
allowing the component to withstand higher
First Bending Mode Second Bending Mode dynamic loading and reduce the possibility
of failure through high-cycle fatigue. This
increased performance equates to larger
FIGURE47.--Beam mode shapes in free-free boundary condition.
payloads or the delivery of smaller payloads
to higher orbits.
This task was developed to measure the purchased from Oak Ridge National
inherent material damping capacity of Laboratory (ORNL) Oak Ridge, Tennessee. With the commercialization of space, this
composite materials that have promise for The disk samples were composed of silicon data can be utilized by private companies in
use in rocket engine turbine applications. carbide/silicon carbide (SiC/SiC) and only the development of space vehicles. These
This information can be used in dynamic differed in fiber architecture, polar woven vehicles will be lighter, able to perform
analysis to predict the dynamic stress of a and cloth lay-up. The polar woven preform better and do so at lower development and
component under loading. was provided by ORNL free of charge. That operations cost.
preform was surplus from an Air Force
During this phase of testing, the damping CMC Disk/Blisk task. The cloth preform Composite materials can offer lighter
capacities of eight beam samples and two was provided at cost as well as the weight, and less costly components to
disks of the size used in rocket engine densification and additional handling. The rocket engine applications. The test data
turbines were determined. The beam damping capacities for these samples were from this task has shown that fiber-
samples were composed of carbon/silicon determined through impact tests conducted reinforced composites provide higher
carbide (C/SiC) and silicon carbide/alumina at MSFC. material damping than the selected baseline
(SiC/alumina), where the first term is the advanced metal alloy. Additionally, with
fiber and the second is the matrix material. The data obtained from this task can aide in higher damping, composites may increase
Three fiber architecture's were evaluated, the selection of materials for the life of components subjected to high-
(0/90), (0/90) with 15-degree offset and turbomachinery applications. Turbopump vibration environments. The study of the
quasi-isotropic. All three architecture's were components produced from composite damping properties of advanced composites
represented for the C/SiC material while for materials will allow the engine to be lighter, can aide the engine component designer in
the SiC/alumina, only the (0/90) was tested. thus providing an improved thrust-to-weight the selection of materials for high-vibration
The two disks, 22.86-cm in diameter, were ratio. Composites in the turbine area could environments.

0.35 Fund
[] 2nd Nodal Line (on-axis)
0.3
Biographical Sketch: Donald L. Hams
• 2nd Nodal Line (off-axis) started his career with NASA as a coopera-
•-= 0.25
r= tive education student from Tuskegee
m 0.2 • 1st Ring University in 1986. Harris, upon graduation
o,,0.15 from Tuskegee in 1990 with a bachelor's

• 4th Nodal Line (on-axis) degree in aerospace science engineering,
0.1 accepted a permanent position with NASA/
[] 4th Nodal Line (off-axis) MSFC. He is an aerospace technologist
0.05
(AST), Structural Dynamics, performing
• 1st Nodal Line (on-axis)/lst structural dynamic analysis on liquid rocket
Cloth Lay-up Polar Woven Ring engine components.
Disk Type
[] 1st Nodal Line (off-axis)/lst
Ring
F,GURE48.--Disk damping results.
49
Analytical Model least-squares problem. That is because the the analytical model improvement problem
number of Eigenvector degrees-of-freedom is best approximated as a series of sequen-
Improvement Using and Eigenvalues, measured during the tial linear least-squares problems. With this
Singular Value modal test, usually greatly exceed the method, the FEM is updated during each
number of design variables that are to be analytical model improvement cycle, and if
Decomposition With solved for. In matrix notation, this can be convergence is not achieved, the process of
a One-Dimensional Line expressed by a linear equation as, calculating sensitivities and solving the
resulting linear least-squares equations is
Searching Technique A=J8 repeated.
MatthewE Orr,Jr./ED23 where A is a vector containing the differ- Sometimes the linear least-squares
205-544-1534 ences between experimental measured and incremental solution, 8 will produce a more
analytical quantities such as eigenvalues accurate parametric model than existed
E-mail:matthew.orr@msfc.nasa.gov and eigenvectors. The vector 8 contains the originally. Often times, however it may be
design parameter changes to be solved for wildly divergent. It can be shown that there
The goal of analytical model improvement in order that the experimental and analytical exists a step-size parameter Ix, such that Ix
is to systematically improve a finite element quantities are in agreement. The Jacobian times the vector 8 will yield an incremental
model so that predicted responses such as matrix J contains the sensitivities of the solution for the design variables,
mode shapes and natural frequencies analytical modal quantities with respect to
closely match those measured by actual the design parameters. incremental = IX 8
experimental tests. The updated finite
element model can then be used to more Using SVD the Jacobian matrix J can be with a residual error that is guaranteed to be
accurately predict transient response loads written as the product of three matrices, less than the previous residual. If the
and displacements. In general, both the residual error can be sequentially mini-
experimental data and the analytical model J=UWV T mized, the final resulting solution should be
may contain errors, and the improvement the best solution possible.
process should detect and minimize these And the above linear equation can be solved
differences. as, In this mathematical scheme, the linear
8=VW -1 uTA solution 8 is used as the search direction
The software code AMI (analytical model and the step size parameter Ix represents
improvement) used in this study, was The solution that this SVD method yields, what portion of the linear solution is to be
developed for both structural optimization is the so-called minimal p-2 norm residual used. The trick then, is to determine what
applications and for analytical model error solution. It basically represents the value of the step-size parameter tx to use.
improvement applications. AMI consists of best fit of the analytical model to the With a constant search direction 8, the
a UNIX script file which calls NASTRAN experimental data possible. Any ill estimated design variable values are solely a
to provide structural data and also calls conditioning present in the system of function of the parameter Ix,
several FORTRAN codes that calculate equations becomes readily apparent when
improved or optimized design parameters. examining the singular values or the 8(_) estimated = IX 8 + 8 initial
resulting condition number which is the
The methodology developed for AMI uses ratio of the largest singular value divided by Approximations for Eigenvalues and
several advanced mathematical techniques. the smallest singular value. Singular values Eigenvector degrees-of-freedom, which are
A search direction is first calculated with a less than a given tolerance level are a function of the estimated design variables,
linear least-squares solution, using singular discarded, thus removing any ill condition- _(O0estimated required. Two methods
are also
value decomposition (SVD). Second order ing, and insuring the accuracy of the for the approximations were evaluated. The
information is then utilized, in a one-dimen- solution. first method uses a special version of the
sional line search, to determine a step size method of moving asymptotes (MMA) to
which yields the optimal match between In practice, the relationship between approximate the eigenquantities. The
experimental and analytical data. Two experimental and analytical eigenquantities second method uses a generalized quadratic
approximation functions are considered for is often not well approximated by the above equation (GQE) for the approximations.
use in the one-dimensional line search. linear equation. Significant nonlinearities The approximate eigenquantity functions
may exist. The problem then becomes one are such that they exactly match the
The analytical model improvement analysis, of nonlinear data fitting which can generally eigenquantities and their first and second
in its simplest form, is essentially a linear only be solved by iteration. For this reason, derivatives at the initial design parameters.
5O
Technology Programs
Using the approximation functions (MMA derivatives, determined through a forward shapes were used for this correlation study;
or GQE), the p-2 norm residual error finite difference technique. Whenever a the corresponding frequency range of
between the estimated and the test measured second derivative term is zero or is negative, interest was 50 Hz and less. The first test
eigenquantities is next determined. This a small positive number is substituted. This and analysis mode shape was a pitch mode
estimated p-2 norm residual error is now provides for a so-called convex approxima- of the canister about the x-axis. The second
only a function of the parameter _. tion which provides for a unique solution. was a lateral canister translation in the
x direction.
A one-dimensional line search optimization A fixed-base modal survey was conducted at
routine in the International Math and Marshall Space Flight Center on December Table 3 shows the design variables that were
Statistics Library (IMSL) is next used to 1l, 1991, which experimentally determined chosen to be updated in this study. Design
find the value of tx, which minimizes the the lower-frequency dynamic characteristics variable number one is the canister delta
estimated residual error. This value of the of the Small Expendable Deployer System mass moment of inertia about the x- or
parameter, say ct*, is then used to get an (SEDS). Figure 49 shows the finite element z-axis. This variable augments the finite
improved estimate of the design variables. model for the SEDS test article including element model prediction of the mass
several of the major structural components. moment of inertia of the tether which is
Both approximation functions, MMA and This analytical finite element model contains inside of the canister. It tends to compensate
GQE, use second order eigenquantity approximately 6,600 degrees-of-freedom. for modeling the tether with using only two
information, namely primary second The first two natural frequencies and mode lumped masses connected by very stiff bar
Cannister Su
L Longeron
Fixture
Z
Rotational Stiffnesses
Figure 49._mall Expendable Deployer System (SEDS) finite element model
51
ro]_oloIolo:
Table 3.--Design parameter definitions. elements; the mass moments of the tether's
inertia had not been determined exactly. The
modulus of elasticity of the longeron, of the
Design Parameter Descri )tion
canister support or torque tube, and of the
brace were also chosen as design variables.
Cannister Delta Moment of Inertia Three rotational stiffnesses design variables,
at the aft ends of the Iongerons, represent test
Aft Test Fixture Rotational Stiffness K@y fixture effects. Another design parameter is a
bearing stiffness between the brace and
Brace to Torquebox to Cannister Stiffness K canister support and canister.
Aft Test Fixture Rotational Stiffness Kex With the eight design parameters chosen, the
unbounded linear solution was prone to fairly
Longeron Stiffness E (modulus of elasticity)
large excursions. This is partly due to
combining mass or inertia design variables
Aft Test Fixture Rotational Stiffness Kez
with stiffness variables during the analysis.
Using physically realistic design parameters
Brace Stiffness E (modulus of elasticity)
is an important requirement for this type of
Cannister Support Stiffness E (modulus of elasticity) analysis, however, if the results produced are
to be meaningful. Figure 50 shows several
analyses using four different options for
selecting the step-length parameter ct. A
constant move-limit assumption indirectly
specifies the parameter ct since the largest
design variable is limited to a given fraction
UsingO.5MoveLimi_ Using 1.0 Move Limits

107:
107___._.-_.__._._
106 106 F
E 105 -v- 1 Cannister Delta-Moments
_104' -X- 2 Aft Test Fixture Stiffness

K theta_y
103
103_
• 3 Brace-Torquebox-Cannister
102 102 ........ ,_, ,_, , _ I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Stiffness K
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
4 Aft Test Fixture Stiffness
K_theta_x
Using Method of Moving Using Generalized Quadratic
Asymptotes Equation
107 5 Longeron Stiffness_E
6 Aft Test Fixture Stiffness

106 - 108 --
K_ theta_z
105 " _- ....... _" ........ _ "-_ × 105 - -"-_-:-_---_--._×-"_"_"-'_
N ! ." --':_" , 7 e ! J 7 Brace Stiffness E
C
.__
8 Cannister Support Stiffness_E
103
104 10 3
102 • 10 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Iteration Number Iteration Number
Figure 5O._nalytical model improvement analysis---design parameters versus iteration number for various methods of computing a.
52
Technology Programs
Ta b le 4.--SEDS simulated data test cases. For test case number one, the first design
variable was increased by 100 percent from
Test Case Description Iterations Required Maximum % Error its nominal value, i.e., increased from 268.7 to
537.4 lb/in 2, as given in weight units. Modal
Test Case Design Changes From to Converge in Predicted Design
data were calculated for this configuration and
Number Variable Nominal Case Variables
used as experimental test data. The analytical
model improvement analysis matched the
+100% 0.0
design parameters for this test case in four
iterations with negligible errors.
3- t +100% 0.0
For every one of the six test cases in fact, each

i +13.3% 0.1
of the design parameters was predicted to the
correct value with negligible errors. The most
8-- I +13.3% 0.1
difficult test case considered, number six,
took more iterations (seven) to converge--as
,- , +100%
would be expected--since this configuration
3- i +100% 0.1
had been substantially modified from the
_ +13.3% nominal configuration.
,- , +100% The AMI software is a useful tool that can be

2- i +100% used by the analyst for the sometimes difficult
3- i +100% task of analytical model improvement. The
-- , +100% 0.2 approximation functions, using second order
_- i +100% information, converge to an accurate solution
_- I +66.7% in a reasonable number of iterations.
;- i -44.4% Improved design variables calculated by AMI
8- t -66.7% are both physically realizable and also very
!
reaiisitic.
of its previous value and other design the off-diagonal values were only 0.004 and Orr, M.E, Jr.: "Analytical Model Updating
parameters are ratioed accordingly. This 0.003. And frequency errors were mini- Using Singular Value Decomposition With
move limit option is often used in structural mized to 0.05 percent for both modes. a One-Dimensional Line Searching
optimization problems. The move-limit Acceptable values for frequency errors are Technique." AIAA/AS ME/AHS Adaptive
options using move-limits of 0.5 and of 1.0, usually three to five percent, and diagonal Structures Forum, Salt Lake City, UT,
however, did fail to converge even after cross-orthogonality numbers are usually 1996.
18 iterations. required to be 0.900 or greater; off
diagonals should be less than 0.1. The Sponsor: International Space Station
The processes using the method of moving above results predicted by AMI are
asymptotes and generalized quadratic significantly better than these requirements. Biographical Sketch: Matthew E Orr, Jr, has
equation converge in eight and nine worked in the aerospace engineering field as a
iterations respectively. These results show The second order approximation functions structural dynamicist for approximately
the advantage of using approximation were very effective for reaching a converged 23 years after serving a 3-year tour in the
functions with second order information. solution in a reasonable number of U.S. Army. He received a B.S. in aerospace
iterations. The accuracy of the solution was engineering from University of Kansas in
The AMI software also includes a still somewhat in question, however. For 1973 and received a master's of mechanical
FORTRAN code that monitors various test- this reason, six simulated test cases were engineering with a perfect straight-A average
related parameters such as modal assurance designed where the target solution was from the University of Utah in 1978. He has
criteria numbers (MAC) and cross- known before the AMI analysis was begun. worked at Beech Aircraft, Thiokol, Martin
orthogonality numbers. The final MAC Table 4 gives results of this study. The Marietta, McDonald Douglas, and has been
numbers predicted were 0.994 and 0.993 for MMA determination of the step size _ was with NASA/MSFC for over 5 years. He
the first two modes. The diagonal cross used for this study since it seemed to yield recently was awarded the Professional
orthogonality numbers between analysis somewhat better results than the GQE Engineering License from the State of
and test were 0.999 for both sets of modes; method. Alabama. _]
53
Automated Signal false alarm signatures. As a result, use of involved, such detailed diagnostic analysis
signal analysis techniques reduces false is currently being performed manually
Processing System alarm/misinterpretation rates and greatly which requires immense man-hours with
extensive human interface. The advanced
of High-Frequency improves system reliability. These tech-
niques have been tested using SSME static nonlinear signal analysis topographical
Dynamic Measurements test and flight data and appear to be mapping system (ATMS) utilizes a rule-
extremely promising for failure analysis and based expert system to supervise a sequence
for Engine Diagnostics detection in other complex machinery. These of diagnostic signature analysis techniques
advanced mechanical signature analysis in the ASAL library in performing auto-
Tony Fiorucci/ED23 techniques as shown in table 5 have been matic signal processing and anomaly
205-544-1551 integrated into an advanced signal analysis detection/identification tasks in order to
E-maih tony@gomez.msfc.nasa.gov library (ASAL) for use at MSFC's Structural provide an intelligent and fully automated
Dynamics and Loads Branch on the operator engine diagnostic capability.
interactive signal processing system
NASA's advanced propulsion systems have (OISPS). Figure 51 shows the logic flow of the
been undergoing extensive flight certifica- overall ATMS system. Typical input to the
tion and development testing. This process The mechanical signature analysis tech- system for SSME ground tests contains
involves large volumes of health monitoring niques in the ASAL library have been used 60 to 80 channels of dynamic data at a
measurements. Under the severe tempera- extensively in supporting critical, day-to-day sample frequency of 10,240 Hz for a test
ture, pressure, and dynamic environments MSFC SSME project flight and test program duration of approximately 550 sec. SSME
sustained during operation, numerous major operations. The detection and understanding flight data inputs range from 24 to 36 dy-
component failures have occurred resulting of anomalous signatures and their physical namic channels sampled at 10,240 Hz for
in extensive engine hardware damage and implications is the most important function approximately 520 sec. The interfaces
schedule impact. To enhance engine safety of the ASAL techniques. However, due to between the CLIPS expert system and the
and reliability, detailed analysis and the highly interactive processing require- ASAL programs were developed first. A set
evaluation of the high-frequency measurements and the volume of dynamic data of ASAL execution rules of how to perform
ment signals are mandatory to assess the
propulsion system dynamic characteristics
TABLE5.--ATMS Advanced Signal Analysis Library (ATMS-ASAL).
and operational conditions. An efficient and
reliable automated signal processing system
that can analyze large amounts of high- • Auto/Cross Bi-Spectral Analysis for quadratic nonlinear correlation identification
frequency dynamic measurements can
• Auto/Cross Tri-Spectral Analysis for cubic nonlinear correlation identification
provide timely assessment of engine
• Hyper-Coherence Analysis for harmonic correlation identification
performance and diagnosis. Such a system
• Hyper-Coherence Filtering for waveform enhancement
will reduce catastrophic system failure risks
and expedite the evaluation of both flight • Instantaneous Frequency Correlation for frequency synchronous correlation analysis
and ground test data, thereby reducing • Micro-Frequency Cross Correlation technique for time delay estimation
launch turnaround time.
• Composite-Modulation Analysis for higher order nonlinear correlation identification
• Phase Synchronous Enhancement Method for spectral resolution enhancement
During the development of the Space
• Coherent Phase Wideband Demodulation for cavitation detection
Shuttle Main Engine (SSME), a hierarchy
of advanced signal analysis techniques for • Synchronous Time Averaging for waveform enhancement with keyphasor data
mechanical signature analysis has been • Synchronous Phase Averaging for waveform enhancement without keyphasor data
developed by NASA and ASR1 for the
• Rotary Spectral Analysis for dynamic orbit analysis
improvement of safety and reliability for
• Adaptive Comb/Notch Filter for dynamic orbit enhancement
Space Shuttle operations. These techniques
can process and identify intelligent • Recursive Least Square adaptive filter for adaptive noise cancellation
information hidden in a measurement signal • Phase Domain Average technique for signal discreteness determination
which is often unidentifiable using • Topographical Algorithm for signal mapping and compression
conventional signal analysis methods. By
• High-frequency Envelope Analysis for bearing fault detection
providing additional insight into the system
• Modified Wigner Distribution for high-resolution spectral analysis without
response, the techniques can better identify
cross-coupling
well-hidden defect symptoms as well as
54
Technology Programs
Rocket Engine capabilities which allows the entire engine

Flight/Ground Test test history to be readily accessible.
Dynamic
Measurements The ADIS is the most intelligent element of
the ATMS. Its major function is to first
detect the existence of any anomaly in the
CTDB data base created by ASPS. Anomaly
identification will then be performed in
Automated Signal order to determine the physical underlying
Processing I cause of the anomaly. The signature
I ASPS
Subsystem I analysis
provide
techniques
valuable
in ASAL can often
insight about the source of
an anomaly and identify its underlying
causes. Table 6 lists the typical anomaly
detection and identification capabilities
offered by ASAL for engine diagnostic
evaluation. This anomaly detection and
IS ASAL Anomaly identification task requires interactive
Advanced l processing of various signal analysis
Detection and
ignal Analysis / Identification techniques in ASAL. An ADIS knowledge
ADIS 1
Library j Subsystem base (ADIS-KB) was designed and
It
established by extracting the knowledge and
thought logic of experienced human experts
in performing such anomaly detection/
identification, and reducing them into a set
of rules for expert system execution. The
ADIS then utilizes the CLIPS expert system
to automate an intelligent ADIS analysis
task by performing an extensive and highly
interactive analysis for anomaly detection
and identification.
A typical example of the ADIS logic flow

will now be given. If a strong anomaly is
detected at some frequency in the acceler-
ometer data from the SSME high-pressure
Y L Retrieval
Subsystem
fuel turbopump (HPFTP), the ADIS will
perform a sequence of appropriate signal
analyses in order to identify the potential
FIGURE51 ._TM system logic flow.
sources of this anomaly as:
• A high vibration level at the HPFTP
the analysis of each ASAL program with patterns in a compressed topographical synchronous and/or harmonic frequency
correct parameter settings were established format and other various special formats to due to rubbing, imbalance, misalignment,
in the automated signal processing be stored in the compressed topographical or instability;
subsystem (ASPS) knowledge base (ASPS- data base (CTDB). The results of the ASPS • A bearing defect (inner race defect, outer
KB). Based on this knowledge base, the operations thus provides the basic fact data race defect, rolling element defect)
ASPS then utilizes the CLIPS expert system base and key statistic information for more characteristic frequencies of various ball/
to supervise the ASAL in performing a detailed analysis in the subsequent anomaly roller bearings (pump-end ball (PEBB),
sequence of standard analysis tasks for detection and identification subsystem turbine-end ball (TEBB), turbine-end
engine postflight/test evaluation. The ASPS (ADIS). In addtion, the signature retrieval roller ball (TERB));
will automatically convert high-frequency subsystem (SRS) can be enacted to provide • A modulation/sideband spectral compo-
dynamic signals from the engine opera- fast signature retrieval, trending, and fault- nent of a bearing fault pattern;
tional run into a bank of succinct image-like pattern comparison/identification
55
TABLE6.mA TMS-ADIS anomaly detection Identification capabilities. 1Jong J.; Fiorucci T.; McBride J.: "Phase
Synchronized Enhancement Method for
Machinery Diagnostics." 1994 MSFC
• Detect nonlinear modutation/sideband phenomenon associated with bearing
Research and Technology Report, 1994.
fault mechanisms
• Detect wideband modulation phenomenon associated with cavitation-induced vibration
2jong J.; Jones J.; McBride J.; and Coffin
• Identify feed-through or resonance from neighboring equipment T.: "Correlation Identification Between
• Identify RPM/harmonics interference/overlap within a multi-rotor system Spectral Components in Turbomachinery
• Discriminate rotor-related vibration from independent nonrotor-driven source/noise Measurements by Generalized Hyper-
• Identify syncronous (RPM) modulated spectral component associated various nonlinear Coherence." Third International Machin-
vibration mechanisms (including mechanical-driven) such as deadband interaction, ery Monitoring And Diagnostic
and fluid-driven such as cavitation-induced asynchronous vibration, etc. Conference, December, 1991.
• Identify pure-tone electric line noise
• Identify structural/acoustical resonant mode 3jong J.; Jones J.; McBride J.; Fiorucci T.;
Zoladz, T.: "Phase Synchronized
• Detect Frequency Modulation (FM) phenomenon associated with various FM vibration
mechanisms such as shaft torsional vibration or gearbox transmission error Enhancement Method for Space Shuttle
Main Engine Diagnostics." NASA
• Identify signal source through time-delay estimation
Conference on Advanced Earth-to-Orbit
• Improve the signal-to-noise ratio in the vibration measurement data corrupted by noise
Propulsion Technology, 1994
• Enhance spectral resolution for all RPM-related vibration components
Sponsor: Space Shuttle Main Engine
Project, Reusable Launch Vehicle--Long
• A synchronous/harmonic frequency feed- ATMS will significantly reduce manpower Term/High Payoff
through from other engine turbopumps; requirements for processing and analyzing
• Aliasing; large volumes of rocket engine flight/test Industry Involvement: Dr. Jen-Yi Jong, AI
• An electrical line noise; dynamic data for diagnostic and perfor- Signal Research, Inc.
• A cavitation-induced vibration; or mance evaluation. ATMS will allow NASA
• A structural mode, etc. engineers to quickly evaluate rocket engine Biographical Sketch: Tony Fiorucci is an
operational conditions of flight/test data, aerospace engineer with the Structural
If the anomaly cannot be absolutely thereby reducing launch turnaround time Dynamics and Loads Branch of the
identified, ADIS will then try to identify and enhancing flight safety and reliability. Structures and Dynamics Laboratory at
certain dynamic characteristics associated ATMS will provide timely assessments of Marshall Space Flight Center. He special-
with the anomaly such as: the engine performance, identify probable izes in evaluation and characterization of
• Whether it is synchronous frequency causes of malfunction/anomalies, and vibration environments for both flight and
related or synchronous-independent; indicate feasible engineering solutions to ground test propulsion systems supervised
• The anomaly modulation relationship enhance engine performance. In addition, by MSFC. His current and primary tasks
with synchronous; failure history, fault symptoms, and include assessment/qualification of all
• The discreteness of the anomaly; or anomalous signatures created in the CTDB vibration data acquired in support of the
• The instantaneous frequency/amplitude will provide a foundation for future development, certification, and flight
characteristics (periodic or random) of propulsion development programs. programs for the SSME project. Fiorucci
the anomaly, etc. graduated with a B.S. in engineering
An intelligent and fully automated rocket mechanics from the University of Tennessee
Preliminary testing of ATMS using actual engine diagnostic system has considerable in 1988. E
SSME test data has demonstrated that the commercial application potential outside the
ATMS can perform detailed dynamic data NASA's propulsion area. Such a system
analyses of large volumes of dynamic data would greatly increase the performance of
without human interface thereby reducing monitoring and providing diagnostic data
the analysis man-hours. ATMS has also for critical mechanicaYdrive-traln compo-
been used to support anomaly/incident nents of many industrial systems used by
investigations for the advanced turbopump power plants, transportation, and manufac-
(AT) HPFFP program and the information turing sectors.
obtained was instrumental in the redesign of
the AT/HPFTP hardware.
56
Technology Programs
Design of a Ceramic Matrix modified with composite properties for a address simplex-specific turbopump test
simple comparative case study and the requirements for turbines operating in a gox
Composite Integrally calculations for maximum stress and blade environment.
Bladed Turbine Disk hub values were presented to the team.
While stress values were lower for the Damping tests were performed on eight
ceramic case, only centrifugal loading was beam samples, two of which were provided
KatherineK.Mims/ED23 considered at this time for this particular by the CDDF (Center Director's Discretion-
205-544-1506 phase of the design. Examination also was ary Funds) damping study entitled "Mea-
E-maihkatherine.mims@msfc.nasa.gov made of three attachment designs, based on surement of Damping of Advanced
earlier work performed by Garrett Aircraft Composite Materials for Turbomachinery
This program is in its second year and will in the early 1980's. In the future, a blisk Applications." The tested materials included
enter shortly into Phase II which consists of model with a bionic attachment definition two samples each of:
the actual hardware fabrication and testing. will be used for structural assessment. The • C/SiC Quasi-Isotropic
Primary members of the multiple discipline blisk geometry will be finalized when • C/SiC (0/90)
Science and Engineering MSFC/LeRC team subscale torque test results are available for • C/SiC (0/90) 15-degree offset
are: LeRC: Andy Eckel, Dr. Tom Herbel, incorporation into the hub attachment • SiC/Alumina
All Sayir; MSFC: G. Genge, EP32; design. Additional work was performed to
Dr. Corky Clinton, EH34; Michael Effinger, provide recommendations for high cycle Figure 52 shows the results of the testing
EH34; Don Harris, ED23; Dr. James Min, fatigue and low cycle fatigue test param- compared with an Inconel 718 beam
ED27; Dr. Roy Sullivan, ED28; Jose eters. sample. The results indicate a significant
Roman, ED64; R. Beshears, EH13; and the increase in damping over the metal sample.
author. Subscaie tests have been completed With key composite integrally bladed disk The C/SiC (0/90) 15-degree offset sample
to either address simplex turbopump test (CBLISK) design parameters identified was dropped before testing which probably
requirements or to generate gaseous oxygen from the industry-government telecons, and caused more matrix cracking, which in turn
(gox) or thermal-based data for upcoming guidance in use of the design of experi- allowed more slip and produced more
programs. The following presents limited ments approach, a test matrix for the torque damping for all modes tested. Additionally,
results from the subscale tests and analyses testing was generated for optimizing the the two disks procured from Oak Ridge
that have been performed. Because of ITAR blisk hub attachment design. Due to funding National Laboratory for damping tests in
(International Traffic in Arms Regulations) limitations, however, the test matrix will be the CDDF task were provided to the
restrictions on export of technologies and reduced to reflect evaluation of two designs CBLISK team for torque requirements
the fact that data represents a technology rather than three. testing.
unique to the United States, requests for
detailed data may be made through the Several subscale tests were performed to Three thermal testing tasks were conducted
Technology Transfer Office. resolve materials performance questions for at NASA/LeRC on the C/SiC composites.
blisk concepts in general; a few tests These were thermal shock, stressed
Telecons with DoD and industry partici-
pants produced historical design data that
enabled the team to quickly identify the key
[] 1st Bending [] 2nd Bending [] 1st Torsional
design parameters for composite blisks:
shear strength limitation of composites, 10
higher compressive strength of C/SiC
composites, the biconic attachment E 1
O
coupling design, and the potential for
tailoring blade strength properties through
0.1
the implementation of ceramic polar
weaves.
0.01
A preliminary analysis was performed to C/SiC C/SiC C/SiC SiC/ Inconel
help determine differences in stress levels Quasi-iso (A) (0/90) (A) (0/90) 15 Deg. Alumina 718
experienced with ceramics versus the (0/90) (A)
traditional metallic blisk. In order to be Material Name
consistent with previous simplex results, the

ANSYS simplex turbine blisk model was FIGURE52._DDF/CBLISK beam samples damping results (FY96).
57
oxidation and thermogravimetric (TGA) properties of the ceramic composites. number of samples prohibit a statistical
testing. Due to funding limitations, it was Recent fatigue studies, conducted at characterization, it does suggest a general
decided by the team to divide the testing University of Michigan, have shown that the trend of the current C/SiC material
into two phases; Phase II is planned for tension-tension fatigue life of fiber- specimens for the specified test conditions.
F'Y97. reinforced ceramics decreases as the fatigue It is important to note that the frequency
loading frequency is increased. A limited dependency of composites is a design factor
The first set of stressed oxidation testing number of samples were used in load- that will impact structural response and
was completed and analysis of the results unload tests for predetermined stress levels should be characterized as close to
was reported. TGA testing was also and frequency of cycling parameters operating frequency as practical for planned
partially completed and results are avail- identified for the high-cycle fatigue testing. applications.
able. TGA testing was performed on both Fatigue data on tensile specimens were
fiber architectures and at three tempera- generated. An attempt was made to begin to In addition to the wrap-up of the FY96
tures. This testing is meant to assess how characterize the composites under various subscale tests, preliminary analysis and
rapidly the materials oxidize (without loading conditions while operating at developing requirements for the critical
stress) in a flowing oxidizing gas at elevated 10 and 50 Hz. See figure 53 for a plot of the design parameters, the team completed a
temperatures. Weight loss data is recorded data. Test failures were discovered at a high benchmark evaluation of Oak Ridge
in real time as the sample is suspended number of cycles (i.e, 1 x 107) for high National Lab (ORNL) rapid densification
unstressed in a laboratory furnace. Each test loads. Previous testing for other materials process through acquisition and nondestruc-
runs for a maximum of 24 hr. So far, the (i.e., metals) would have assumed run out at tive evaluation (NDE) of polar woven disks.
TGA data are consistent with results from a lower number of cycles (i.e., 1 × 106). Improved MSFC NDE in-process inspec-
the stressed oxidation testing. These data More samples are required to better define tion procedures were established for
and plots are available upon request. this finding. Due to limitations of the test composites. The actual CMC test blisks
machine, high load and high frequencies will, however, be produced by DuPont
Results for the particle impact test of coated could not be obtained. While the low through the traditional densification
C/SiC targets indicated that the samples do
not burn at temperatures up to 700 °E In
most impacts, the material appeared Room Temperature, Air
fragmented and de-layered rather than 8O
burned. More tests will be run to generate
additional data. Remaining samples will be Ultimate Strength (0/90) Virgin
reserved until the injector is redesigned 70
(beginning in 1997) to handle 1,000 °F.
Particle impact test data from LeRC exist on o )1-.),
A 60 N->
SiC/SiC samples; it is reported that the o
SiC/SiC samples fared well. o
44 Ultimate Strength (30/60/90) Virgin
44
50
Promoted combustion and frictional ignition A
tests were performed to satisfy pump test
requirements. Materials characterization 40 --
(fatigue, tensile, shear, modulus, specific

heat, etc.) tests were also conducted using
30 --
C/SiC specimens. These properties will be E
used in the structural assessment. m 0(0/90) Lay-up, f=10, r=0.1
E 20 -- A(30/60/90) Lay-up, f=50 Hz,
Many components can be subjected to a [] (30/60/90) Lay-up, f=10 Hz,
spectrum of loading frequencies ranging x (0/90) Lay-up, f=50 Hz, r=0.97
from a few hertz to several thousand hertz. 10 D
Test Stopped--Run Out Assume]

During its design sessions, the team
established the influence of high-cyclic 0 i i i I l J
loading frequency on the tensile fatigue life 1.0E+I 1.0E+2 1.0E+3 1.0E+4 1.0E+5 1.0E+6 1.0E+7 1.0E+8
of a woven-carbon-fiber/SiC-matrix
composite turbine blisk. Published literature
identified frequencies affecting the FI6URE53.--Fatigue of C/SIC ceramic matrix composite.
58
Technology
Programs
process. One disk from each type (quasi- 2Halbig, M.: "Stressed Oxidation Testing."
Testing of Low-Profile
isotropic and polar weave) will be used in Technical Report, NASA Lewis Research
the turbopump tests. Center, February, 1996. Composite Dome Under
Internal Pressure
Fewer parts count and the lighter weight 3Clinton, R.G.: "Selection and Character-
parts will result in reduced operational ization of Ceramic Matrix Composite
costs. Acquisition of CBLISK technology is Materials for Rocket Engine Integrally RafiqAhrned/ED24
desired to realize cost savings from two Bladed Turbine Disks (Blisks)." Pre- 205-544-2217
areas. Use of a single-piece turbine sented at the annual conference of E-maihrafiq.ahmed@msfc.nasa.gov
construction (integrally bladed) damped Advanced Composites sponsored by
lightweight composite materials will reduce American Ceramics Society, January Low-profile domes are becoming more and
weight and cost of labor intensive opera- 1996. more important in aerospace design as a
tions of assembly and disassembly, as well means of reducing overall vehicle weight
as for inspection of complex blades/damper Sponsor: Office of Space Access and and increasing the volume of a tank for a
systems. In addition, use of composites is Technology given length. Most low-profile dome
expected to impart needed internal damping designs considered thus far have been
to the configuration to address the vibratory University/Industry Involvement: DuPont metallic. Since composite materials offer
stresses encountered due to unsteady flow Lanxide; Southern Research Institute, significant performance and weight
loads through the bladed turbine regions. Foster Miller advantages over metals, a Center Director's
However, the structural response of these Discretionary Fund (CDDF) project was
single-piece structures (blisks) to high- Biographical Sketch: Katherine Mims is a initiated to apply composites to the low-
vibration environments must be considered. senior structural dynamics analyst at the profile dome concept.
This task will aid in characterizing the MSFC Structures and Dynamics Labora-
extent to which composites can damp these tory, Structural Analysis Division, Struc- The purpose of this project was to design,
vibrations and will help benchmark the tures and Loads Branch. She is a manufacture and test a low-profile compos-
ceramic blisk technology for application in mechanical engineering graduate of Auburn ite dome with a radius-to-height ratio of
high-temperature environments. In addition, University and has been interested in blisk three using graphite-epoxy material. Design
unique gox-rich environments data will be dynamics since she became affiliated with and analysis was performed using several
generated which will broaden the applica- the Government through DoD/MICOM, computer programs for determining ply
tion of composites. Redstone Arsenal in 1983 and then, at layups and finite element analysis to verify
MSFC, NASA in 1985. the design and generate test predictions.
During the progress of this year, this Computational methods and spreadsheets
program has produced data which will were also used to determine the ply layup
enable the ceramic matrix composite sequence and to give technicians the proper
integrally turbine to be tested in the Simplex geometries of each ply. The dome was
turbopump environment. Biconic attach- successfully manufactured in the MSFC
ment design parameters were identified and Productivity Enhancement Complex (PEC)
a design of experiments for determining via hand layup using a toughened resin
torque test friction factors was formulated. graphite-epoxy material.
In addition, a limited set of unique
frequency/fatigue data base reveals the The test will consist of a sequence of
dependency of composites under high internal pressure loadings that will measure
frequency cyclic loading to stress levels the strain and displacement response of the
which will aid in the characterization of dome as a function of pressure. At least
future composites applications. three potential failure modes exist:
Circumferential buckling, biaxial tension
lTurbine Rotor Development Program, and biaxial tension-compression. Valuable
DuPont Lanxide, October 1994. Sponsor: data as to which of these modes causes first
Aero Propulsion and Power Laboratory, failure will be obtained, along with data
Wright Research and Development from modern inspection methods such as
Center, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, acoustic emission, video image correlation
Ohio. and laser shearography.
59
The data obtained from this effort will A Combined Micro- continue to make use of ceramic matrix
provide a valuable technology that will composites (CMC's) and metal matrix
greatly assist designers of future aerospace mechanics, Fracture composites (MMC's). In order to qualify
vehicles such as the Reusable Launch
Mechanics, and space flight systems, the useful life of the
Vehicle, future expendable launch vehicles, rocket components must be determined. The
upper stages, reusable orbital transfer Statistical Approach analysis tool being developed will deter-
vehicles and future exploration vehicles.
for Life Prediction mine the useful life of rocket components
made with CMC's and MMC's.
Data from this study will also be of use in
other applications since it characterizes the of CMC/MMC
behavior of composites under a variety of The technical objectives of this project
stress states. include the development of a new analysis
JamesB. Min/ED25
technique that combines micromechanics,
205-544-1564
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary fracture mechanics and statistical principles
Fund E-mail:JamesMin@msfc.nasa.gov
to model and predict the mechanical
response and failure mechanisms of CMC's
Universityflndustry Involvement: NASA In order to save weight and increase and MMC's. The proposed technique uses
Academy Summer Intern Program performance, advanced rocket systems will the coefficient of friction at the fiber-matrix
Biographical Sketch: Rafiq Ahmed is a

structural analyst and has performed stress
analysis on space shuttle and advanced
technology hardware.
Estimate
duematrix stiffness
to matrix reduction
cracking ,__cccLt_ -J /
ac
Statistics analysis for failed
fiber fraction Update ply and laminate properites
FIGURE54.--Flow chart of combined micromechanics, fracture mechanics and statistical

approach of composite damage prediction.
60
Technology Programs
interface as the interface parameter which,

unlike the interfacial shear stress parameter
I Input laminate orientations)
(ply number, construction 1
I
in the earlier models, can account for the
effects of fiber diameter, fiber volume
fraction, loading, transverse stress and
thermal effects. Thus, a single parameter Compute ply properties
can now be used to correlate data for
different temperatures, fiber volume
fractions and loadings, which was not
possible with the earlier models.
I ompute laminate properties I
Phase I result of this project has established
an analytical tool for composite damage and
life prediction using the techniques
described above. Phase I analyses were I Compute stresses of each pig _ Input laminateload (stresses,
strains or loading cycle)
classical closed-form solutions. Only the
material degradation in the fiber direction
was considered. A flow chart of Phase I
Perform micromechanics, shear-lag II
I
analysis is displayed in figure 54.
and fracture mechanics analyses
(Fig. 54)
The goal of Phase II is for the practical
Obtain degraded fiber volume fraction
application of the theory. The analytical tool
Esttmate matrix property degradation
developed in Phase I is applied in the
analyses of general structures with
multilayer laminates. Finite element
analysis has to be applied to the entire
Yes
structure for obtaining stress and strain Load or cycle
information of each element. To predict the increment?
failure of a laminate element, the stresses in
each ply are estimated by using engineering
No
approaches. The theory developed in Phase
I then can be applied to each ply to predict
the fiber-failure fraction of each ply. To End
complete this kind of analysis, one major
task is how to estimate the material damage
in the off-fiber direction since transverse FIGURE55.DFI0w chart for failure prediction of a laminate element.
matrix cracking is the initial damage
occurring in the composite ply. In Phase II
studies, the volume element damage industry. It will have a menu-driven, point- Biographical Sketch: Dr. James Min is a
mechanics (VEDM) model is planned to and-click user interface which will enhance member of the Structural Integrity Branch
be used to predict the matrix cracking in the its appeal to engineers and designers at in the Structural Analysis Division of the
off-axis plies. Figure 55 shows the flow NASA and in industry. Also, it will be Structures and Dynamics Laboratory at
chart of the failure prediction of a laminate seamlessly integrated with a commercial MSFC. Min joined the Marshall Center in
element. finite element code ABAQUS for life 1989. His current activities include stress,
prediction of CMC's and MMC's. fracture/fatigue, durability and damage
The successful completion of this project tolerance analysis of metallic and composite
will result in the development of a new, Sponsor: Office of Advaneed Concepts and structures. Min received a B.S. in mechani-
general purpose analytical tool called Technology; Small Business Innovation cal engineering from Han Yang University,
CMLife, for the fatigue life prediction of Research Seoul, Korea. He also holds a M.S. in
laminated and textile ceramic matrix and engineering mechanics, civil engineering,
metal matrix composites and will, thereby, Industry Involvement: Analytical Services and materials science and a Ph.D. in
fulfill a critical need in the design of high- and Materials, Inc. mechanical engineering from University of
temperature components at NASA and in Illinois, Chicago.
61
Life Prediction tions were performed on selected specimens Sponsor: NASA Headquarters, Office of
which were subjected to interrupted testing Aeronautics
Methodology for Ceramic and repeated inspection. Also, the
fractography of failed specimens was Biographical Sketch: Rene Ortega has
Matrix Composites
initiated. Initial findings show that failure been employed with MSFC's Structural
appears to be driven by environmental Integrity Branch for 9 years as a structural
ReneOrtega/ED25 degradation of carbon fibers for this analyst (AST, Structural Mechanics) where
205-544-5448 material. Strength of this CMC degrades his primary responsibility has been fracture
E-mail:rene.ortega@msfc.nasa.gov rapidly at both 1,022 °F and 1,200 °E analysis, stress, and fatigue of liquid rocket
Very little strength degradation was shown engine components. Ortega received a B.S.
MSFC along with the expertise of LeRC at 842 °F which verifies the hypothesis that degree in civil engineering and a B.S.
personnel began a program in FY95 with the ongoing material damage is primarily degree in architectural engineering from the
the overall goal of developing, codifying governed by the failure of the carbon fibers University of Miami. He also received a
and validating a life prediction methodology since it is known that the environmental M.S. degree in mechanical engineering
for ceramic matrix composite (CMC) degradation of these fibers becomes from the University of Alabama in
engine components. The critical damage negligible below approximately 900 °E Huntsville.
mechanisms are being investigated through Tests done under cyclic loading showed
a large number of interrupted high- longer time to failure than creep specimens
temperature cyclic and monotonic tests. The when tested under similar temperatures and
test coupons are being evaluated through Stresses.
both nondestructive and vibratory dampen-

ing testing to ascertain the degree of One NDE technique being used for these
damage. Also, sequential through-the- specimens consists of the determination of
thickness polishing and microscopical the specimen's natural frequency as a
evaluation is performed to determine the function of creep exposure. A 1,200 °F
ongoing damage mechanisms, measure the stress rupture test was periodically
crack density and crack size distribution. interrupted and the natural frequency of the
The effect of time at temperature (i.e specimen was measured in a specially
environmental stability) is considered by designed rig. The test conditions duplicated
pre-exposing selected specimens to high a previously tested specimen so that the
temperature for an appropriate time prior approximate stress rupture life of the
to testing. The evolving cyclic or time- specimen was known. The natural fre-
dependent flaw population and distribution quency measurements were obtained in the
will be quantified, correlated to the as-machined condition prior to the test,
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and used 10-, 25-, 50-, 90-, and lO0-percent of the
in the analytical modeling. Further cyclic estimated life. The actual failure occurred at
and monotonic data and other material approximately 125 percent of the estimated
properties of the selected CMC will be life. A decrease in the natural frequency was
obtained by testing and supplemented by observed in the early stages of the test. The
literature search where possible. The life decrease of the measured natural frequency
prediction code will be validated through continued throughout the test. This
subcomponent cyclic and monotonic testing technique is currently considered cumber-
of complex geometries such as bolt holes or some and time consuming, but it is highly
notches at appropriate test conditions. sensitive in detecting the evolution of
damage even in its early stages. Natural
Over the past year LeRC personnel have frequency measurements can be translated
tested DuPont Lanxide C/SiC 0/90 plain- into a measurement of the dynamic modulus
weave laminate coupon specimens. The of the specimen. The degradation of the
tests conducted were elevated temperature modulus, which appears to occur in the
tensile, creep, and fatigue tests. Test early stages of testing, can then be used in
temperatures were 842 °F, 1,022 °F, and the analytical life prediction models.
1,200 °E Stiffness data was monitored and
stored throughout the tests. NDE inspec-
62
Technology Programs
Elastic-Plastic the combined effects of fatigue crack with software modules for the other three
growth and ductile tearing during cyclic flaw configuration solutions, is currently in
and Fully Plastic loading. Crack tip zones that experience work.
Fatigue Crack Growth consistent loading and environmental

conditions are assessed with the memory Chell, G.G.: "Fatigue Crack Growth Laws
model, while those which experience for Brittle and Ductile Materials
WayneGregg/ED25 overload or material changes (toughness) Including the Effects of Static Modes and
205-544-5501 are assessed with the loss-of-memory Elastic-Plastic Deformation." Fatigue
E-mail:wayne.gregg@msfc.nasa.gov model. For load cycles that create crack Engineering Material and Structures,
driving forces in excess of the elastic- vol.7, 1984, pp. 237-250.
The objectives of the elastic-plastic and plastic fracture toughness (material
fully plastic fatigue crack growth (EPFCG) capability), the memory model includes the McClung, R.C.; Hudak, S.J., Jr.; Bartlett,
research effort are to develop analytical effects of ductile tearing for a given load M.L.; FitzGerald, J.H.: "Growth of
solutions and computer programs for cycle (n) only if there is an increase in Surface Cracks During Large Elastic-
predicting the fracture life of flawed crack driving force over the previous load Plastic Loading Cycles." Fracture
metallic structures which experience cycle (n-I). Otherwise, if there is no Mechanics: Twenty-Third Symposium,
appreciable plastic crack tip stresses. In increase in crack driving force, then only ASTM STP 1189, 1993, pp. 265-283.
order to achieve these objectives, work is fatigue crack growth is accounted for in
being focused on research to develop the total crack extension during a given load NASA/FLAGRO: "Fatigue Crack Growth
analytical solutions and crack growth cycle (n). On the other hand, the loss-of- Computer Program 'NASA/FLAGRO'
algorithms, as well as software development memory model includes ductile tearing for Version 2.0." NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson
to extend the capabilities of the NASA/ every load cycle which creates crack Space Flight Center, May, 1994.
FLAGRO fracture mechanics program. driving forces in excess of the material
capability. These two models significantly Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics
The research effort for analytical solutions extend the capability of flaw growth
in previous years has resulted in a list of prediction beyond the brittle fracture Industry Involvement: Southwest
over 20 flaw geometries for which J Integral assumptions of the past. Research Institute, Rocketdyne Division of
solutions exist. These elastic-plastic Rockwell International
solutions include collected works from the In addition to research, a practical tool
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), for assessing real elastic-plastic fracture Biographical Sketch: Wayne Gregg has
newly developed solutions combining finite problems is being created through the been employed with the Structural Integrity
element results and the reference stress extension of the NASA/FLAGRO computer Branch for 9 years as a structural analyst
method (RSM), and derived solutions using program. Considerable progress has been (AST, Structural Mechanics) where his
the reference stress method for existing made in programming the elastic-plastic primary responsibility has been fracture
elastic solutions in NASA/FLAGRO. This capabilities for the following NASA/ analysis, stress, and fatigue of liquid rocket
year, a modified J-integral estimation FLAGRO geometries: engine components. Gregg received a B.S.
scheme for cracks at notches has been • TC01: Through center crack subjected to degree in mechanical engineering from
developed and validated against finite tension. Mississippi State University and an M.S.
element results. This technique combines • TC02: Through edge crack subjected to degree in mechanical engineering from
the EPRI and RSM estimation schemes to tension or bending. Stanford University.
allow computation of J from the linear • EC01: Embedded elliptical crack
elastic limit through to the fully plastic limit subjected to tension.
(net section yielding) for all crack depths. • CC01: Corner crack in a rectangular
plate subjected to tension or through wall
Research efforts have also concentrated on bending.
crack growth algorithms which use the J • SC01: Surface crack in a rectangular
solutions to assess flaw instability, fatigue plate subjected to tension or bending.
crack growth, crack closure, and multiple
loading conditions. Most of the research Both through flaw geometries, TC01 and
work in the past year has been on algo- TC02 are complete and have been verified
rithms for crack instability of ductile for the plane stress and plane strain RSM
materials. Analytical models were devel- solutions. A failure algorithm for calculat-
oped which account for the possibility of ing critical loads and crack sizes, along
63
Base Heating Testing Gas

Supply
Improvements Lines
Instrumentation
Mark Seaford/ED32 Wiring
205-544-1596
E-mail: mark.seaford@msfc.nasa.gov
All multi-engine launch vehicles experience

heating near the aft end (base) during
ascent, induced by the hot exhaust plumes
of the propulsion system. These heating
environments are important to the vehicle
design because they determine the weight,
cost, and complexity of the thermal
Charge Tubes Chamber
protection system (TPS) for the vehicle base
region and engines. This effort developed
innovative base heating test techniques and Autovalve Mixer Exhaust
base heating model designs which will Injector Feed Tubes
dramatically lower test cost, reduce test
time, and significantly improve launch FIGURE56.--Existing short duration hol flow propulsion simulation system.
vehicle design. Emphasis was placed on
using off-the-shelf hardware in designing
rather than specialty items. These test and measurement of this solidified resin mechanism was devised, designed and
improvements are generic and fully physical model verified the AutoCad solid verified using the rapid prototyping method.
adaptable to the X-33 Reusable Launch model design. A new simpler nozzle gimbal A demonstration cold flow model was then
Vehicle design concept currently selected
for a flight demonstration program.
The effort produced a series of products

leading to laboratory cold flow demonstra- Portable
From From
tion hardware to validate the proposed new Su Charge Tubes
Supply
testing innovations as illustrated in
figures 56 and 57. The X-33 propulsion
system and geometry data were reviewed to
develop base heating testing requirements. Oxidizer Fuel
Potential test facilities were evaluated and a Charge Tube Charge Tube
cost benefit analysis was performed for ® Rack Rack
each facility. A new test hardware design • Quick Change
RLV )(-33
specification spread sheet analysis method Venturi Flow
External Mold Line
was developed and utilized for a generic Metering
design application. A transient hot fu'ing
analysis PC-based code was implemented to
verify the transient start-up behavior of the
chosen generic design. An AutoCad solid
model of the new selected design was <EE>
produced based on the design specifications • Injector Doublet Design • Quick Change-out
spread sheet. This solid model was used by • Self-Igniting Combustor • Exhaust Manifold Exhaust Manifold
the Alabama Industrial Development • Adjustable Flange to Adapter • Quick Gimbaling Nozzles
Training Center to produce a rapid Fit -12 in O.D. Model
prototype of the internal flow passages
using stereolithography. Visual inspection FIGURE
57.--Innovative Quails short-duration hot flow propulsion simulation system.
64
Technology Programs
designed, fabricated and tested. The test Sponsor:

Research
Small Business Innovative Propulsion Chemistry
results provided the experience and
evidence that hot flow tests could be for CFD Applications
accomplished quicker and much cheaper. Industry Involvement: Quails Corporation
Primary findings included: P Kevin Tucker/ED32
• Flexible off-the-shelf tubing was found Biographical Sketch: Dr. Seaford is an 205-544-4185
easy to work with and provided an engineer in the Fluid Dynamic Analysis
E-mail: kevin.tucker@msfc.nasa.gov
excellent charge tube. Internal variations Branch at MSFC's Structures and Dynamics
with the charge tube diameter had no Laboratory. He is currently responsible
effect on charge tube performance; for generating launch vehicle base thermal In order to perform combustion analyses for
• A buffer gas can be used to shorten the design environments and developing advanced propulsion systems, the thermo-
hydrogen tube as demonstrated by the improved plume flowfield and plume- dynamic properties of the fuel, oxidizer, and
nitrogen buffer gas used with helium. induced environments methodology. He is all significant combustion products must be
External charge tubes reduce model currently responsible for definining X-33 available. Conventional hydrocarbon
complexity and cost; and X-34 thermal design environments. propellants, such as RP-1, pose a difficult
• Long run times of 100 to 150 msec have Seaford earned his Ph.D. in aerospace challenge because of the many species
been demonstrated with the current engineering from the North Carolina State which are involved. Even small amounts of
charge tubes compared with 30 to University, Raleigh, NC, in 1983 and has soot which can be formed cause severe
60 msec in the past. The low cost and low been employed by NASA for the last heating and surface deposition problems.
volume of coiled charge tubes makes 12 years. Data for many species are already available
almost any run time feasible. Thus, in literature, but many are not. Most of the
increasing the reliability of base heating data are for low pressure only (ideal gases).
test data; SECA, Inc. has developed a real fluids
• A current off-the-shelf solenoid valve model for generating thermal and caloric
with an opening time of approximately equations of state and predicting transport
20 msec appeared to be quite adequate to properties suitable for direct use in
control the charge tube flow. This computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
eliminates the need for costly one-of-a- analyses of finite-rate combustion pro-
kind auto valve designs for new launch cesses. Prior to the advent of CFD design
vehicle concepts; methodology, experimental property values
• Experience showed that a simple six-bolt alone were used for design purposes.
attachment method provided a quick and
simple method for making model SECA's real fluids model utilizes ideal gas
modifications; and properties as a basis upon which dense gas,
• The data obtained demonstrated that a liquid, and multi-phase effects are added
two-dimensional flow aerospike to cover the entire range of propellant
geometry can be supplied from a central properties. The individual correction
manifold even when fine geometric equations have been carefully selected to
tolerances are involved. Multiple provide highly accurate predictions over a
axisymmetric conventional nozzle firings wide range of conditions while requiring a
had been demonstrated previously. minimum of information for the individual
species. The multitude of experimental data
Short-duration hot flow testing can be the and previous estimation techniques
cost effective testing technique of the future available in the literature substantiate this
for a variety of plume, base heating, plume procedure for producing accurate estimates
impingement, combustion studies and of properties for well defined mixtures of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) pure species.
verification work.
When applied to actual fuels, such as RP-1,
additional complications must be consid-
ered. RP-1 is compromised of literally
hundreds of species, which vary in quality
from lot to lot of fuel. SECA has purchased
65
chemical analyses of RP-I samples (since tabulated thermodynamic and transport

such data were not found in the literature)
Analysis of Flowfields
property data for convenient use.
to provide a representative set of species Over Four-Engine
which comprise this fuel. These species The thermodynamic property routines
DC-X Rockets
were then represented by a surrogate which developed in this investigation allow
matched species type and molecular size accurate prediction of combustion processes
with a modest number of neat hydrocar- under a wide range of operating conditions T.S.Wang/ED32
bons. The RP-1 surrogate was then and for the propellants expected to be used 205-544-0503
simulated with the real fluids code. The in the advanced launch vehicles now being E-mail:Ten-see.Wang@msfc.nasa.gov
results predicted with the thermal equation designed. The use of these property routines
of state are presented in figure 58. This with CFD design methodology will result in The objective of this study is to validate
simulation provides not only accurate more economical and timely designs. a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
thermodynamic properties, but also realistic methodology for the aerodynamic perfor-
species for subsequent estimation of Sponsor: SECA, Inc., Huntsville, AL mance of an advanced conical launch
combustion kinetics, including soot vehicle configuration, the Delta Clipper-
formation and oxidation. Biographical Sketch: Kevin Tucker is Experiment (DC-X) rocket, with emphasis
currently a member of the computational on multiple-engine plume-on effects. Both
Applications of the real fluids model to the analysis team in the Fluid Dynamics wind tunnel and flight test data are used for
analyses of advanced launch systems are in Analysis branch. He received his M.S. validation. Computational base-drag
progress. Future applications to JP and degree from the University of Alabama in characterization in the critical subsonic
diesel type fuels and pulverized coal Huntsville in 1992. His recent work is regime is the main goal since until recently,
combustion are envisioned. The real fluids focused on application of CFD methods almost no multiple-engine data exists for a
model may be used as a subroutine in a for rocket engine combustion devices. _,_ conical launch vehicle configuration.
CFD code, as a stand-alone code to predict
fluid properties, or as a means to provide For launch vehicles using clustered engines,
it is well known that the base environment
significantly affects the overall drag and
integrity of these vehicles. Hence, it
2.0 14 120 1.45 becomes very important to be able to
2.0 predict the base drag during the vehicle
design phase. While empirical equations,
wind tunnel and historical flight test data
are still an integral part of the design
1.5 process, CFD-based methods have emerged
as a new tool. The DC-X tests are unique in
that the flight vehicle and the cold-flow
model have satisfied the basics of the
i 1.0 scaling law and can therefore complement
each other's limitations in terms of the
measurement. A systematic validation
process of both tests is an opportunity to
further prepare CFD as a powerful design
0.5 tool to support future X-33 reusable launch
vehicle aerodynamic performance charac-
terization and vehicle design refinement and
optimization.
A three-dimensional, viscous flow, CFD

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
design code FDNS is used for this purpose.
Reduced Density While previous benchmarks 1 covered a
range of nozzle exit-to-ambient-pressure-
ratio from 5 to 510, this work covers the
FIGURE58.--RP-1 thermal equation of state predictions. critical lower spectrum of pressure-ratio
66
Technology Programs
The computed DC-X ascent vehicle total

drag, forbody and aftbody and base-surface
pressure coefficients compared favorably
with those of the test data. The result
demonstrates that with adequate grid
density distribution, high-order difference
scheme, finite-rate afterburning kinetics
to model the plume chemistry, and an
appropriate turbulence model to describe
separated flows, plume/air mixing, and
boundary layers, the CI-'I) methodology can
be used to predict low-speed aerodynamic
performance for reusable rocket designs. In
addition, FDNS is also benchmarked for the
DC-X in-ground effects. Reasonable base
heat flux and aerodynamic force are
predicted and compared to the flight tests.
This validated computational methodology
is later used to study the flow anomaly of
FIGURE
59.--The computed DC-X ascent flight test pressure contours.
DC-XA landing on grate.
from 1.2 to 1.7. Parametric studies using for the flight tests. The computations are IWang, T.S.: "Grid-Resolved Analysis of
high-order difference schemes are per- performed on MSFC's CRAY-YMP and Base Flowfietd for Four-Engine Clus-
formed for the cold-flow tests while t]nite- CRAY-Trident machines. tered Nozzle Configuration." Journal of
rate afterburning chemical kinetics are used Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 33, no. 1,
Jan.-Feb. 1996, pp. 22-29.
Sponsor: McDonnell Douglas--NASA

Marshall Space Flight Center Cooperative
Agreement for Reusable I,aunch Vehicle/
X-33 Technology Development Program
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Ten-See Wang is

currently a team leader of the Computa-
tional Analysis Team in the Fluid Dynamics
Branch. He received his Ph.D. degree from
Louisiana State University in 1980. He had
previously been affiliated with SAIC,
Continuum, SRA, and SECA, Inc.. His
recent work has been applying CFD
methods for propulsion system and launch
vehicle environment. I[
FIGURE60.--The computed particle traces (colored by temperature) for DC-X landing

on grate.
67
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
Thermokinetics In this study, based on reported physical- and naphthene split of the proposed
chemical property data, a one-formula surrogate fuel model. A global step making
Characterization of surrogate fuel is proposed as a general soot directly from the surrogate fuel is also
Kerosene/RP-1 Combustion representation for kerosene and its derived proposed, along with a soot oxidation step
fuels, RP-I in particular. Its heat capacity, originated from a heterogeneous reaction
enthalpy and entropy are generated based model. The quasiglobal combustion kinetics
TS, Wang/ED32 on available data base and the proposed is closed with a conventional CO-wet
205-544--0503 mechanism.
surrogate fuel formula. The resultant
E-mail: Ten-see.Wang@msfc nasagov surrogate fuel model and its thermochemi-
cal properties are verified by comparing a The proposed thermal-kinetics models are
Russian-built kerosene- fueled rocket series of one-dimensional rocket thrust incorporated into a CFD code, FDNS, for
engines such as RD-IT0 or its U.S.- chamber theoretical performance calcula- computing the thermo-flowflelds of an
proposed counterparts such as RD-704 tions under Russian Engine RD-170 unielement coaxial-type tripropellant (liquid
or the Bantam engine series, have been operating conditions. The computed RP-1/gaseous hydrogen/gaseous oxygen)
identified as potential candidates to fly chamber and nozzle exit temperatures and injector test performed at the Cryogenic
the single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch species compositions from the proposed Combustion Laboratory located at Pennsyl-
vehicles. In order to support the associated model compared very well with those of vania State University. The multiphase
engineering issues, especially the prelimi- using its elemental formula and those from FDNS solves simultaneous liquid-droplet-
nary conceptual design and evaluation of literature. A kerosene/RP-I combustion gas dynamics by combining the volume-of-
the propellant injectors and thrust chambers kinetics is also proposed based on a fluid and Fulerian/l.agrangian tracking
using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), quasiglobal kinetics format. Following that methods into a unified algorithm for
accurate and computational efficient models format, two global steps are proposed: one efficient calculations of multiphase free
that properly represent the fuel tbrmula, for the paraffin portion and another for the surface and droplet flows at all speeds. The
thermodynamics, and combustion kinetics naphthene part of the surrogate fuel. The computation predicted reasonable flame
have to be used. Unfortunately, models rates of the two global steps are modified structure and combustion efficiency a.s
pertaining to those aspects were underdevel- directly from those of the straight chain and observed and measured from the test. The
oped. cyclic global steps according to the paraffin thermokinetics model developed in this
study is being used to support the Bantam
engine development effort.
Sponsor: Rocketdyne--NASA Marshall

Space Flight Center Cooperative Agreement
for Reusable Launch Vehicle/X-33
Technology Development Program
Biographical Sketch: I)r. Ten-See Wang is

currently a team leader of the Computa-
tional Analysis Team in the Fluid Dynamics
Branch. He received his Ph.D. from
Louisiana State University in 1980. He had
previously been affiliated with SAIC,
Continuum, SRA, and SECA, Inc. His
recent work has been applying CFD
methods for propulsion system and launch
vehicle environment. []
FIcuRr 61.--The computed unielement tripropellant injector temperature contours.
68
Technology Programs
Injector Spray Combustion expected that the presented technology will Real-Time Condition
be developed into a user-friendly design
Modeling tool to be incorporated in the liquid rocket Monitoring of Propulsion
engine industry and many other commercial
Systems Through High-
T.S. Wang/ED32 and government industrial applications.
205-544--0503 Performance Computing
In summary, a computational spray
E-maih Ten-see,Wang@msfc,nasa.gov
combustion technology has been developed Tom Zoladz/ED32
for liquid rocket engine chamber flow 205-544-1552
Injector design and combustion chamber analysis. An injector spray combustion
E-mail: tomz@gomez.msfc.nasagov
compatibility are among the key technolo- design tool will be developed into a
gies in developing a new generation of cost commercial product which will allow the Tony Fiorucci/ED23
effective high thrust-to-weight ratio present technology to be widely used by the 205-544-1551
propulsion systems for the reusable launch industry.
E-mail: tony@gomez.msfc.nasa.gov
vehicles. A design analysis tool for
predicting the complex combustion Sponsor: Engineering Science, Inc.,
flowfield near the injector plate can be very Huntsville, AL MSFC is responsible for the testing and
useful for the engine design team in diagnosis of both current and future NASA
enhancing the engine performance leading Biographical Sketch: Dr. Ten-See Wang is propulsion systems including the Space
to increased thrust-to-weight ratio. currently a team leader of the Computa- Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) and the
tional Analysis Team in the Fluid Dynamics Redesigned Solid Rocket Motor (RSRM).
The main objectives of this project is to Branch. He received his Ph.D. from During the development of the SSME,
synthesize relevant state-of-the-art physical Louisiana State University in 1980. He has significant progress has been made within
sub-models into an advanced computational previously been affiliated with SAIC, NASA and across the aerospace community
fluid dynamics (CFD) code for modeling Continuum, SRA, and SECA, Inc. His in improving the diagnostic evaluation of
spray combustion using proven methodolo- recent work has been focusing on applying high-frequency dynamic data. Fast and
gies and to validate the related numerical CFD methods for propulsion system and reliable evaluation of such data is crucial to
and physical models systematically against launch vehicle environments. the Space Shuttle Operations Program since
available experimental data from the open such study is invaluable in preventing
literature and other ongoing test programs. catastrophic engine hardware failures.
The physical models include turbulence/ Moreover, reliable engine system diagnostic
droplet interaction, dense spray atomization, evaluations can extend the scheduled
interphase transport, chemical reaction, maintenance intervals for major engine
droplet sub/super-critical vaporization and components such as high-speed
combustion. A state-of-the-art volume-of- turbopumps. Such dynamic assessment is
fluid (VOF) method for spray atomization very challenging due to the computational
and combustion is developed. Droplet and manpower intensive nature of the
atomization/breakup mechanism along the dynamic signatures taken from various
gas-liquid interfaces is modeled by engine locations. Current SSME dynamic
empirical correlations applicable to coaxial data processing and evaluation is done post-
injector elements. A robust point implicit flight or following ground test (at both
finite-rate chemistry module is also engine and component level), with a typical
employed to model the gas-phase chemical diagnostic turnaround time of 1 or 2 days.
reactions. This "diagnostic lag time" must be
eliminated if real time diagnosis of engine
Benchmark validation test cases for water systems is ever to become a reality. A true
spray and hot-flow spray combustion flows real-time condition monitoring system must
were investigated to validate the present be capable of acquiring great volumes of
numerical model. Good results were high-frequency data containing complex
obtained in the validation processes. and frequently subtle dynamic attributes
Applications of the present technology to which then must be successfully analyzed
the liquid rocket engine injection systems for correct test article diagnosis. The health
have also shown promising results. It is monitoring system must utilize conventional
69
signal processing, recently developed an initial analysis bandwidth of 20 kHz NASA/MSFC the technology associated
dynamic signal classification technology must be developed. This baseline system with its highly successful computer assisted
(i.e. nonlinear signal analysis), dynamic must be capable of extracting conventional dynamic data monitoring and analysis
data compression/extraction methods, and dynamic attributes (i.e. power spectral system (CADDMAS) used in the support
unsupervised statistical classification density (PSD) domain indicators) from the of gas turbine engine testing. CADDMAS
methods. Development of such a real-time monitored signals. These recovered effectively utilizes high-performance
condition health monitoring system which attributes from the input data channels, computing technology in performing real-
effectively integrates dynamic data along with raw-time varying signals, must time dynamic data acquisition and reduc-
attributes is very challenging due to data be available for real-time display, test tion. In return, NASA has agreed to share
bandwidth requirements, algorithm control, and immediate post-test analysis. all resulting system upgrades resulting from
computational intensity, and cross-channel Moreover, all data must be immediately the integration of MSFC diagnostic code to
communications. However, the expected archived for further post-test processing and the baseline CADDMAS. Hopefully, the
savings and improvement in overall trend analysis efforts. With the successful AEDC community will find the updates
real-time diagnostic capabilities make the implementation of the baseline large-scale useful in their diagnosis of flight hardware
development effort well worthwhile. digital signal processing (LDSP), system along with their plant support equipment.
efforts will then focus on the integration of Moreover, the NASA/MSFC dynamic data
Even with the significant improvements in recently developed signal processing analysis community is fortunate in having
propulsion system dynamic data evaluation "tools" which draw pertinent, yet subtle the opportunity to work with the enabling
methods achieved over the past decade dynamic attributes from the monitored high- software technology behind the
within the NASA/contractor community, frequency data channels. A majority of CADDMAS solution. This technology
there exists a great potential for advance- these "tools" involve nonlinear signal contained in the multigraph architecture
ment in the performance of the health analysis, which has consistently proven (MGA) developed by the Measurement and
monitoring function. The dynamic data invaluable in failure mode identification. Control Systems Laboratory of Vanderbilt
evaluation function must be improved upon The nonlinear "tools" effectively exploit University I has been of great value to
by: hidden nonlinear phase relationships within MSFC in the integration of proven NASA/
• Reducing overall propulsion system the spectra of acquired high-frequency MSFC diagnostic "tools" into the baseline
diagnostic turnaround time; dynamic data. These relationships are key in CADDMAS. Key aspects of MGA, such as
• Cutting analysis manpower requirements; determining signal structures indicative of the structural adaptivity of the execution
• Including complex (i.e. nonlinear) propulsion system/system component fault environment, a necessity for a real-time
dynamic data attributes in every diagnos- modes. Finally, with the successful health monitor, are very important to
tic assessment; integration of all dynamic data signal NASA/MSFC. Key features of the MGA
• Eliminating end-to-end data processing processing "tools" (including both which underlay CADDMAS are allowing
discrepancies/variances at remote end conventional and nonlinear analysis) into for substantial cost savings in the conver-
users; the real-time LDSP system, efforts will be sion of NASA/MSFC diagnostic code to the
• Implementing dynamic indicators from focused on integrating generated test article already proven test support system.
test articles as on-line test control dynamic performance parameters with
"redlines"; and traditional operational parameters (i.e. As previously discussed, NASA/MSFC is
• Ending reliance on analog tape data pressures, temperatures, flow rates) into one integrating high-frequency dynamic data
backup. comprehensive health monitoring system. diagnostic code into CADDMAS. Digital
In brief, NASA/MSFC's next generation Such an effort will not only rely on the signal processing code, including both
dynamic data analysis system must be effective extraction of the complex dynamic conventional and recently developed
faster, better, and cheaper than its predeces- data attributes in real-time but also their nonlinear applications, 2,3 have been
sor in order to become an integral part of a compression and statistical classification. successfully executed in real-ttme. Complex
total real-time health monitoring system. high-frequency analysis tools such as
NASA/MSFC has been provided an synchronous tracking and bicoherence are
In an effort to overcome the limitations of exceptional opportunity in working with the currently being used online to support
current dynamic data acquisition, reduction, Air Force community in the development of SSME advanced turbopump development
and evaluation efforts within the NASA/ a real-time LDSP system for the monitoring efforts. Such tools are invaluable in
MSFC community, both short- and long- and analysis of propulsion article high- determining specific hardware failure
term goals have been identified. In the short frequency dynamic data. Through an intra- modes such as turbomachine rolling
term, a real-time dynamic data system agency technology utilization agreement, element bearing flaws or cavitation via
capable of simultaneously acquiring at least Arnold Engineering and Development induced oscillations in propellant pumps.
100 channels of high-frequency data with Center (AEDC) has agreed to share with
70
Technology Programs
In summary, high-performance computing high-pressure fuel turbopump and

can open the "bottleneck" associated with
Application of Rapid
characterization of combustion stability in
the evaluation of propulsion system high- advanced hybrid rocket motors. He PrototypingMethods
frequency diagnostic data. NASA/MSFC, graduated from the University of Tennessee
in 1987 with a B.S. in mechanical
to High-Speed Wind
AEDC, and Vanderbilt University are
converging on a cost-effective solution for engineering. Tunnel Testing
an online condition health monitoring
system which combines high-performance/ Tony Fiorucci is an aerospace engineer Anthony M. Springer/ED34
distributed processing computing technol- with the Structural Dynamics and Loads 205-544-1571
ogy and MSFC-developed diagnostic Branch of the Structures and Dynamics
E-mail: tony.springer@msfc.nasa.gov
expertise. Currently, a prototype version is Laboratory at Marshall Space Flight
successfully supporting SSME alternate Center. He specializes in evaluation and Ken Cooper/EH32
high-pressure fuel turbopump development characterization of vibration environments 205-544-8591
efforts at both the full-scale engine hot-fire for both flight- and ground-test propulsion
E-mail: ken.cooper@msfc.nasa.gov
and component test level. systems supervised by MSFC. His current
and primary tasks include assessment/
ISztipanovits, J.; Wilkes, D.; Karsai, G.; qualification of all vibration data acquired The aerodynamic characteristics of a
Biegl, C.; Lynd, L.: "The Multigraph and in support of the development, certification, vehicle are among the initial inputs in the
Structural Adaptivity." IEEE Transactions and flight programs for the Space Shuttle design studies for future launch vehicles.
on Signal Processing, vol. 41, no. 8, Main Engine Project. Fiorucci graduated These initial studies can be more accurate if
August 1993, pp. 2695-2716. with a B.S. in engineering mechanics from high-fidelity aerodynamic information is
the University of Tennessee in 1988. available for the configurations under
2jong J.; Jones J.; Jones P.; Nesman T.; consideration. The quick turnaround
Zoladz T.; Coffin T.: "Nonlinear normally required for these design studies
Correlation Analysis for Rocket Engine along with cost precludes wind tunnel
Turbomachinery Vibration Diagnostics." testing's availability for early design phases.
48th Meeting of the Mechanical Failure Using rapid prototyping (RP) methods and
Prevention Group (MFPG), April 1994. materials to fabricate wind tunnel models
has resulted in a quick turnaround capability
3jong, J.; Jones, J.; McBride, J.; Coffin, T.: via wind tunnel testing to provide higher-
"Some Recent Developments in Turbo- fidelity aerodynamic characteristics early in
machinery Fault Detection." NASA 1992 the initial design phases.
Conference on Advanced Earth-to-Orbit
Propulsion Technology, May 1992. A study undertaken at MSFC's 14-in
trisonic wind tunnel, funded as Center
Sponsor: Space Shuttle Main Engine Director Discretionary Fund project 96-21,
Project Office has shown that rapid prototyping methods
and materials can be used to fabricate wind
University/Other Involvement: Arnold tunnel models of sufficient quality to
Engineering and Development Center produce satisfactory aerodynamic character-
(USAF); Vanderbilt University (Measure- istics over the subsonic, transonic, and
ment and Controls Systems Laboratory) supersonic Mach ranges for limited
configurations.
Biographical Sketch: Tom Zoladz is an
engineer working in the Fluid Dynamics This study was undertaken to determine if
Analysis Branch of the Structures and rapid prototyping methods could be used in
Dynamics Laboratory of Marshall Space the design and manufacturing of high-speed
Flight Center. He supports the characteriza- wind tunnel models in direct testing
tion of unsteady flow environments within applications. It was also done to determine
several of the propulsion systems under if these methods would reduce model
supervision and development at MSFC. design/fabrication time and cost while
Some current tasks include the analysis of a providing models of high enough fidelity
cavitation induced oscillation in the SSME to provide adequate aerodynamic data and
71
Springer, A.; Cooper K.: "Comparing the

Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wind
Tunnel Models Produced by Rapid
Prototyping and Conventional Methods."
AIAA 97-TBD, 15th AIAA Applied
Aerodynamics Conference, June 1997.
Springer, A.; Cooper, K.: "Application of

Rapid Prototyping Methods to High
Speed Wind Tunnel Testing." NASA
TP-TBD, January 1997.

Fund
Biographical Sketch: Anthony Springer is

an aerospace engineer at NASA Marshall
Space Flight Center responsible for launch
FIGURE62.--Models used in rapid prototyping wind tunnel model study. Left to right: SLS, vehicle aerodynamics and wind tunnel
SLA, FDM-ABS, AI. testing. He received his B.S. in aeronautical
and astronautical engineering at the
University of Illinois.
of sufficient strength to survive the test The results from this study showed
environment. Rapid prototyping methods relatively good agreement between the SLA Ken Cooper is a materials engineering
utilized to construct wind tunnel models model, the metal model with a replacement technician in the materials lab responsible
were fused deposition method (FDM) using FDM-ABS nose and the metal model for for the operation and development of the
both ABS plastic and polyetherether ketone the majority of operating conditions, while FDM rapid prototyping process. He
(PEEK) as materials; stereolithography the FDM-ABS data diverged at higher received an associate's degree in mechani-
(SLA) using the photopolymar loading conditions. Data from the initial cal engineering from Wallace State College
SL-5170 as a material; selective laser SLS model showed poor agreement due to in Hanceville, AL.
sintering (SLS) using glass reinforced nylon problems in post processing, which resulted
as a material; and laminated object in a different configuration than the other
manufacturing (LOM) using both plastic models. The data from the second SLS
and wood as materials. The models model tested showed good agreement with
produced that were of sufficient quality, the other models. It can be concluded that
FDM-ABS, SLA, and SLS were tested. rapid prototyping models show promise
These configurations were tested at in preliminary aerodynamic development
subsonic, transonic and supersonic speeds, studies at subsonic, transonic, and super-
Mach 0.3 to Mach 5.0. A wing/body/tail sonic speeds.
configuration was chosen for this study. A
comparison of results from models Springer, A.; Cooper, K.: "Application of
constructed using these rapid prototyping Rapid Prototyping Methods to High
methods was made with results from a Speed Wind Tunnel Testing." Proceed-
standard machine-tooled metal model ings of 86th Semi-annual Meeting
constructed of aluminum. The plan was to Supersonic Tunnel Association, October
determine if the aerodynamic characteristics 1996.
of a generic vehicle would be effected by
surface finish or other material properties. Springer, A.; Cooper, K.; Roberts, E:
Also studied were the ease of manufacture "Application of Rapid Prototyping
and the wearability of the parts as compared Models to Transonic Wind Tunnel
to a standard metal wind tunnel model. Testing." AIAA 97-0988, 35th Aerospace
Sciences Meeting, January 1997.
72
Technology Programs
Eexchanger Wall
Fault Tolerant Aerospace/
Commercial Heat
Exchanger
Pipe Walls
Jon B. Holladay/ED62
205-544-7250
E-mail: jon.holladay@msfc,nasagov
In most all fluid heat transfer systems,

a device, or heat exchanger, must be Fluid 1
included which rejects heat from one
portion of the system to another. The heat
exchanger provides two functions. It is both
a connection and barrier to the heat Heat Transfer
collection and heat rejection portions of the Enhancement
thermal control system (TCS). More often
than not, multiple fluids, as shown in
figure 63, are utilized in the system for
Fluid 2
reasons of efficiency which may cause
safety and/or reliability problems.
FIGURE64.mTwo fault-tolerant heat exchanger tube design.

Essentially two failure modes exist, a
breach to the environment (i.e. a fluid may
be toxic if released into the environment) or a system breach across the two heat transfer By incorporating additional barriers in the
loops (i.e. two fluids are utilized which are heat exchanger only, additional failures can
hazardous when mixed). If the first failure be tolerated at the interface allowing less
mode is of concern, then often-added attention to the system as a whole. An
Fluid 1 Fluid Fluid reliability must be incorporated to ensure example design, shown in figure 64, allows
1 2 that the second failure mode discussed does for two failures with no operational impact
not also cause the first--release to the to the system. At the fluid interface,
environment. This might be the case if multiple structural barriers are added, which
materials were not compatible with both in this case are pipes. The void between
fluids or if large mismatches in design each pipe can then be filled with a variety of
pressure were present. In order to accom- heat transfer enhancement materials to
plish isolation, strict attention must be given maintain the thermal efficiency of the
II --* to these types of factors often resulting in device.
high system costs. A rather simple solution
to the aforedescribed problem is a fault- An additional benefit exists if the voids are
tolerant heat exchanger. also filled with a gas charged at a different
II pressure than either system operating
The proposed device will allow TCS fluids pressure. By gas charging the voids
I ! "_
to be utilized in different portions of the instrumentation can also be applied which
system which are neither chemically will allow failure monitoring to occur at the
compatible nor have similar operating interface. This would be advantageous in
t pressures. By increasing the number of systems which require a planned shutdown
Fluid 1 Fluid Fluid barriers across the single device, required and heat exchanger failure is a concern. For
2 1 isolation is relieved at other sections of the these systems, monitoring for failures
Fluid designation can be
loop, thereby increasing the reliability with allows the system to continue operation
in liquid or gaseous form.
minimal impact to cost, weight and (after one or more failures have occurred)
efficiency. until the system can be shut down by the
FIGURE63.--Typical heat exchanger design. required procedure.
73
The proposed design approach can be

Investigation of a Jet reviewed and a data base generated for
applied to essentially any heat exchanger reference purposes.
design (shell and tube, thin wall, etc.) Pump-Based Two-Phase
offering the possibility of increased system
Thermal Control System Three analytical methods were selected for
performance in a variety of areas where simulating the jet pump. This approach
fluid release/mixing/design pressure is a provides many benefits including:
concern. The multiple barriers allow less Jon B. Holladay/ED62
• Timely data required for design;
205-544-7250
detailed attention to the total system design • Backup if the other methods stall;
and may also decrease costs by improving E-mail: jon.holladay@msfc.nasa.gov • Analytical verification (independent
reliability. analyses); and
Melissa Y. Gard/ED62
• A better understanding of the physics of
205-544-4337
Sponsor: MSFC/Environmental Control the flow than provided in previous
Branch E-mail: melissa.gard@msfc.nasa.gov papers.
Patrick L. Hunt/ED63
Biographical Sketch: Jon Holladay is a The three analytical methods chosen were:
205-544-2297
thermal engineer in the Environmental • Homogeneous equilibrium model
Control and Life Support Branch. He E-mail: patrick.hunt@msfc.nasa.gov (HEM): This model is based on the
earned his bachelor and master of science previously referenced Russian-sponsored
degrees at the University of Alabama. A two-phase thermal cooling (TCS) system work done by Fairuzov. 1 The model uses
that has been under study recently (fig. 65) one-dimensional, two-phase flow initially
for use in aerospace (or commercial) assuming isentropic-homogeneous
applications incorporates a jet pump. This expansion with corrections for friction
system offers several advantages over loss using velocity coefficients. This
conventional two-phase pumped loops. Its model can be easily integrated into a flow
most significant advantage is that electrical loop model for the iterative procedure
power is only needed to initiate the flow of necessary to solve the set of equations
coolant in the loop. Once flow is initiated, that characterize the overall two-phase
the waste heat is used to drive the flow system.
around the loop. • Two-dimensional axisymetric computa-
tional fluid dynamic (CFD) models, fluid
The primary purpose of this Center Direc- dynamic analyses package (FIDAP). The
tor's Discretionary Fund (CDDF) project is CFD model provides the capability to
to investigate jet pump-based two-phase perform detailed performance evaluations
heat rejection systems. This investigation of the pump including parametrics in two
will demonstrate whether this type of dimensions. It also allows the flow
system is practical for use in aerospace characteristics to be evaluated visually.
applications. Compressibility as well as two-phase
mixing is included in the model. Several
In order to investigate and quantify the user adjustments had to be made in order
performance attainable by a jet pumped to accurately simulate the flow due to the
system, design, fabrication and testing of a diffuser shock wave.
two-phase heat rejection flow loop • One-dimensional compressible flow
apparatus is proposed (fig. 65). This mixing model (CoFlo). One of the project
apparatus will initially be used to verify goals is to develop a generalized
previous research I and then modified to formulation for jet pump compression
gain practical experience as well as design ratio as well as the jet pump efficiency in
data for related hardware. terms of relevant flow and heat transfer
parameters and examine the conditions
Over the last year a significant amount of under which both quantities can be
research has been completed. The initial maximized. This model splits the pump
thrust of the project included gathering into several sections (primary nozzle,
technical information on jet pumps and mixing throat, mixing tube, diffuser
their applications. Over 100 articles were upstream, shock layer, downstream
74
Technology Programs
Jet Pump (Envelope)
Nozzle .--_ r- Throat

\ / / r -o''user
1 4
.-Mixing Chamber
._L_I J'_"__ L 3 1_....._. _ Valve No. 1
i Evaporator [ _ _ Subc.o,o/ed N Z_' f_. Accumulator
ir "_----! _,1 /-- Heat Exchanger ( //

E II_..]f (Heat Added 12,1Lr-J Liquid Sprayers -- _/
/ To l--liE (Heat Removed) _,,_( /
Refrigerab°n I Ir Pumo
= ;G"l
Pump
Two-Phase Flow _ Pressure Guage Flowmeter
Liquid _ Thermocouple
FIGURE65.--Two-phase jet-pumped flow loop apparatus.
diffuser) employing appropriate solution for Spacecraft." Journal of from the University of Alabama. Hunt
techniques for each region to determine Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, vol. 9, earned bachelor and master's degrees in
the pump "performance." This model will no. 2, 1995. mechanical engineering from Auburn
also have the capability for interface with University, and Gard has a bachelor of
the facility models to simulate the full-up Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary science degree in engineering physics from
system configuration. Fund Southwestern Oklahoma State University.
D'.
If the results of the jet pump experiments University Involvement: University of
prove promising, continued research Florida--Dr. S.A. Sherif and Mr. Justin
including additional ground-based testing, Steadham
proposed on-orbit testing, and additional
analytical modeling is planned. Research Biographical Sketch: Jon Holladay, Patrick
from this study already appears to have Hunt, and Melissa Gard are members of
potential for significant contributions to the MSFC's Thermal and Life Support Division
area of two-phase jet pump research. team. They have over 30 years of experi-
ence in the thermal fluids area. Jon
IFairuzov, Y. Y.; and Bredikhin, V. V.: "Two- Holladay has bachelor and master of
Phase Cooling System With a Jet Pump science degrees in mechanical engineering
75
Fabrication, Testing, 220VAC i Water•
and Analysis of a Flow

Boiling Test Facility With
Enhanced Surface
IExpansion
Characterization Capability J Puml I Tank
D
O
1.1_
By-Pass ' By-Pass

Jon B.Holladay/ED62
205-544-7250
IWater Systeml
E-mail:jon.holladay@msfc.nasa.gov
43T
MelissaY.Gard/ED62 TO
205-544-4337 .[
E-mail:metissa.gard@msfc.nasa.gov
Condenser
PatrickL. Hunt/ED63
205-544-2297
Flexib,e
J
High Pressure
E-mail:patrick.hunt@msfc.nasa.gov Hoses
The evolution of aerospace applications

TestSect,0n
-,
(spacecraft, satellites, platforms, probes, Refrigerant ,.
System Regulator
etc.) will place increasing
thermal control systems (TCS). These
demands on
' "
systems will require more efficient designs Accumulator N2 L--_/
with higher heat rejection capabilities. An Tank TO"1 "
obvious solution to these challenges is the Throttle Z
development of sophisticated two-phase
flow systems that provide high heat ta'ansfer
and reduced flow rates through the use of Oil Fill and
latent heat of vaporization. Sampling Port
Optimization of two-phase systems requires

careful investigation of state-of-the-art heat
transfer technology. This effort focuses on
combining environmentally safe (non-CFC) FIGURE
66._chematic for flow boiling apparatus using water heated/cooled
refrigerants with enhanced surface test section.
technology. It will culminate in a data base
of properties (corresponding to operating commercial applications (i.e., home and Initially a survey of previously developed
conditions unique to typical aerospace automobile air-conditioning systems, flow facilities was completed. An investiga-
applications) for use in advanced TCS refrigeration units, etc.). Specialized tion into fluid property data bases was
design. aerospace applications will require conducted. Investigation of several
information outside this range of data. A referenced fluid property computational
This Center Director's Discretionary Fund flow boiling test apparatus will not only methods (curve fits) yielded inadequate
(CDDF) will result in the development of a provide data necessary to design highly results leading to the decision to build a
flow boiling facility (fig. 66) that will be efficient two-phase TCS's but can also be fluid property FORTRAN program in-
made up primarily of components from used to evaluate alternative (non-CFC) house. The program, which has already
previously completed small business refrigerants and their performance using been completed and verified, provides
contracts (SBIR's) and an experimental various heat exchangers with state-of-the- n-spline interpolation of ASHRAE data.
CDDF apparatus that is being used to art heat transfer augmentation (enhanced
investigate jet pump-based heat rejection. surfaces). Two approaches were developed to provide
Typical test data are based on specific fluid hydraulic analysis capability of the test
76
Technology Programs
loop(s): A systems improved numerical Insulation System for Ultra- absorber wall. The gap between the FBD
differencing analyzer (SINDA) '85 Fluint and absorber wall is 1 in. Geometry models
model, and a C (programming language) High Temperature were generated consisting of the absorber
code which will allow timely evaluations of and 1-in-thick layer of FBD surrounded by
Applications 4 in of ZYF felt insulation. It was assumed
changes in test loop design parameters. In
addition to the analytical work, a test area that the absorber temperature is 4,500 °E
was set up and a chiller from a previous DaltonNguyen/ED63 With the intention to correlate the analytical
SBIR program was moved to the area with 205-544-4177 results with ground test data without the
checkout and installation pending. A survey E-mail:dalton,nguyen@msfc.nasa.gov effects of deep space radiation, the outside
of existing hardware along with assessment surface was considered adiabatic for the
of vendor hardware to be incorporated into This investigation evaluated a new material comparison of the insulation methods. The
the facility has been completed. system for concentrated solar energy transient temperature distribution across the
applications. There are a few commercially insulation walls is shown in figure 68. The
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary available materials that could act as a temperature of the outside wall of the ZYF
Fund thermal barrier at 4,500 °F for a short insulation was found to be 1,907 °F after
period of time. However the materials by the 4,500 °F was impressed at the absorber
University Involvement: Douglas Nelson, themselves may not be suitable for the long- for 7,200 sec.
University of Virginia duration required by a storage-type solar
energy engine. This study introduces a new The proposed high temperature radiation
Biographical Sketch: Jon Holladay, Patrick concept of a material system to improve shield system consists of high-strength and
Hunt, and Melissa Gard are members of performance under these harsh conditions. low thermal conductivity material overlaid
MSFC's Thermal and Life Support Division This concept could be developed with a with low emissivity and high melting
team. They have over 30 years of experi- small budget, and experimentally proven for temperature metal coatings on both surfaces
ence in the thermal fluids area. Jon a high-temperature application. as shown in figure 69. The core material
Holladay has bachelor and master of could have physical and thermal properties
science degrees in mechanical engineering In this study, thermal analysis was used to similar to the ZIRCA type FBD. The
from the University of Alabama. Hunt compare a conventional approach to the overlaid surfaces could be made of a metal
earned bachelor and master degrees in new concept. While insulating an engine having physical and thermal optical
mechanical engineering from Auburn operating at 4,500 °F, the new concept properties that are similar to tungsten.
University, and Gard has a bachelor of reduced the outside surface temperature Thickness of the metal surface could be
science degree in engineering physics from 1,600 °F below the conventional approach made sufficient to serve as a part of the
Southwestern Oklahoma State University. over the same time period. support structure. The high-temperature,
high-strength and high-thermal-resistant
Conventional thermal protection system: material layers are located to insulate a hot
zirconia-type FBD and type ZYF materials body (i.e., an solar energy engine absorber).
both have high-melting temperatures of The clearance between the first FBD layer
4,700 °F as used for this study. The zirconia and absorber wall is 1 in. The gaps between
FBD is used as inside insulation facing the five FBD layers and the 4 in of ZYF felt
oF
4,500 1 in Gap -460

Deep°F
Space
_ High- _High Melting Temperature High Melting Temperature

Temperature High-Strength Insulation Lightweight Insulation
Body Material FBD Material ZYF
RGUREEL--Conventional thermal protection system.
77
MSFCResearch
andTechnology1996
insulation are 0.3 in. It was assumed that the

6,000 absorber temperature is 4,500 °E With the
intention to correlate the analytical results
5,000 with ground test data without the effects of
deep space radiation, the outside surface
was considered adiabatic for the compari-
son of the insulation methods. The transient
4,000
temperature distribution across the
insulation wails is shown in figure 70. The
3,000 temperature of the outside wall of the ZYF
¢I. insulation was found to be 268 °F after the
E
4,500 °F was impressed at the absorber for
i-
2,000 7,200 sec. The conventional TPS surface
reached 1,907 °F under the same condi-
tions. The same total thickness of insulation
1,000 was used in both models to show the benefit
of the radiation shield configuration. A new
concept for combining radiation shields and
high-temperature insulators shows promise
for use in the extreme environments
required for solar thermal propulsion. When
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
the ! -in thickness of the insulation type
Time (sec)
FIGURE
68.--Transient temperatures(°F) acrossinsulation walls with 4-in ZYF
(conventionalTPS).
Low-Emissivity Surface Conduction HeatTransfer

High Melting Temperature Layers Between Radiation Heat Transfer Shields
Serve as Radiation HeatTransfer Shields
Low Thermal Conductivity
-- _ _ _ High-Strength MaterialLayer
' -460 F
4,500 °F
High-Temperature Radiation HeatTransfer Between Lightweight Low Thermal

Body Low-Emissive Power Surfaces Conductivity Material
FIGURE
69.--Concept for a high-temperatureradiation shield.
78
Technology Programs
6,000
T97 ---O---- T304[_ Interdisciplinary
T19 --_-- T107 .... • .... T329|
Thermal/Stress
5,000
T53 .... • ....
T63 .--.I---.
T254
T279 J Analysis
41- .I -IF
A
4,000 Greg SchundED63
205-544-7221
....... -X'.................. K ................. J_......... E-mail:richard.schunk@msfc.nasa.gov
3,000
E=,
E
............ _ ----4-- ...... "4" ....
•_ computer program was developed to
I--
convert NASA structural analyzer
2,000
(NASTRAN) stress models to thermal
radiation analysis system (TRASYS) and
/ ,,, ...... =. _.-,--" Outside Surfaceof ZYF systems improved numerical differencing
1,000
_-/,, "_ ...-_""_. _ ;,,."_."
."]_"'_"' "_K,,, LayerTemperature analyzer (SINDA) thermal models in
,/" ...... :_._. ___.."_,-,_" ' " _After 2 hours: 289 °F
support of the next generation space
..¢c,:_0". :.:_..--'W" After 8 hours: 1795 °F
telescope (NGST) project. The NGST
0 4,000 8,000 1.2 104 1.6 104 2 104 2.4 104 2.8 104 concept employed an exposed 8-m-diameter
primary mirror that was subdivided into
Time (sec) eight independently actuated petals. The
primary mirror was blocked from the Sun
FIGURE70.--Transient response of the high-temperature radiation shield system. on one side by an external light shade.
Accurate determination of thermal
deflections in the primary mirror induced by
FBD was divided into five 0.2-in-thick Sponsor: MSFC's Preliminary Design spacecraft attitude changes as well as by the
Office difference between ground and on-orbit
layers and coated with low-emissivity
environments was essential to assess the
material, the temperature of the outside
surface was reduced considerably Biographical Sketch: Dalton Nguyen has feasibility of the project.
(1,600 °F) from the conventional applica- a B.S. in mechanical engineering and works
tion of these insulation materials over the as a thermal engineer in the Structure and The computer program was used to convert
Dynamics Laboratory where he has been a the NASTRAN geometrical data (triangular
same time period. Verification of these
analytical results by testing is highly member of the Engine and Propulsion and quadrilateral finite elements) to
recommended. Systems Team of the Thermal and Life TRASYS polygons. The finite element
mesh was converted to a mathematically
Support Division since 1987. His contribu-
tions are in support of the Shuttle elements, equivalent thermal network that, along with
This approach may improve performance
for such high-temperature applications as Reusable Launch Vehicle programs the output from the radiation analyzer, was
the concentrated solar energy absorber/heat including X-34 and X-33, new technolo- solved by SINDA. Internal structure,
gies such as the vacuum plasma spa), included as NASTRAN bar elements, was
exchanger for the beyond LEO advanced
space transportation (BLAST) engines. The processing, DC-XA liquid propulsion not modeled radiatively with TRASYS, but
was included in the SINDA thermal
new concept holds even greater potential for systems, and concentrated solar thermal
network solution as conductors derived
use in interplanetary travel vehicles. The energy propulsion programs.
from effective cross-sectional area and
insulation system concept should provide
spacecraft a wider range of trajectories, length. The conversion process is illustrated
mission profiles, and scientific objectives. in figure 71 as the NASTRAN nodal points
become "arithmetic" nodes in the SINDA
Further potential industry applications
thermal network. A diffusion node is added
include concentrated solar furnaces for
material processing and synthesis, and high corresponding to the centroid of the
solar concentration devices for advanced element, providing a convenient location to
medical research specially for the environ- impose heat loads and thermal mass and to
attach radiation conductors.
ment of the Space Station and the Moon
surface.
79
NASTRAN Finite Element

+ SINDA Thermal Network TRASYS Representation
Module for Ultra-High
Temperature Applications
Dalton Nguyen/ED63
205-544-4177
E-mail: dalton.nguyen@msfc,nasa,gov
FIGURE71.--NASTRAN to SINDA/TRASYS conversion.

MSI'C's Preliminary Design (PI)) office,
working in conjunction with personnel from
its Science and Engineering (S&E)
The resulting thermal models were able to cal engineering in 1983. He has worked at Directorate, completed an in-house
provide a one-to-one nodal correspondence NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center for feasibility study using solar thermal
between the thermal and stress models 13 years. His experience includes thermal propulsion as an alternative means for
while accounting for the thermal conduc- analysis/heat transfer modeling for a transporting payloads from low-Earth orbit
tance within the primary mirror and number of projects including Spacelab, the (I,FO) to a geosynchronous orbit (GEO).
radiation exchange between all surfaces. International Space Station, and AXAF. He The study found this concept to be
Thermal analysis predictions from the also supported the initial design and technically feasible by the year 2000 and it
correlated thermaVstress models are shown development of the International Space could "reflect savings of 14 percent to
in figure 72. Station Environmental Control and IJfe 26 percent over current systems. ''1 Due to
Support System (ECLSS) test-bed, m these results, there has been a great deal of
Sponsor: MSFC Preliminary Design Office interest in pursuing this concept and several
efforts have been funded to pursue the
Biographical Sketch: Greg Schunk technology to make this concept feasible.
received his bachelor's degree in mechani- The objective of a recent preliminary level
one study requirement was to determine the
feasibility of using a solar thermal upper
stage for delivering payloads (up to
4,000 lb) from LEO to GEO in a reusable-
34.8 type launch vehicle. The preliminary design
37.7
configuration of the vehicle can be seen in
40.5
figure 73. For the design effort, this report is
43.4
46.2 written to identify one of the technology
32.0
49.1 issues which needs to be addressed,
51.9
The thermal study 2 performed on the solar
energy engine absorber for the beyond LEO
advanced space transportation study
(BLAST) revealed the following:
• Temperatures of the absorber were driven
to the desired operating temperature of
4,500 °F by all four collector sizes. The
rates at which an absorber can reach the
operating temperature rely on a solar
energy magnitude concentrated at the
aperture.
° The steady-state temperatures exceeded
the absorber tungsten housing melting
temperature of 6,000 °F. In the case
which simulates the actual expected
FIGURE72.--NGST thermal analysis predictions (K). operations, a thermal conditioning
8O
Technology Programs
Collector: 43.2 ftx30.5 ft energy absorber/heat exchanger for the

_" Inflated Elliptical Reflector . . . BLAST solar thermal upper stage engines.
_::'_ / _ _ F RCS ThrusTer (8 p,aces) The TCM holds even greater potential for
f/'_ _----____ .._\\ Thrust _ F Forward Skirt use in interplanetary travel vehicles. The
//_ _ I _'_J I]1 Structure .,_:2"__¢" r Longeron Trunion TCM should provide spacecraft a wider
/( \ 14places) range of trajectories, mission profiles, and
scientific objectives. Further potential
industry applications include concentrated
solar furnaces for material processing/
synthesis, and high solar concentration
k
devices for advanced medical research.
IVan Dyke, M.: "Beyond LEO Advanced

Space Transportation Solar Thermal
I_fied \ t" P'at;esl _._
Upper Stage Report." PD21 (96-06),
Marshall Space Flight Center, September
Torus Ring (2 places) _J]]]] 3, 1996.
Storage Container /,H
(2 places) 2Nguyen, D.: "Thermal Analysis of the
Solar Thermal Engine Absorber for the
FIGURE73.--A deployed configuration of a solar thermal upper stage vehicle. Beyond LEO Advanced Space Transpor-
tation (BLAST)." ED63 (22-96),
Marshall Space Flight Center, July 5,
module (TCM) is required to adjust the melting temperatures and electrical 1996.
heating once the absorber reaches the conductive characteristics (these devices
operating temperature of 4,500 °F to are not currently identified and need to be Sponsor: MSFC's Preliminary Design
achieve the rapid charge time of the studied, developed, and tested. Office
larger concentrator, and to constantly
keep the absorber at the operating The TCM can be made as a compact unit. A Biographical Sketch: Dalton Nguyen has
temperature prior to an engine thrusting possible system configuration is sketched in a B.S. in mechanical engineering and works
process. figure 74. This approach should improve as a thermal engineer in the Structures and
performance for such ultra-high-tempera- Dynamics Laboratory where he has been a
ture applications as the concentrated solar member of the Engine and Propulsion
The TCM is a unit that can process the Systems Team of the Thermal and Life
temperature measurements from an ultra- Support Division since 1987. His contribu-
high temperature measurement device. This tions are in support of the Shuttle elements,
device can measure the temperature of the Reusable Launch Vehicle programs
absorber using a noncontact or contact including X-34 and X-33, new technolo-
method. Then the TCM (with a built-in
ultra-high temperature data processor) can
Thermal Conditioning L.,J Serial I gies such as the vacuum plasma spay
processing, DC-XA liquid propulsion
Modu e (TCM) I IC°mmunicati°ns I
also command a device that adjusts the heat systems, and concentrated solar thermal
input to the absorber. This can be accom-
plished by several techniques (e.g.,
I I
I energy propulsion programs.
Spacecraft
changing position of the concentrator IM Temperature
Reaction Control
relative to the Sun). The temperature easurement Devices* I
System
measurement devices that can be used for for the Absorber J
this application are:
• The noncontact method: Optical Noncontact Method: Optical Pyrometer
Contact Method: Thermocouples
pyrometer for high-temperature applica-
tion (this type device is available for
testing); or FiGURe74.--Thermal conditioning
• The contact method: Thermocouples module system function
which are made of metals having high schematic.
81
Materials and Manufacturing Processes
examine the inside of confined spaces with

Endoscopic Shearography case is thick or porous. Shearography
detects slight changes in a surface shape limited access.
Nondestructive Evaluation when some stressing state is imposed and
of Lined Pressure Vessels is very successful at detecting unbonds in Electronic shearography images a coher-
paints, coatings and thin bonded layers. ently illuminated object through an image
Shearography systems consist of specialized shearing lens to produce an interference
Samuel S. Russell/EH13 illumination and imaging optics as shown in fringe pattern. The boundaries between light
205-544-4411 figure 75. Due to space restrictions, and dark fringes represent contours of
E-mail: sam.russetl@msfc.nasa.gov insertion of the optical head or camera into constant change in surface slope due to
the pressure vessel for inspection of the some form of excitation. The MSFC NDE
Composite pressure vessels and fuel lines bond line integrity between the core or liner Branch electronic shearography (ES)
are being developed for use in advanced and the outer casing may be impossible. In system was modified for this study. This
propulsion systems. To prevent leakage of some cases, personnel may be required to device utilizes a modified Michelson
fuel or oxidizer, composite tanks may be crawl inside the structure, which presents interferometer as an image shearing device,
lined with a thin layer of metal or polymer. several safety risks. The need was thus as shown in figure 75. A frequency doubled
Several nondestructive evaluation (NDE) identified for an endoscopic inspection Nd:YAG-pumped diode laser (_,= 532 rim)
techniques have been developed which are system using borescopes or fiber optics to is used as a source of coherent illumination,
highly capable of detecting damage in the illuminate and view the inside of restricted the beam of which passes through a beam
outer composite structure. Among these are spaces with shearography optics. Applica- expanding lens pair and a beam steering
ultrasonics, thermography, and shearogra- tion examples are examining lined fuel wedge to produce a laser speckle pattern on
phy. However, methods to detect an tanks through access covers or drain ports the surface of the test article. The light
unbonded internal liner have not existed. and inside lined fuel or oxidizer lines. To reflected from the object is collected by a
Ultrasonic methods are a possibility, but this end a prototype borescope shearogra- telephoto lens, which provides a variable
remain limited if the liner is very thin or the phy system and method was developed to field of view, and is imaged onto the sensor
Shearography Head
I
I Laser Beam
I Expanderand
y)
Steering Wedge
I
Image Shearing Mirror
I
",.
I I
I I Object
Phase
Stepping Telephoto I
Lens
Mirror Solid-State I
Digital I
I Camera
I
I
FIGUnE75.---Shearography optical system.
82
Technology Programs
array of a CCD camera through the shearing featuring a fringe pattern indicative of full- which suggests the feasibility of a commer-
interferometer. field values for the change in surface slope cial apparatus and the supporting methodol-
at each point on the object surface due to ogy. For this design, the sheafing optics
Each ray passed through the telephoto lens the excitation load. were removed from the ES system and a
is separated by the beam splitter into a borescope was connected with the C-mount
reference beam and a sheared beam. The Unlike electronic holography (EH), which adapter to the shearography interferometer
reference beam passes straight through the produces fringe patterns indicative of object in place of the normal telephoto lens. This
beam splitter, reflects from a phase stepping displacements toward the camera, ES senses borescope will hereafter be referred to as
mirror back along its previous path, and is changes in the slope of the surface of the the imaging borescope. A second
reflected from the back of the beam splitter object along intervals of the image sheafing borescope, the illumination borescope, was
toward the sensor array. The sheared beam distance. That is, the fringes are produced obtained and positioned parallel to the
is reflected from the front of the beam by differences in motion toward (or away imaging borescope with the unexpanded
splitter toward the image sheafing mirror, from) the camera between points separated laser beam entering the eyepiece. The beam
reflected back again at a tilted angle, then by s. The ES technique is thus less sensitive expansion lens pair from the shearography
passed through the beam splitter toward the overall than is EH. In addition, some EH head was positioned in front of the
sensor array. The sheared beam is incident techniques pass the reference beam directly illumination borescope objective lens and
on the sensor array at a point which is from the laser to the sensor array inside an adjusted such that the exiting laser beam
shifted, or sheared, from the reference optical fiber and only the object beam was expanded to fill the imaging borescope
beam. Each point on the surface of the reflects from the test article. Other EH field of view at a distance of 30 to 45 cm
object is thus imaged to two separate pixels techniques illuminate the test object with (12 to 18 in).
on the camera sensor array. A more two coherent beams having almost entirely
complicated reverse ray trace shows that, different optical paths in object space. The An experiment was conducted in which
similarly, a single pixel on the camera optical paths of the reference and sheared the endoscopic shearography design was
sensor array images two sheared points on beam in ES differ only inside the interfer- positioned to image a flat test panel
the surface of the object. Assuming a planar ometer. The ES technique is thus less containing a programmed defect. This
object, all points in the image are sheared sensitive to environmental effects (changes specimen was fabricated from graphite-
by the same lateral distance, referred to as in vibration, temperature, etc.) than is EH. epoxy with Teflon TM inserts of various sizes
the image shearing distance, s. The The ES apparatus does not require extensive at various depths. For demonstration
sensitivity of the device is proportional to s environmental isolation, such as an purposes a 4.45 cm (1.75 in) flaw was
and thus related to the angle at which the vibration isolation optical table, and is centered in the field of view at a distance of
image shearing mirror is tilted. By varying regularly used for field evaluations. 30 cm (12 in) from the imaging borescope.
the tilt angle and direction of the image The specimen was heated by a pair of
sheafing mirror, the operator may adjust the A design was developed and tested for an 500 Watt quartz-halogen shop lamps from a
sensitivity of the device to suit the structure endoscopic shearography method, as shown distance of 20 cm (8 in) for 5 min causing
being evaluated and the type of excitation in figure 76. This design is a prototype the simulated defect to move differently
being applied.
In the static test mode, sheared images are

digitally acquired before and after some
form of excitation is applied to the test
article. The intensity recorded on each pixel
is a function of the relative phase between
the light rays reflected from the two
corresponding points separated by in the
direction of image shearing on the object
surface, and thus a function of the relative
slope across that interval of the image
sheafing distance. After the test object has
been statically excited, typically by heating, F-I. 000
cooling, or changing the pressure to which
it is exposed, then a second sheared image
is recorded. The digital frame subtraction of
these two images results in a shearogram FIGURE76.--Endoscopic shearography design with illumination and imaging borescopes.
83
components such as lined fuel tanks which

LH2 Bearing Test Program
were previously difficult or impossible due
to their closed structure. The method allows Started at Marshall Space
noncontact nondestructive evaluation
Flight Center
without the need for personnel to enter the
structure.
Howard Gibson/EH13
Sponsor: Office of Safety and Mission 205-544-2513

Assurance E-mail: howard.gibson@msfc.nasa.gov
University Involvement: Matthew A bearing test rig capable of running liquid

Lansing/UAH Research Institute hydrogen as the coolant has been installed
in the hazardous test area at the MSFC. This
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Samuel Russell test rig expands the testing capabilities at
is a materials engineer with NASA's MSFC to include cryogenic bearings
Materials and Processes Laboratory at running in fuel turbopumps. This tester is a
FIGURE77.--Endoscopic shearography flaw Marshall specializing in laser shearography follow-on to the successful liquid oxygen
indication. and nondestructive evaluation. He holds a bearing test program known as the bearing
Ph.D. in engineering mechanics from seals and materials tester (BSMT) program.
than the surrounding area. Shearograms Virginia Polytechnic Institute. _,_
were recorded as the test article cooled after This particular rig is a compact, easy to
the lamps were turned off and moved away assemble and disassemble tester. Typical
from the test setup. The flaw was success- turnaround times are 3 to 5 days to change a
fully detected, as indicated by the circular configuration. No special tools are required
fringe pattern in the shearogram of for working on the test rig. This tester is
figure 77. The application of this device to very versatile; it can be built with rolling
inspect a lined fuel tank is shown as element (ball or roller) bearings or fluid
figure 78. film (hydrostatic, foil, hydrodynamic)
bearings in its internal positions• Presently,
The feasibility and flaw detection capability the unit is being used to evaluate ball
of an endoscopic shearography apparatus bearings for a NASA liquid hydrogen
has been demonstrated. This design utilizes turbopump. Currently, there are two rolling
commercially available borescopes for element bearings mounted in the reaction
illumination and imaging. Endoscopic and load positions, and a hydrostatic
shearography allows the inspection of bearing in the 'slave' or lower position.
The test unit is approximately 2-ft high, 18-

in in diameter, and weighs 850 lb. The tester
housing and internal parts are made of
Inconel for use in cryogenic applications.
The housing is rated for 2,000-1b/in 2
internal pressures. The shaft is driven by a
GN 2 gas turbine. The test rig is not limited
to testing using liquid hydrogen, but has
been designed to accommodate almost any
process fluid including, liquid oxygen,
liquid nitrogen, rocket propellant (kero-
sene), or jet engine fuel. The bearings are
pressure-fed propellant by a 5,000-gal tank
through a system of control valves. Flow
rates are determined by calibrated orifices
in the supply lines. Speeds over
FIGURE78._lnspection of a lined fuel tank with final endoscopic shearography design. 60,000 r/min are possible. Condition
84
Technology Programs
Sponsor: Space Shuttle Main Engine

Project Office
Biographical Sketch: Howard Gibson is

a mechanical engineer with NASA's
Materials and Processes Laboratory at
Marshall Space Flight Center. His fields
of expertise include mechanical design,
hydraulics, pneumatics, industrial electrical
controls, lubrication systems, and bearing
design. He holds a degree in mechanical
engineering from the University of
Alabama.
FIGURE035a.--Bearing seal test facility located at Test Stand 500 second level.
monitoring is performed by pressure bearings, design changes such as pocket

transducers and temperature sensors internal size and shape, anti-wear coatings, and
to the test rig. Facility measurements are rotordynamic response can be studied.
used to control the inlet and outlet param-
eters. With this test rig, MSFC has moved ahead
into the area of evaluating advanced bearing
The tester and control systems are fully technology for future space propulsion
operational. Currently, silicon nitride balls systems. This test rig is available for use by
are being evaluated. Other bearing materials other Government agencies or industry
can be used such as 440C, 9310, and through the use of NASA space act
Cronidur 30. When built with hydrostatic agreements.
85
Friction Stir Welding washes and scraping of joint surfaces, white at E1 Paso seem to corroborate this idea;
glove handling, reverse polarity cleaning, however, MSFC found a falling off of weld
etc. Fabricators of the Space Shuttle strength at higher rotational speeds.
Robert J. Ding/EH23
external tank use these techniques routinely.
205-544-2700
Therefore in conjunction with a design
E-mail: jeff.ding@msfc.nasa.gov As fusion welding techniques become more effort directed towards the fabrication of
capable, more difficult welding challenges FSW tooling capable of producing full-size
Arthur C. Nunes, Jr./EH23
are being posed. The lighter-stronger space vehicle hardware, and an associated
205-544-2699
2195 aluminum-lithium alloy specified for effort to develop nondestructive evaluation
E-mail: arthur.nunes@msfc.nasa.gov the new Space Shuttle lightweight tank is techniques appropriate for inspecting the
more difficult to weld than the old 2219 alu- unique structure of an FSW weld, an effort
In conventional fusion welding the edges of minum alloy. As weldability constraints can towards undertanding and characterizing the
a seam are joined as solidified metal left in be relaxed, stronger and lighter alloys can flow of metal in FSW welding is also
the wake of a little weld pool melted by a be specified. underway at MSFC to be followed by tool
powerful heat source and moved along the geometry and process parameter optimiza-
seam. As the metal at the rear of the weld On this account in 1994, MSFC began to tion studies.
pool solidifies, different temperature consider solid state welding processes and
changes produce different amounts of became very interested in the friction stir If the loads can be sufficiently lowered
shrinkage or expansion at different welding (FSW) process invented by The while maintaining weld strength, the
locations. Metal elements attached to other Welding Institute (TWI) in the United minimal debris, electrical, and thermal
elements undergoing a greater expansion or Kingdom in 1991. In 1995, MSFC set up hazards of the FSW process make it a
a lesser shrinkage may be pulled apart and the nucleus of a laboratory to develop the candidate for an in-space as well as a
may crack. Certain metals have a strong FSW process to meet the needs of the next terrestrial welding process.
tendency to crack and on this account are generation of space vehicle fabricators.
difficult to weld. MSFC FSW laboratory welds made in Thomas, W.M., et al.: Friction Stir Butt
quarter-in-thick 2195 aluminum-lithium Welding, December 6, 1991. Interna-
But metals need not be melted to weld alloy plate already exhibit strengths a bit tional patent application number PCT/
them. Any time metal surfaces are brought higher than comparable fusion welds, and GB92/02203 and GB patent application
into contact at the atomic level, whether by the FSW process has yet to be optimized. number 9125978.8.
melting or by mechanical force, they stick
together in a natural weld. A century or so In FSW a rotating pin is inserted into the Sponsor: Office of Space Flight
ago the most common type of weld, the joint between pieces to be welded and
forge weld of the blacksmith, was a solid moved along the seam, stirring the metal Biographical Sketch: Robert Ding is
state weld. Hammer blows produced large together as it goes. The plastic flow principal investigator for the Friction Stir
forces that broke up the surface oxides and generates heat, the temperature rises near Welding development effort. He is an
squeezed the metal surfaces into intimate the pin, and the metal flow stress goes down aerospace engineer with the Materials and
contact. The metal was heated to make it so the forces are much smaller than they Processes Laboratory at MSFC. Ding holds
flow more easily, but it was not melted. A would be in cold metal. To keep the metal in an M.S. in engineering from the University
flux, perhaps sand, was added to the joint to place, a shoulder bears down on the metal of Tennessee as well as bachelor's degrees
make the surface oxides melt so that they surface above the pin and a backing bar in welding engineering (Ohio State
could be squeezed out of the joint more supports the back of the seam. The shoulder University) and biology (Bowling Green
easily. The joint surfaces were humped so contributes plastic flow and heating of its State University, Ohio).
that the weld would spread from a single own.
contact and oxide would not be trapped. Dr. Arthur Nunes is an aerospace engineer
A major drawback to the FSW process is with NASA's Materials and Processes
But the blacksmith's solid-state process was the large forces that must be applied to the Laboratory at Marshall, specializing in the
not terribly sensitive to surface contarnina- plate. A much simplified analysis of the theory of welding processes, basic engineer-
don. The fusion welding process, on the FSW plastic flow process predicts forces ing science, and materials science. He holds
contrary is often very sensitive to contami- inversely proportional to the rotational a Ph.D. in materials engineering from the
nants, which can cause serious porosity and speed of the pin tool and suggests that by University of California at Berkeley. p._
cracking, accompanied by substantially going to high rotational speeds the loads
reduced strength. The blacksmith hardly can be greatly reduced. Preliminary
had recourse to inert gas shielding, solvent empirical studies at the University of Texas
86
Technology Programs
The Reaction of Nitrogen vacuum degassing can eliminate the penetration cover pass in an aluminum-
reacting compounds, but this is not lithium alloy should generally be shielded.
With 2195 Aluminum- practical for shop practice. In practice
Lithium Alloy: Continued a thin layer, for instance a quarter

millimeter, of surface is machined
of a
off prior
Talia, G.E. and Widener, C.A.: "High
Temperature Analysis of Aluminum-
to welding to avoid the worst of the Lithium 2195 Alloy to Aid in the Design
Arthur C. Nunes, Jr./EH23 problem. of Improved Welding Techniques."
205-544-2699 Report: NASA/ASEE Summer Faculty
D. Huang, a student of Dr. J.C. McClure Fellowship Program, MSFC, Summer
E-mail: arthur.nunes@msfc.nasa.gov
at the University of Texas at El Paso, 1996.
measured the effect of contamination levels
In the 1994 MSFC Research and Technol- of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen in the Huang, D.; McClure, J.C.; and Nunes, A.C.:
ogy Report, attention was called to a argon plasma gas and helium shield gas of "Gas Contamination During Plasma
detrimental reaction of nitrogen with a variable polarity plasma arc (VPPA) Welds in Aluminum Lithium Alloy
2195 aluminum-lithium alloy occurring welding torch on a sample of 2195 alumi- 2195." Submitted to Welding Journal,
at temperatures as low as 350 °C. num. He ran gas compositions over a range 1996.
from I0 to 500 p/m and from gas flow rate
Optical hot-stage microscopy carried out at and weld speed computed a contamination Sponsor: Office of Space Flight
MSFC by Dr. J.E. Talia of Wichita State volume per length of weld. He measured
University and his student C.A. Widener, pore areas (up to 1.1 percent of the weld Biographical Sketch: Dr. Arthur Nunes is
showed bubbling at grain boundaries during area; up to 0.16 mm 2) as a function of an aerospace engineer with NASA's
melting clearly indicating a gas reaction. contamination volume per weld length. Materials and Processes Laboratory at
Thermocouple measurements during the Marshall, specializing in the theory of
hot-stage microscopy showed this reaction All three gases caused porosity, but welding processes, basic engineering
to be exothermic, like the reaction of the nitrogen always caused the highest porosity science, and materials science. He holds a
1994 differential thermal analysis (DTA) levels. A gray to black surface film of I to Ph.D. in materials engineering from the
curves. The bubbling reaction, also like the 2 I.tm irregularly shaped metallic aluminum University of California at Berkeley.
DTA reaction, began in the neighborhood of particles sometimes appeared on the metal
350 °C. surface. The metallic particles might have
been gas-driven ejecta from grain bound-
Followup gas chromatograph studies of aries or surface pores.
2195 alloy heated in an alumina tube to
620 °C for 15 min with pure nitrogen and A somewhat different film was observed by
with air revealed that for a mole of nitrogen Talia in the vicinity of a crack: a loosely
lost approximately a mole of hydrogen attached dark film of 10 I.tm diameter
appeared. Because hydrogen is spherical particles. These spheres seemed to
so easily lost, for example by absorption in have a metallic interior with a sometimes
container walls, appreciably more hydrogen cracked nonmetallic shell; EDAX analysis
may have been generated than the measured showed A1, Mg, Cu, O, N. (Li is not
quantity. detectable by this technique.) The round-
ness of the particles suggests solidification
The appearance of hydrogen and the while suspended in a gas.
absence of grain boundary bubbling in
lithium-lacking 2219 aluminum alloy points It is noteworthy that hydrogen contamina-
to a reaction of nitrogen with a lithium- tion appears to cause substantially less
hydrogen compound or compounds causing porosity in 2195 alloy than in 2219. This
a release of hydrogen. The details of the may be due to the formation of hydrogen
reaction remain to be worked out although compounds in the lithium-containing alloy.
hydrogen containing lithium compounds in
aluminum-lithium alloys are well known. The backside of a weld can easily exceed
Exposure to air containing a bit of moisture 350 °C below a weld pool of appreciable
easily contaminates lithium containing depth during a partial penetration cover
alloys. Hot-stage microscopy shows that pass. Hence even the backside of a partial
87
Epoxy Adhesive
Environmentally Friendly
Sprayable Ablator for the 83.4%--,,_
Solid Rocket Booster
CarlN. Lester/EH33
205-544-4804
E-mail:carl.lester@msfc.nasa.gov
Progress has been made in the continuing

Glass Eccospheres
effort to qualify and implement an environ- 7.7%
mentally friendly replacement for the
Ground Cork
ablator previously used on the Space Shuttle
8.9%
SRB's--Marshall sprayable ablator-2
(MSA-2). MSA-2 performed well, but has
been phased out because of impending Fmu_F80.mTypicsl composition of MCC-1 in weight percentage.
environmental regulation due to its
chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent system.
Marshall convergent coating- 1 (MCC- 1), The Air Force was sufficiently impressed Coating and Optimization of Its Applica-
which was selected to replace MSA-2, with this material to participate in a joint tion Process Parameters." Aerospace
originated from a United Space Boosters, effort to qualify MCC-1 for the Titan IV Hazardous Materials Management
Inc. (USBI) independent research and rocket payload fairings. The schedule calls Conference, Cincinnati, OH, September
development (IR&D) project. The process for the first Titan IV production hardware to 1995.
was transitioned to MSFC's sprayable be coated with MCC-I in June 1997. Many
ablator research cell at the Productivity industry spinoffs using CST TM are possible, Sponsor: Solid Rocket Booster Project
Enhancement Complex (PEC), where it was due to the ability to change out adhesives Office, Office of Space Flight
scaled up to production size, and where the and fillers as necessary to meet the desired
process was refined and optimized. MCC-1 end-use material properties. For example, University/Industry Involvement: United
was qualified for use on the SRB, with the pilot projects are currently underway to use Space Boosters, Inc. (USBI)
first flight of the material occurring on CST TM to produce environmentally friendly
STS-79, which lifted off on Septem- anti-skid coatings for highway concrete Biographical Sketch: Carl Lester is a
ber 16, 1996. The flight performance was a bridge decks, as well as environmentally materials engineer with NASA's Materials
success and compared favorably with that of friendly roofing materials for industrial and Processes Laboratory at Marshall,
MSA-2. buildings. specializing in the development and
qualification of nonmetallic coatings and
MCC-I is an innovative material that In qualifying and implementing MCC-1, thermal protection systems. He holds a
employs convergent spray technology the PEC at MSFC is fulfilling its mission degree in chemical engineering from the
(CSTrM), a solventless convergent spray as one of the nation's preeminent research Georgia Institute of Technology. [,_
process. MCC-1 utilizes an epoxy adhesive centers. Considering the impending
and ground cork and glass fillers (fig. 80), environmental regulation, the implementa-
although various adhesives and fillers may tion of a compliant replacement for MSA-2
be selected for other CST TM applications. It has been of critical importance to the Space
is robotically sprayed on a painted alumi- Shuttle Program. This environmentally
num target located on a rotating turntable. A friendly material and its core technology,
high-temperature cure provides the quickest CST TM, will be available for other uses as
processing timeline and provides optimum well, as evidenced by the Air Force Titan IV
strength. After curing, the ablator is top- application and the spinoff pilot projects,
coated with a moisture-resistant paint to and will reaff'u'm NASA's commitment to
help maintain its strength and integrity the ecology of our planet.
while on the launch pad. Features of this
process include on-demand availability and Patel, S.V.: "Development of an Environ-
process robustness. mentally Friendly Convergent Spray
88
Technology Programs
Material Robustness supported by the Long-Tema/High-Payoff representatives from Rocketdyne, Aerojet,

technologies project of the RLV program. Pratt and Whitney, Southern Research
Testing and Nondestructive Four technology areas were originally Institute, MSFC, and LeRC was formed to
identified: Material systems, nondestructive
Evaluation Methodology define and conduct the robustness testing
evaluation (NDE), thermostructural analysis project. The initial step was the identifica-
Assessment for Liquid code development and verification, and tion of critical parameters for material
nozzle attachment methodology. Discus- selection including constituents, processes,
Rocket Engine Composite sions were held with Government and reinforcement architectures, and oxidation
Nozzles industry organizations to select areas in protection mechanisms. The team then
which up-front studies would benefit defined preliminary requirements for the
Raymond G. Clinton, Jr./EH32 development of a composite nozzle operational environment and established the
205-544-2682 extension supporting RLV concepts. Top types of tests to be used to assess perfor-
priority was given to material systems mance capability for mission requirements.
E-mail: corky.clinton@msfc.nasa.gov
screening and NDE methodology assess- Preliminary requirements were established
ment and tasks were defined for each area. using the Space Shuttle Main Engine
Thrust-to-weight ratio requirements for Attachment methodology was judged to be combustion gas environment as a baseline;
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) main design-specific and not recommended for operating temperatures in the range of
propulsion systems are substantially generic development. It was also deter- 2,800 to 3,100 °F; and a 20-mission
increased relative to current high perfor- mined that resources applied to analytical ]ifetime, with a 500-sec duration for each
mance liquid rocket engines. One approach code development and verification would mission. Tests include baseline tensile,
to achieve these requirements as described he most beneficial after final material stressed oxidation, oxidative fatigue with
in the Access to Space Study is to develop system selection. thermal cycling, and thermal expansion.
lightweight components. High-temperature The elevated temperatures (two will be
composite nozzles offer significant potential The objective of the materials screening selected) and stress levels for the stressed
for weight reduction and cost savings task is to conduct a robustness evaluation oxidation and oxidative fatigue tests will be
relative to conventional regeneratively of composite material systems, including defined based on preliminary design and
cooled metallic nozzles. The Materials and substrates and coatings, which are candi- operational requirements analyses.
Processes Laboratory initiated a project to dates for RLV nozzle applications for the Preliminary material system selections were
address critical technologies required for purpose of assessing performance capability made including potential suppliers
the development of high-temperature in simulated rocket nozzle environments. recommendedd by industry team members.
composite nozzle extensions. The effort is An industry/Government team composed of Critiques of team material selections were
TAeLE7.mNozzle material selections for robustness testing.
I
Yarn Fiber Yarn Interface Matrix Densification Oxide Coatin
Ht. Arch. Ends Coating Inhib.
1. Enhanced C-SiC Dupont Lanxide KT-300 1,700 °C 2D Plain 119/in PyCAIpha-3 SiC Isothermal Yes I CVIP
2. STD C-SiC Dupont Lanxide KT-300 None 2D Plain ! 19/in PyC Alpha-3 SiC Isothernal No I CVIP
I
3. C-SiC BFG KT-300 1,800°C 2D Plain 19/in PyC SiC Isothermal Yes CVD SiC
4. CTD C-C CCAT 1K T-300 Phen. No Pack SiC
1,700°C 2D Plain 30/in PyC C
Impreg.
5. Hi NIC SiC Dupont Lanxide 1K Hi Nicalon None 5 HS 17/in PyC Alpha-3 SiC Isothermal Yes None
6. Hi NIC SiNC Dow Prop SiNC PIP "Yes" None
7. Hi NIC-C BFG Isothermal No SiC

0.5K Hi Nicalon None 2D Plain 16/in PyC C
8. CTD C-C CCAT/Amercon 0.5K Hi Nicalon None 2D Plain 16/in Non C Phen. No Si3N4
1K T-300 1,700 °C 2D Plain 30/in PyC C Impreg.
89
sought from the suppliers as well as composite material systems. An industry/ at each facility will be evaluated as well as
recommendations of their "best" materials Government team of NDE specialists from selected promising new techniques available
to meet the requirements. Recommenda- Aerojet, Pratt & Whitney, Rocketdyne, within the NDE community. Detection
tions were also received from experts at the Southern Research Institute, MSFC, and capabilities and limitations data base for
Air Force Materials Laboratory at Wright LeRC was formed to define and conduct the these specimens will be established. Based
Patterson Air Force Base. The basic project. Discussions were held to identify upon evaluation of detection capabilities,
material systems selected were carbon the concerns and needs of the RLV main applicability to subscale and full-scale
matrix and ceramic matrix composites propulsion system prime contractors and to composite nozzles, cycle time, and cost,
reinforced with either carbon fiber (T-300) determine the capabilities of the suppliers. downselection of NDE techniques will be
or silicon carbide fiber (Hi-Nicalon). Based upon this information and input made. Reference specimens will be
Detailed descriptions of the particular provided from the composite nozzle available for future NDE calibrations.
variations and the material supplier are material systems robustness testing team,
provided in table 7. Orders were placed standard specimens were designed Results from both tasks will be summarized
with suppliers in June 1996. Tests will be containing prescribed flaws representative in the 1997 MSFC Research and Technol-
conducted at Southern Research Institute of naturally occurring and critical defects. ogy report.
and LeRC. These are described in table 8 for the two
material types, coated carbon-carbon and Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff
The second critical technology to enable coated carbon-silicon carbide. The Technologies Program
the use of composite material systems for specimens were ordered and will be
nozzle extension applications is the produced with those manufactured for the University/Industry Involvement:
capability to nondestructively inspect the materials robustness testing task. Each of Rocketdyne, Pratt & Whitney, Aerojet,
components. The objectives of the NDE the test articles will be inspected at MSFC Southern Research Institute, DuPont
methodology assessment task are to and LeRC and will be available for Lanxide Composites, C-CAT, Dow, B.E
evaluate and subsequently downselect inspection by all industry team members. Goodrich, Amercon
viable NDE techniques for selected Appropriate NDE techniques in existence
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Raymond
Clinton is a supervisory aerospace materials
TULE 8.--Defect test articles and materials for NDE methodology assossmeM task. engineer with NASA's Materials and
Processes Laboratory at the Marshall Space
lefect Defect Defect Coated Coated Hight Center, specializing in nonmetallic
materials development and evaluation for
Type Description Level C-C C-SiC
rocket engine applications; composite
materials (polymer matrix, carbon matrix,
I. Density Nominal 2x(2x8 in) 2x(1.3x8 in)
and ceramic matrix) selection, processing,
Variation Less 15% 2x(2x8 in) 2x(1.3x8 in)
material property characterization testing,
Less 30% 2x(2x8 in) 2x(1.3x8 in)
performance evaluation and verification
testing; development of material property
II. Interracial Optimized 2x(2x8 in) B
databases for design and analysis; and

Bonding Less Than Opt. 2x(2x8 in) program planning. He holds a Ph.D. in
Poor Bonding 2x(2x8 in) aerospace engineering from the Georgia
Institute of Technology.
III. Simulated Best Effort 2x(2x8 in) see II a 2x(1.3x8 in) see II
Delams 2.0 mil Thick Strips 2x(2x8 in) 4x8 2xTH.
5.0 rail Thick Strips 2x(2x8 in) see III b
IV. Distorted Plies Nominal 2x(2x8 in) see II a

15 ° 2x(2x8 in)
30 ° 2x(2x8 in)
V. Inherent As Sorted 2x(2x8 in) 2x(4x4in)
VI. Machined TBD/ASTM 2x(2x8 in) 2x(4x4in)
9O
Technology Programs
SensorTechnology
A Gaseous Hydrogen
Detector System Based
Controller
Upon a Solid State Silicon 1
Microsensor
Controller
W.T, Powers/EB22 2
205-544-3452
E-mail: wt.powers@msfc.nasa.gov
The Lead Detection for Launch Vehicles

program has focused this past year on two
vehicle efforts: The DC-XA and the
LASRE (Aerospike engine flight test
Controller
experiment on SR-71 aircraft) programs.
3
Hydrogen leak detection systems have been
provided to both of these programs to
support flight test operation. The majority
of the effort has been spent on the system
supplied to MDA for the DC-XA. t_oller
The DC-XA system consists of four

controller boxes each supervising the
operation of eight sensors for a total of
32. Each of the boxes communicates with
a ground computer via a launch stand
umbilical connection as well as with the mS
flight test telemetry system (FTTS) on the
vehicle. This arrangement is shown in the GSC
block diagram of figure 81.
Each controller box consists of four printed FIGURE81 ._C-XA connection scheme.
circuit boards: the microprocessor (MIC)
board, the sensor interface (SIF) board, the
The sensor assemblies consist of a small
telemetry (TLM) board and the power
(PWR) board. The MIC board contains the circuit board that contains the sensing
microcontroiler and the supporting circuitry device, an op-amp and some discrete
necessary to supervise and direct the components. The sensing device is a 16-pin
operation of the eight sensors under its dip-style integrated circuit with holes in the
control. The SIF board contains the lid to allow gas flow to the circuit element
circuitry needed to multiplex the inputs and and are manufactured by Sandia Labs. The
outputs to and from the microcontroller. sensors contain a hydrogen-sensitive
The TLM board provides the data buffering transistor, a hydrogen-sensitive resistor, a
necessary to support the electrical and temperature sensor and a heating element.
protocol interfaces to the FITS. The PWR The transistor provides sensitivity to H 2 for
board converts the standard 28 Vdc into the very low concentrations, in the range of 0 to
various voltages required by the other three 1 percent. The resistor senses H 2 concentra-
boards. These four boards are stacked up tions in the 1- to 100-pereent range. The
and mounted in an enclosure as shown in temperature sensor and the heating element
are used to maintain a desirable operating
figure 82.
FIGURE82.mDC-XA controller. temperature for the chip. The circuit board
91
is mounted in a vented enclosure as shown used to calculate percent H2 content from After Flight 4 and the loss of the DC-XA
in figure 83. the controller's raw 12-bit readings. vehicle, the telemetry data from the last
flight were examined for any suggestion of
Integration support involved checkout and the presence of excessive hydrogen. The
test of the system at Huntington Beach after data from one of the four controller boxes
the system was installed in the vehicle. were entirely absent from the recorded data
System signal continuity was checked by stream, and one other box dropped out prior
applying heat from a heat gun to each of the to the end of the flight. The data that were
sensors. This verified the mapping of available, however, indicated hydrogen
sensors to physical locations on the vehicles levels no greater that those seen in previous
as well as signal integrity. The ground experience.
connection through the umbilical and the
FITS connection was also verified. The SR-71 system is basically a scaled-
down version of the DC-XA system. It
After the vehicle was delivered to WSMR, consists of a single controller box with eight
effort was spent to establish the ground sensors attached. The box communicates
FIGURE83.BDC-XA sensor. communications link, configure the ground with the data logging system through the
computer software and operate the system serial (umbilical) interface. The controller
during ground tests and flights. consists of MIC, SIF and PWR boards
Fabrication, testing and integration support arranged in an enclosure as shown in
were the tasks involved in supplying the The original plan had the ground computer figure 84.
DC-XA leak detection system to MDA. in the FOCC area and connected via a fiber-
optic modem to the umbilical connection on
Fabrication consisted of circuit board the stand 3 miles away. This arrangement
assembly, harness assembly and machining presented some difficulty in that the
of the enclosure. Of the four controller protocol of the modems being used was
circuit boards needed for each controller, basically incompatible with the protocol
the MIC and the SIF already existed. The used by the four controller boxes. The
PWR board was a new circuit board that resolution was to place the ground computer
closely resembled an existing design. The in the GPA trailer at the pad with a direct
wire connection to the umbilical. The \
TLM board was an original design. The
MIC, SIF and PWR boards as well as the ground computer was then operated
harness assembly and enclosure machining remotely by a second computer in the
were performed by Aerojet. The design and FOCC area that was serially linked via the
construction of the TLM board was modems and the appropriate software
performed by MSFC. package. This resolved the communication FtGUaE84.--LASRE (SR71) controller.
issue.
Testing of the telemetry interface involved
travel to Gulton Data Systems with the The ground computer software was The development of the SR-71 system
assembled system for evaluation in their test completed and installed at WSMR. This made use of existing hardware to the
setup. This testing revealed an oversight in yielded percent hydrogen readings that maximum extent possible due to the
the communication protocol that was compensated for temperature variation. The aggressive delivery schedule. The MIC
resolved by changes to the microcontroiler qualitative nature of the readings seem to board came from the original DC-X system
firmware. Vibration testing exposed a indicate consistent operation of the system. and the SIF and PWR boards were spares
number of mechanical weaknesses in the While monitoring fueling operations prior form the DC-XA effort. The sensor
circuit cards that required substantial to flights 2 and 3, for example, it was assemblies, shown in figure 85, were also
rework and repair. Calibration of the system observed that procedures such as the spares that were available. The system was
involved temperature calibration of the on- initiation of tanking and the onset of the delivered to NASA Dryden in late April. It
chip temperature sensor. This was followed various purges produced responses by the has not yet been used in support of an
by exposure of the 32 sensors to various sensors that were uniform, similar and engine test.
concentrations of hydrogen at controlled apparently repeatable. The absolute
temperatures. The calibration data were magnitude of the readings, however, was Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff
incorporated into the conversion equations questionable. Technologies Program
92
TechnologyPrograms
Gaseous Leak Imaging One year ago a confocal telescope prototype

had been constructed, and demonstration of
by Raman Radiation proof of the concept was still underway. The
Capture goal was a simple 11 x 1l pixel image of a
hydrogen leak inside a small test chamber.
W.T.Powers/EB22
Figures 86 and 87 display the layout of the
205-544-3452 confocal telescope breadboard. Figures 88
E-mail: wt.powers@msfc.nasa.gov and 89 display data obtained using the
_, _i_i_ii_i/_
,_-:, _i+_ _ breadboard. Figure 88 proves that it is
The period FY96 covers work that forms possible to obtain a Raman scattering signal
the conclusion of one contract increment using a continuous wave (CW) probe laser.
FIGURE
85.BLASRE (SR71) sensor. and the majority of another contract The background was aluminum at a
increment.
Industry Involvement: Gary Paterson/
Aerojet Propulsion
Biographical Sketch: W.T. Powers is a

senior measurement systems engineer in the
Instrumentation Branch of the Astrionics
l.aboratory of MSFC. He holds a bachelor
of science in electrical engineering, minors
in mechanical, nuclear and physics, from
Tennessee Polytechnic Institute. Powers has
33 years service with NASA, and primarily
deals with development of advanced sensors
and measurement, acquisition, and
processing systems.
FIGURE
86.--Confocal telescope breadboardlayout.
FIGURE
87.--Laboratory breadboard.
93
2,500 The control system needed to drive the

-- H 2 Purged Into N2 Atmosphere at T.0
image system must be fast, must be built
cheaply, and cannot use conventional
- • ms--unBmm_Um m%m.
"A mmmmmmmm
m mmm .-m software such as LabVIEW due to the
performance requirements. A conventional
• ,, mm,,,,_
mm
PC hardware platform was long ago chosen
-- £&A A mmuummmm
for development to allow usage of lab
1,500 nmmmT"A computers. Extended DOS was chosen as
the software platform to avoid 16-bit
i B • ••• •A£• •
1,000 limitations, which are severe, and avoid
.&
IIm • ••••••••• A- • dependence on slow and complex operating
• &• £•••••&•••A£•A•••
systems. The software effort is loosely
N2 Purged Into H2 Atmosphere at T=0 categorized as an object oriented architec-
ture, which allows maximum flexibility.
I I I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 One software innovation which is mature is
-50
the cloning of 32-bit-protected mode-
Time From Event (sec)
interrupt handlers written in C to real mode
16-bit mode, which converts each real-time
FIGURE88.--Signal plus fluorscence versus time as chamber is tilled and purged
of H2 content. interrupt function into a dual mode
function. This avoids mode shifts upon an
interrupt. This feature may be important as
In March 1996 the project was refunded the software is migrated to a PC/104
under a different program. The image of platform.
figure 89 was obtained by laboriously
_anning the scene by hand and purging the Figures 90 and 91 display the software
chamber between pixels. The next step is to architecture which is being written. At
install a fast control system which can turn present the software is being integrated with
the confocal telescope breadboard into a the circuit shown in figure 92 to give
real-time imaging system. The target maximum imaging speed. The goal of the
imaging rate for the current phase is current phase is to demonstrate a real-time
300 pixels/sec. imaging capability.
FIGURE89.--Simple plume image 7 x12. or
distance of 70 cm (from the probe focus). Interrupt _-J

Using the previous breadboard, it was _'_ S!iii_i _ _-t SimpleLoop
Process 1 [ [ Process N
impossible to obtain any signal even when
using a pulsed laser and a 5 ns time gate.
Figure 89 represents the first hydrogen leak Driven
Interrupt
image ever obtained using this new
technology.
The confocal telescope breadboard can have I I

its performance improved considerably by
using a more elaborate narrow band f'dter. q ElementO Element1 [ -[ ElementN
Use of a pulsed laser would greatly increase
signal quality. The fact that data could be
obtained using a CW laser opens the FIGURE90.nScheduler tor background process (PC/104 system). Scheduler can nest:
possibility of using a CW laser in a fully registry allows all elements (i.e., class instances) to point to one another.
developed unit. Each element can respond to queries via serial port for debugging.
94
Technology Programs
When the background process software

I Foreground
Manager l* migrates to an embedded controller, the
component which remains on the console
PC, called the foreground process, can
I" r" Manager I Message

aanaoer
evolve into a standard PC application.
enables the author to migrate
This
the foreground
classes onto an advanced operating system
I'maoe
anaoer
I" "" I Shell
Manager
Message
nterface
Virtual
Serial
such as Windows NT, which enables
graphics
support.
windows
Thus
and integrated
the foreground
network
application
Port
can evolve into an application which runs
across the lnternet, allowing more than one
Background Message Control System
console to operate or monitor a network of
Schedulers Interface Manager
'1 sensors. (Use of simple device
allow the background process
drivers
to run under
could
Windows NT at reduced speed.) The

Frame Scanner Light Etc... sensors themselves can easily be turned into
Output Driver Detection Internet nodes among other protocols. This
is exacdy the sort of development needed to
* Operational create the next generation of spacecraft
control system. In addition, the software
FIGURE91.--'Software architecture.
could be used in commercial applications
that require flexibility and high perfor-
It turns out that the software being written is already contains the most important features mance.
ideal for use on other projects, such as other needed to run the real-time portion (also
smart sensors and networked control called the background process) on an Thus the goal of producing the first
systems. One possibility is a health embedded controller. What remains is to hydrogen leak imaging system is coincident
maintenance network of spacecraft sensors. actually rearrange the software classes such with that of producing the software needed
One factor which helps this extensibility is that they will compile and run on both a on the next generation of spacecraft. An
the fact that the software is DOS-based. standalone PC and an embedded controller. ideal set of software components would
PC/104 embedded controllers can run have foreground and background classes
extended DOS. The current software which could be used under different
combinations of desktop PC's and embed-
ded controllers, and various combinations
of operating systems.
Tri-State Gates (74LS125)
Interrupt Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff
Signal
Signal to Technologies Program
From
Board Computer
Biographical Sketch: W.T. Powers is a
Interrupt senior measurement systems engineer in
Interrupt
the Instrumentation Branch of the
Insertion
Astrionics Laboratory of MSFC. He holds
Logic
a bachelor of science in electrical engineer-
Trigger _
I Multivibrator
(74LS121) l I ing, minors in mechanical,
physics, from Tennessee
nuclear and
Polytechnic
Reset Institute. Powers has 33 years service with
Counter
Counter NASA and primarily deals with develop-
Fast NIM Output ment of advanced sensors and measure-
Input _ 4-Bit ment, acquisition, and processing systems.
I LM311
Comparator 74LS93
FIGURE92.--Interface circuit block diagram.
95
An OPADSystem
to Fly on DC-XA
Marshall Clinton Patrick/EB22
205-544-3836
E-mail: clint.patrick@msfc.nasa.gov
For several years, MSFC engineers have

been collaborating with other NASA
centers, Government agencies, universities,
and businesses in attempts to apply
spectrometric analysis to the monitoring
and diagnosis of rocket engine health. The
Space Shuttle Main Engine Technology
Test-Bed (SSME "VrB) in Marshall's west
test area has been home during this time to
several incarnations of sensor systems
designed to identify traces of metals in the
exhaust. These efforts have met with
satisfying and encouraging results.
Instruments for this purpose are grouped
together under the technology entitled
optical plume anomaly detection (OPAD).
FIGURE
93.--DC-XA OPAD control compuler assembly.
While advances were being made in the
technology required to actually accomplish
optical plume analysis, the question was
being asked: "Will it fly?" For this reason,
the opportunity to put a test instrument
aboard DC-XA was met enthusiastically.
The objectives of this endeavor were fairly
basic: First, to fly a working version of an
OPAD instrument; second, to do it using
inexpensive commercial off-the-shelf
(COTS) hardware where possible; and third,
to collect useable data.
A decisive first step involved choosing a

hardware platform upon which to build.
Although it was relatively young, the
PC/104 format was promising as a
miniature computer standard with a rapidly
growing vendor base. This format restricts
computer cards to approximately the
dimensions of a 3-in floppy diskette, with
0.6 in separating cards in a stack. The
potential thus existed for a control computer
box measuring no more than 6 in in any one
dimension.
Figure 94.--DC-XA OPAD spectrometers assembly.
96
Technology
Programs
No single PC/104 vendor had all of the mounted in epoxy for stability. Cost of the helps to determine the relationship between
component cards required to assemble a four-unit stack was approximately $4,000. It an intensity count for a given data point and
complete system. For this reason, the was mounted in a custom enclosure the actual optical intensity received at the
central processing unit (CPU) card and produced in-house at MSFC. engine telescope.
analog-to-digital converter card were
purchased from Real Time Devices (RTD), Light from the engine plumes at the base of Static firings preceding the first flight of the
the 16-megabyte flash disk card came from the vehicle had to be collected and presented DC-XA allowed attempts to finalize
M-Systems, the enhanced serial communi- to the spectrometers in the avionics rack procedures and verify the system, since
cations card (ESCC) from WinSystems, and near the top of the vehicle. For this purpose, installation in the vehicle was the first time it
the dc-to-dc power supply from Tri-M. The each unit had a 40-ft quartz optical fiber was completely assembled. While data were
ESCC was capable of extended temperature which ran to a miniature telescope assembly collected before and during these t-wings,
range operation (about -40 to +80 C), while near one of the engine nozzles. Fibers were procedural and hardware problems pre-
the remaining boards were screened for this purchased in custom lengths from Ocean vented successful collection of both valid
capability at an extra charge. Additionally, a Optics, for about $400 each. Arnold calibrations and test data during any given
standard temperature range video card was Engineering Development Center designed test. On the other hand, it was very encour-
purchased from RTD for use only during and produced the telescopes in-house. aging that the electronics operated at all
system development. under the extreme conditions of the launch
Before each test of an OPAD system, a site during these tests.
The individual cards were modified in that series of calibrations must be performed to
on-board jumpers were soldered in place, ensure that test data subsequently collected The experiment hardware continued to
all connections to the outside world were is meaningful. Such a series includes scans operate during four subsequent flights.
made using soldered wire rather than of the optical field in ambient light, followed However, telemetry downlink failure during
connectors, wire bundles and socketed chips by scans with a calibrated wavelength the first flight prevented collection of any
were tied down with lacing cord, and the source, then a final scan with a calibrated flight data whatsoever. Then, the system
clock battery was sandwiched between intensity source. The first of these is failed to receive its startup signal from the
cards using RTV. All of the flight cards subtracted to help negate the effects of vehicle computer on the second flight. Data
were stacked with stainless steel standoffs ambient light and electronic "dark current" was successfully collected during the third
and installed in a custom enclosure from noise. Wavelength data allows correlation flight, but the calibration data was found to
Parvus Corporation. Cost of the computer of individual data points to specific be invalid. Finally, the fourth flight yielded
cards was approximately $4,000, and the wavelengths. Finally, intensity calibration success. Engine ignition and shutdown
custom enclosure was an additional $1,000.
Software was developed in Borland C++ on

a separate desktop computer, then ported to
60E-07
the control computer using LapLink. The
compiled executable was targeted to the
DOS environment. Modifications of the A
L. 50E-07
executable at the launch site, and download-
ing of test data in some instances, were 40E-07
accomplished on a ground connection to the
CPU card's built-in serial port through a _ J
30E-07
vehicle umbilical; unfortunately, this link
was limited to a rate of 9,600 baud, a ¢13
relative snail's pace by current standards.

20E-07 - i!
10E-07 Fe I , "1 , ' ' '_

The spectrometer units were housed apart
from the control computer. Ocean Optics
supplied four ruggedized miniature 0
spectrometers, one per engine, which were
....""t ........"q I I t I I I
350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430
stacked using stainless steel standoffs. Each
spectrometer unit was different from the Wavelength (nm)
standard COTS unit only in that the optional
lens assembly in the optics section was Figure 95.--DC-XA engine two emission spectrum at T+3 sec (Flight 4).
97
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
were detected in this data, as evidenced Industry Involvement: Real Time Devices, Optical Plume Anomaly
by spectral activity. Figure 95 shows Inc.; M-Systems Inc.; Parvus Corporation;
emission activity at engine start plus 3 sec. Tri-M Systems; WinSystems, Inc.; Ocean DetectionmEngine
Optics, Inc.
Diagnostic Filtering System
Flight four was unexpectedly the last flight
of the DC-XA. Upon landing, the vehicle Other Involvement: USAF/Arnold
Engineering Development Center Anita E. Cooper/EB22
failed to deploy one of four landing legs,
205-544---4423
fell over, exploded and burned. Amazingly,
the OPAD boxes were not consumed by the Biographical Sketch: Marshall Clinton E-mail: anita.cooper@msfc.nasa.gov
oxygen true or the subsequent few hours of Patrick is an electronics engineer in the
exposure to the burning vehicle. In fact, the Instrumentation Branch at MSFC. He The development and testing of new sensor
control computer is still operational, with specializes in electronics design, data capabilities to address the increasing
the exception of its serial ground communi- communication, and small systems demands for rapid assessment of rocket
cation link; its survival can be attributed integration. Patrick earned his electronics engine health has led to the use of plume
mostly to a rugged enclosure. The spec- and computer engineering degree from the emission spectroscopy and advanced data
trometers, housed in a much lighter and University of Alabama in Huntsville in analysis techniques. Several years ago, the
poorly sealed enclosure, did not fare as well 1986 and has worked for NASA for Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) became
though located mere inches from the control 15 years. the subject of a project at MSFC to look at
computer. All of the vendors have expressed techniques for detecting anomalies in the
interest in examining their components in operation of rocket engines through
hopes of learning from this incident. observation of the exhaust plume. Since
then, plume emission spectroscopy has
Technically, all of the project's basic recorded many nominal tests, and the
objectives were met. An OPAD system built qualitative spectral features of the SSME
with COTS hardware was flown to several plume are now well-established, leading to
thousand feet, and valid data were collected. definition of the optical plume anomaly
Even though only one set of data from one detection (OPAD) system.
engine for one flight was the immediate
final product, a wealth of information was The operational health of an engine is
gleaned to benefit future generations of examined through the acquisition of
rocket-propelled vehicles. The exercise spectrally resolved plume emissions and the
itself emphatically pointed out the necessity subsequent identification of abnormal
for rethinking aspects of ground-based emission levels in the plume indicative of
OPAD hardware in order to adapt and engine degradation or component failure.
harden it for vehicle operations and flight. Since the amount of energy emitlexl from the
Calibration procedures must be reworked to plume due to radiation of a given species
make them more compatible with the becomes a highly nonlinear function with
launch pad environment. The fact that flight increased specie concentration >> hardware
conditions include the use of cryogenics in erosion, development of a process necessary
the vicinity of the OPAD instruments to define these abnormal emission levels
presents it own set of complications. In presents numerous challenges. The optical
addition, problems experienced with serial plume anomaly detection-engine diagnostic
ground communication pointed out that filtering system (OPAD-EDIFIS) is the
remote computing, as it relates to the defined process to accomplish the tasks.
requirements of this type project, is a very OPAD-EDIFIS will make analysis fast,
young technology. reliable, and readily adaptable to other
rocket engines.
Sponsor: Reusable Launch Vehicle
Program Office OPAD-EDIFIS is a comprehensive/complex
platform of various modules representing the
combined efforts of MSFC, Ames Research
Center (ARC), the Air Force's Arnold
Engineering Development Center (AEDC) at
98
Technology Programs
Tullahoma, Tennessee, University of A typical spectrum generated has three model. Ames Research Center and Dr. Wray
Alabama at both Tuscaloosa and Huntsville, components: A dominant component due to Buntine have developed statistical/filtering
Dr. Wray Buntine, an ARC subcontractor, both equilibrium and chemilumenescent preprocessing techniques to address this
and T. L. Wallace, a graduate student. In its emission of the OH molecule generated by problem, isolating the metallic components
present form, it embodies gigabytes of the hydrogen burning SSME; a background of the spectrum. Figure 96 isolates three
code/data with various graphical display continuum component due to an unbound metals of interest in test 901-853, engine
capabilities. The "real-time" version(s), state of H20 and the unavoidable measure- 0523 failure of HPFTP/AT Unit 6-4 at
currently under development, will exist as a ment of scattered background light; and Stennis Space Center in January, 1996.
stand-alone subset of the EDIFIS. possibly a metallic component indicating Elements Cr, Co and Ni are plotted for the
metal erosion. Several metals of interest test duration. (Saturated lines at shutdown
Basically, the analytical modules consist of: radiate in the OH region. Unfortunately, the are omitted.)
• Preprocessing codes; complex interaction of the OH and water
• Spectral codes; vapor emissions are poorly understood and A line-by-line (LBL) atomic spectral model
• Neural networks; and little quantitative data are available that developed by T.L. Wallace predicts the
• An optimization/fitting routine. would permit development of an accurate spectrum for a given metallic species, using
Metals for Test STEN 901853 Plain (met)

1.0xl 0-5
Chromium
8.0x10 -5
6.0x10 -5
4.0x10 -5
2.0xl 0-5
0
100 200 300 400 500
2.0x10 -5
Cobalt
1.5x10 -5
1.0x10 -5
5.0xl -7
0
100 200 300 400 500
4.0x10 -6
Nickel
3.0x10 4
2.0xlO-B
1.0x10 -s
0
100 200 300 400 50O
Time
FIGURE96.--Cr, Co, Ni erosion.
99
inputs such as number density, broadening was closed before additional seeding during each 0.5-sec integration interval;
parameter, temperature and pressure. tests could be conducted.) Spectral data • The study, due to time constraints,
Recently, the focus of efforts related to this collected by the OPAD system provided addressed only certain periods of a
module shifted towards validation of the confirmation and essential validation data specified set of erosion events; not all
integrated spectral analysis system and for the spectral model and data processing erosion activity was present in the entire
spectral model. In particular, work has been methodologies. The success of this test;
undertaken to validate the radiative validation process was evident in MSFC's • The study quantified two of approxi-
transport, self absorption and collisional contribution to the failure investigation of mately nine elements identified in the
line-broadening mechanisms, and chemical engine 0523 undergoing tests at SSC. While erosion events. SSME seeding data is
depletion rates to produce error propaga- details of this effort will be reported in presently limited to chromium (Cr) and
tions and uncertainties. Code validation is upcoming technical conferences, the study nickel (Ni). Coincidentally, Cr and Ni are
an essential part of spectral analysis, and is to determine mass loss estimates for this primary constituents of the alloys
required in order to accurately determine failure can be briefly summarized as reported lost; and
species densities from spectral measure- follows: • Pratt & Whitney measurements of mass
ments. In late 1995, the SSME was • The study made certain assumptions of loss during post-test hardware tear down
deliberately seeded with known concentra- 100 percent RPL, 100-cm observation and inspection totaled approximately
tions of two elements at MSFC's Technol- path length, uniform distribution of 94.45 grams. The MSFC EDIFIS process
ogy Test-Bed ('l'q'B). (Unfortunately, the eroding material, and steady-state erosion predicted 37 grams.
STEN 901853 clean at 130.00 aec
"E" 4.0x10-5 _
3.0x10_5-
3 2.0x10 -5 --
1i
1.0xl 0-5
0
,....
AJ\II., I
3,350 3,400 3,450 3,500 3,550 3,600
2.0x10-5
STEN 901853 clean at 130.00 sec
E
t--
4=
_ 1.5x10-5
N
1.0x10-5
I
_k
N
_ 5.0x10 -6 n
/[j
i,ll
3,800 3,900 4,000 4,100

Wavelength (A)
FIGURE97.--Optimization/fitting results for 130-sec event.
100
Technology Programs
While error and uncertainty analyses are 1,500 atomic lines required around 1 hr on may provide the ultimate solution for in-
underway, the predicted spectral results are an MIPS 8,000 per 0.5 sec of test data, flight "real-time" applications. The
almost indistinguishable from the actual before the fitting converged to approxi- University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa has
failure event data and rank among the best mately 5 percent RMS error. Note the developed a preliminary set of radial basis
to date for such complex spectral data. overlay of theoretical versus actual test data function (RBF) networks---one network for
in figure 97. While the results are indeed each element of interest. This set recently
What is required for the determination of impressive, the computational time evaluated the entire engine 0523 failure test
mass loss is the inverse of the spectral requirements have to be addressed for in- (which lasted around 553 sec) for seven
model. Given a spectrum, predict combus- flight/real-time systems. elements in approximately 2.6 min.
tion temperature and element concentrations Temperature, number density and broaden-
(i.e., number density and broadening The third module, neural networks, can ing parameter predictions are plotted for
parameter). The fourth module listed above, solve the inverse problem to the spectral three elements, Cr, Ni and Co, respectively,
optimization-fitting routine, was first used model by "learning" how it works. Initially, in figure 98. Note from column two of
as part of the EDIHS for the engine 0523 only minimal accuracy of the neural figure 98, when compared to figure 96, how
failure investigation. These nonlinear fitting networks may be required, at which point well the neural nets recognize the major
routines on approximately 15 variables the optimization/fitting algorithms would events for each of these elements. Improve-
using spectral radiation models for complete the predictions. As the EDIHS ments in speed and accuracy of the neural
10 atomic species for a total of some work continues, however, neural networks networks through the use of better training
4,000 5.0x1011 2£
Chromium Chromium Chromium
,u|,, I
3,000 4'0x1011 -- 1.E -- t ,]L,_

__ 3.0x1011 -- -Q
_2,000
2.0x1011 --
1,00£
I I l I i
°
1.0x1011 --
_ t J _1.,_ _1_
_,
]I
._
0.5
I I 1 I I
4,000
Nickel 1.2xl 0TM | ukal I
3,000
E
2,000
1,000
_ 4.0x10 la I-- j,.oF N,I
0 I I I I I .
__L _,,1_ IJ....,.J ,,.,Li o.,
ot I " II [ IIIC/IIq'FI"I" i
4,000
Cobalt 8.0xl 012 Cobalt 1.5 Cobalt
,., 3,000 6.0xl 012 -
_2,000 4.0xl -
E
o.5
I'_1,000 -- 2.0x10t2 --
Oi I I I I I o .-,.._,, I I I 1 I I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time Time Time
FIGURE98.--Temperature, number density and broadening parameter neural net results for Cr, Ni, Co.
101
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
data can be realized, and such efforts are Nonintrusive Measurement contrapropagation mode, single-phase LN 2
underway. flowing inside space shuttle ducts having
of Fluid Flows in High- diameters either near 33 mm (1.30 in) or
Integration of the modules to provide a near 100 mm (3.93 in) and wall thickness
Pressure, High-Speed
response time equal to sampling time is a near 3 mm (0.12 in). Flow velocity ranged
primary goal for the OPAD-EDIFIS Cryogenic Regimes between - 0.1 (3 ft/sec) and 6 m/sec
system. An investigation is underway by (19.7 ft/sec). In another test (conducted in
the University of Alabama in Huntsville, W. T.Powers/EB22 July 1996 at the BETASSO water treatment
Department of Electrical and Computer 205-544-3452 plant in Boulder, CO.) the transducers
Engineering, to look at processing improve- operated in the contrapropagation mode in
E-mail:wt.powers@msfc.nasa.gov
ments through computer architecture and conjunction with a commercial portable
conversion of various software codes into ultrasonic flowmeter (Panametrics' Model
a form which is easily parallelizable. The purpose of this work is to measure PT868). Dr. Jim Siegwarth of NIST/Boulder
volumetric flow rate of cryofluids under was a collaborator in this test (fig. 100) in
Wallace, T.L.; Powers, W.T.; and Cooper, single-phase and some two-phase which water was flowing (up to 37 m/sec
A.E.: "Validation of UV-VIS Atomic conditions. The cryofluids flow inside a (121 ft/sec)) in the low-pressure oxygen
Spectral Model for Quantitative Predic- thin-walled conduit at velocities that can turbopump (LPOT) turbine drive duct
tion of Number Density, Temperature and exceed 35 m/sec (115 ft/sec). Flow is (58.42 mm (2.3 in) IDx4.19 mm (0.165 in)
Broadening Parameter." 1995 JANNAF measured ultrasonically by using external wall).
Exhaust Plume Technology Subcommit- ultrasonic transducers that clamp onto the
tee Meeting, October 1995, MSFC, AL outside of the conduit. This type of The long-term objective of the program is
(restricted). noninvasive flow measurement is desirable to measure lox and LH 2 flowing inside the
in many applications in general and ducts of the SSME. The preliminary
Benzing, D.A.; Whitaker, K.W.; and specifically in applications such as the lox piggyback testing was done with Iox
Krishnakumar, K.: "SSME Condition and LH 2 ducts of the Space Shuttle Main flowing in SSME's high-pressure oxygen
Monitoring Using Neural Networks and Engine (SSME). turbopump (HPOTP) discharge duct
Plume Spectral Signatures." AIAA no. (111 mm (4.37 in) ID×4.45 mm (0.175 in)
96-2824, Lake Buena Vista, FL, 1996. The small clamp-on ultrasonic transducer wall) and in the fuel pre-burner (FPB)
(fig. 99) developed under Contract supply (50.7 mm ( 1.996 in) ID x 3.23 mm
Sponsor: NASA Headquarters, Office of NAS8-38429 was measured in the (0.127 in) wall) at the MSFC test stand. The
Space Science
University of Alabama, Huntsville;
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa; 19.0 mm
(0.745 in)
Vanderbilt University; Tennessee Techno-
logical University -T
8.7 mm
Biographical Sketch: Anita Cooper is an
(0.343 in)
electronics engineer in the Instrumentation
Branch of the Astrionics Lab at MSFC. She
conducts and manages research for the
optical plume anomaly detection program to
enable development and application of
plume spectroscopy technology to rocket
engines. Cooper earned her bachelor of 40.6 mm
science in physics from Athens State 1.60 in)
College and has worked for NASA for
7 years. D_"
FIGURE99._mall mass clamp-on transducer, mass=29 grams,

frequency 500 kHz.
102
Technology Programs
Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff
44 4,q ,14 Technologies Program
AJ/ I,A
I /
..
I , I I Biographical Sketch: W.T. Powers is a
' 3 I i'- -
i_II I
i;l_, E
i I
senior measurement
Instrumentation
systems engineer in the
Branch of the Astrionics
I
Laboratory of MSFC. He holds a bachelor
E i ] of science in electrical engineering, minors
in mechanical, nuclear and physics, from
Tennessee Polytechnic Institute. Powers has
33 years service with NASA and primarily
deals with development of advanced sensors
and measurement, acquisition, and
processing systems.
(a) (b) (c)
FmunElO0.--Test with water flowing (up to 37 m/s) inside lhe LPOT turbine drive ducl.
In (a) the flow velocity, measured along the path represented by the double-
arrowed line, was lower than in (c). However, the average of lhe flow
velocities in (a) and (c) was approximately equal to the flow velocity in (b).
A practical observation can be drawn from the test. To avoid the influence
of swirl due to the upstream elbow: (1) a one-path flowmeter system should
have a pair of transducers mounted in a plane such that it is perpendicular
to the plane of the elbow as in (b); or (2) a two-path flowmeter system
should have two pairs of transducers mounted in the same plane as the
plane of the elbow as in (a) and (c) combined. Note: The flow lines are
hypothetical.
transducers and their couplant survived the covered by this reported. Such improved
duct vibration and the cryogenic methods are already under development for
temperature of the lox. The available high-flow highly turbulent fluids, especially
commercial flowmeter systems, however, gases, and should be ready for testing in the
have not yet successfully measured flow in coming year on single- and two-phase
the contrapropagation mode in these tests. cryofluids.
Our plans are to conduct more tests to better Lynnworth, L.C.; Matson, J.E.; Nguyen,
understand the "violent" conditions (flow T.H.; Powers, W.T.: "Small-lnertia
turbulence and duct vibration) of the SSME Clamp-on Cryogenic Flowmeter
ducts. Tests will be performed with the Transducer." 1992 Conference on
transducers operating in the contra- Advanced Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion
propagation and reflection modes in Technology, vol. I, pp. 207-216,
conjunction with Panametrics' commercial May 19-21, 1992.
flowmeter. Tests will first be conducted in
laboratory water or LN 2 flow loop. Later Lynnworth, L.C.; Nguyen, T.H.; Liu, Y.; and
tests will be conducted on the lox duct of Stein, P.: "Clamp-on Flow Velocity and
the SSME at the Stennis Space Center test Density Transducers for Liquid Nitrogen
stand. It appears that the high-velocity, and Other Cryogenic Applications,
highly turbulent, cryo conditions may Especially in Thin-Walled Conduits."
require signal processing methods that are 1994 Conference on Advanced Earth-to-
more robust than those that were Orbit Propulsion Technology, vol. I,
commercially available during the year pp. 97-104, September 1994.
103
MSFC Researchand Technology t996
Development of 8-Channel,
16-Bit Smart Card for
Pressure Transducers
W.T.Powers/EB22
205-544-3452
E-mail:wLpowers@msfc.nasagov
The term "smart sensor" has been used in a on Lox/LH 2 Line Smart DAQ Board
number of different ways, ranging from
sensors incorporating an active device to
provide a more reliable interface to the
sensor, to integrated sensors with a
electronic circuit block including both
digital and analog circuitry which becomes
a "smart" periphery of a control system. Pressure
However in the recent past, a broad Sensor
definition has been achieved whereby a
smart sensor is defined as one that is
capable of:
• Providing a digital output;
• Communicating through a bidirectional Shuttle Main Engines
digital bus;
Lox/LH 2 Pressure Input
• Being accessed through a specific
address; and
FIGURE
101 .--Cryogenic smart sensor_stem component diagram.
• Executing commands and logical
functions.
+12V -12V +12V -12V

An 8-charmel, 16-bit smart card for use in OQ
propulsion applications as shown in
d
figure 101, has been designed, developed

and fabricated to incorporate diagnostic and
signal conditioning electronics. The three
most important areas in the development of
this 16-bit smart card are: Buffer I A/D Converter ADSP-2171
• Multiplexing of 8-channel inputs; _- --] AD-524 r--
AD-676 Microprocessor
• Analog/Digital conversion; and "_ G=I I
• The processor which interprets decisions
O_
and implements those decisions.
_12V-12V 2 MHz
V
The three main parts of smart DAQ board Offset _
I
are shown in figure 102. This card has the
I Two
following characteristics:
• Output is 16 bits;
• It has two data buses utilizing 485, each I SeriaiP°rts
capable of addressing four sensors; II Width
II Width
• It has fault detection capability to verify __1, 'erl Calibration
that the sensor is operational; !
• It has an output code for sensor identifi- 48 KHz
cation; and
FIGURElO2.--Eight-channel, 16-bit smart card main functional components.
104
Technology Programs
• It is capable of downloading calibration

coefficients including zero, sensitivity,
Long-Term/High-Payoff's management (IVHM) as a key to reducing
operations costs on X-33/RLV, there is a
thermal, and other parameters required OMS IVHM TestedmFirst need for real-life applications in genuine
for conversion of sensor voltage output to
engineering units, to a calibration table in
Pneumatic System With flight and operational environments. In
addition, with the realization that the
the sensor process. Fully Automated Checkout Shuttle will be flying many years before an
RLV can replace it, many of these technolo-
Reducing the number of leads is an W.T. Powers/EB22 gies can be cost effectively retrofitted on the
important function for a majority of sensors. 205-544-3452 shuttle. This IVHM system automates test
Data multiplexing as shown in figure 102 and checkout requirements for the Orbital
E-maih wt.powers@msfc.nasa.gov
can not only reduce the amount of circuitry Maneuvering System/Reaction Control
required for the sensor, but also reduces the System (OMS/RCS) pneumatic systems that
number of external leads by multiplexing in The use of single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) could take up to 1 week (2 shifts/day) and
sensing arrays and systems that require the technologies to reduce the operations costs could require over 40 ground connections to
simultaneous measurement of many signals for the X-33/RLV programs provides the the flight vehicle (quick disconnect (QD)
in order to accurately measure the param- opportunity to reduce the recurring mate, leak test each QD, etc.).
eter of interest. production and refurbishment costs
associated with the present external tank The Shuttle OMS/RCS, which has some of
The second block (AD-676) provides and solid rocket boosters on the Shuttle. the most stringent operational checkout
digital output. Once the sensor data is However the implementation of SSTO requirements, was chosen to demonstrate
digitized, a variety of signal processing dramatically increases the number of fluid this technology. It is especially challenging
schemes can be used to correct errors. components and complexity; fluids already due to its high usage of redundant compo-
These include offset cancellation, represent the largest operational driver on nents, the checkout requirements, and the
autocalibration, self testing, fault detection, the present orbiter. Several system level lack of sensors with the data resolution/
correction and linearity correction. Another technologies (i.e. common commodities, response required. This drives the current
advantage is to perform some of these EMA's, etc.) have been recommended to use of manpower and ground support
functions using a remote host processor help reduce these operations costs; however equipment (GSE) intensive operations to
rather than to implement them at the sensor there is still a need to address the recurring perform all of the necessary checkout
site. costs associated with checking out the fluid requirements. With existing instrumentation
components every flight or during standard- the required checkout data cannot be
The third block of the smart DAQ card is ized maintenance periods. This requires on determined with just "in-flight" evaluation.
ADSP-2171, a microprocessor which the Space Shuttle a large number of test
controls and manages the overall system. ports, quick disconnects and ground support The operational and maintenance require-
This processor interprets the information, equipment to accomplish individual ments specification document (OMRSD)
makes appropriate decisions, and imple- component checkout (fig. 103). for the OMS/RCS pneumatic components
ments them. was used as the evaluation criteria for
With the increased emphasis and planning technical success/failure. The goal was to
Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff on the use of integrated vehicle health recreate ground checkout configurations
Technologies Program without the need for hook-up of external
GSE and be able to gather/analyze equal or
Biographical Sketch: W.T. Powers is a better test data. Rockwell developed and
senior measurement systems engineer in the demonstrated an on-board bias and vent
Instrumentation Branch of the Astrionics control unit (OBVCU) which was used to
Laboratory of MSFC. He holds a bachelor create unique checkout configurations such
of science degree in electrical engineering, as biasing open the primary regulator for
and minors in mechanical, nuclear and second regulator checkout. This series of
physics from Tennessee Polytechnic sensors and solenoid valves is a key to
Institute. He has 33 years of service with performing isolation valve, regulator, and
NASA and primarily deals with the check valve check out without GSE.
development of advanced sensors and
measurement, acquisition, and processing FIGURE103.--Complex GSE replaced A VME-based system was used for data
systems. with small on-board acquisition and control stimulus. Coupled
components. with the new Taber transducers on board,
105
very high data resolutions will be possible. regulators. With the OBVCU the secondary were used to detect flow in each poppet of
The system will acquire, display and record regulators can be biased open to perform the quad check valve.
a true 100+ Hz sample rate. The VME is secondary regulated flow, lock-up, response
connected to a Sun Ultra Sparc workstation and creep tests. The use of the OBVCU tied The combined reverse leakage across all
running G2 a real-time expert system to our advanced checkout system allows all quad check valve poppets was challenging
program (fig. 104). G2 runs the automated regulator checkout on a pressurization for IVHM application because it required
control and analysis sequences and provides system to be accomplished within 1 hr. purposely configuring for reverse leakage.
the graphical user interface. There are eight systems which could be Our approach was to use the OBVCU to
tested in parallel using this IVHM approach blow down the section between the isolation
in no more than one shift. All regulator valves and the check valve. This creates a
checkout has been automated and demon- reverse differential pressure similar to that
strated on the on OMS IVHM test-bed. The produced by the GSE, and with the addition
only additional work is the testing of of the transducer P5 added between the
acoustic emission and ultrasonic as an isolation valves and the check valves,
alternate leak detection method. allows a combined reverse leakage to be
determined.
Required testing for the isolation valves
requires combined leakage (NMT 720 Requires testing for check valves/burst discs
SCCH if 3 of 4 regulators are less than specifies burst disk leakage--0 allowable.
360 and the other is less than 1200 SCCH).
There is a combined burst disc and relief
The current approach to performing valve arrangement downstream of the
FIGURE104._Data acquisition and
isolation valve leakage is to put a delta regulators. The burst disc is checked every
control system.
pressure transducer across the check valve time the regulators are tested. The challenge
to assure no flow across it and measure the here was avoiding the need to hook up the
Regulator testing requires: rise in pressure between the isolation valves GSE. The approach was to combine the full
• Regulated flow within OMRS limits and check valve. If there is flow across the range, high fidelity transducer with our
(272 +5 -7 for primary, 279 +5 -7 for check valve, it is hacked up with a higher 16-bit data acquisition. This test holds the
secondary); pressure to preclude the flow. This requires best promise for application of acoustic
• Lock-up pressure below OMRS limits our OBVCU to back up the valve in order to emission or ultrasonic techniques since it
(281 for primary, 288 for secondary); avoid external connections traditionally requires a "leak/no leak" determination, not
• Response with in 3 sec to regulated flow needed to accomplish this test, which is an actual quantification.
limits; and currently performed every flight. Acoustic
• Creep test to verify regulator leak rate is emission sensors have been mounted to try The OBVCU concept envisioned three
below 720 SCCH sum. assigning leakage magnitude to an valves used to either divert pressure to the
individual valve (an OMDP requirement). regulators as a bias or vent to configure for
There are dual regulars on the OMS/RCS leak checks.
helium pressurization system. One is an Required testing for check valves specifies
active primary and the other is a backup reverse leakage (360 SCCH) and flow Checkout is accomplished during any
with a higher set-point that automatically verification (NMT 2.5 PSID). operational use. With this concept anytime
takes over if the primary fails to open. the system is flowed is considered an
Regulator checkout on the OMS/RCS can The OMS/RCS quad check valve presented opportunity to perform automated checkout.
be one of the more time consuming portions a particularly challenging component to The operational times for OMS/RCS
of the OMS/RCS Helium pressurization apply IVHM to because of the requirements checkout are servicing, flight and
checkout The primary regulators required for verification of redundant elements and deservicing. In this case the performance of
two additional transducers (P5 and PS) with the need to configure for reverse leak check. automated checkout during deservicing
high data resolution) and high sample for We used a single delta P connected directly holds the following advantages:
checkout. The secondary regulators need to the intermediate test ports This pressure • The IVHM system can be driven by the
additional instrumentation and require a transducer is capable of withstanding ground checkout system alleviating the
mechanism to bias open the secondary 1,000+ lb/in 2 pressure surges and also need to develop and implement expensive
regulator without hooking up external GSE. provides a polarity (+ or -) that allows any flight software/hardware changes.
Our approach was to use the existing on- blockage or stuck poppet to be isolated to • Since the OBVCU can only be activated
board pressurant to bias the primary either flow path. Acoustic emission sensors on the ground its criticality and
106
Technology
Programs
associated failure modes are much more The first fully automated checkout of a they need not significantly increase
benign. The goal is to not have to put pneumatic system in a launch vehicle has vehicle LRU replacement rates, add
special checkout requirements on the been proven in an operational test-bed using additional failure points, engender new
OBVCU itself. off-the-shelf technologies (table 9). checkout requirements for the IVHM
If there is a failure detected in the flight system itself, increase weight, etc. In
components (or the OBVCU itself) there As prior to this work no pneumatic system addition, when the overall system
is now sufficient time and resources to on a launch vehicle had ever been fully (vehicle plus ground structure) including
proactively address the problem at the automated, this project demonstrates the the facility, GSE, test ports, etc. are
beginning of the flow eliminate the need feasibility of fully automating even heavily considered, IVHM can dramatically
to make ground connections except to a redundant systems using vehicle health reduce system complexity, cost, failure
deservice line. management. Some of the general conclu- rates, etc.
The required high flow rates specified by sions components reached are: • All of the frequent checkout requirements
the current OMRS requirements (not • Vehicle health management emphasis on the OMS/RCS could be performed
nominally available in-flight) are should shift from a focus on in-flight using IVHM techniques made up of off-
achieved. checkout to checkout through operational the-shelf components and/or proven
use (flight, service, de-service, etc.). technology. Most of the innovation was at
One of the concerns with applying IVHM • With the application of IVHM the use of the integration and application level. This
was that the addition of numerous compo- redundancy to increase overall mission holds the promise of near-term applica-
nents would add to vehicle weight, increase reliability need not entail increased and tion to vehicles such as X-33 or the
complexity, and increase vehicle component complex test and checkout requirements. Shuttle.
failures. With the checkout panels/QD's on • Through the judicious choice of when • Many of the component or element
the pods over 40 individual connections can and how IVHM components are applied, testing (such as element test reverse leak
be required during checkout. Each one must
be leak checked and can obviously be a TABLEO.--OMS/RCS frequent checkout and required IVHM.
potential failure source. When addressed
with the support GSE/facility, the judicious
addition of a few sensors can look favorable
in comparison. We have simplified the
OBVCU concept at under 10-1b/pod.
Prime
Regulators
A major issue that must be considered by
• Flow
any health management system is verifica-
tion of the health of the instrumentation and • Lock-up
• Response
data acquisition components. A variety of
• Creep
self-test and diagnostic techniques were
applied to verify the health of the IVHM
system. Secondary
Regulators
• Flow
G2, by Gensym, is being used as it readily
• Lock-up
supports the ability to quickly adapt the
software from one test configuration to • Response
another with its flexible and rich syntax set. • Creep
In designing the automated checkout
software, object-based reasoning is utilized Iso Valves
throughout. An intuitive GUI (fig. 105), • Leak

which is both a real-time display and a
system model, shows state and component Check Valve
attributes.The system records and automati- • Flow
cally runs a statistical process control • Rev. Leak
evaluation to determine out of family
results, and performs a regression to predict Burst Disk
future health of components. • Leak
*Requirement for RCS only
107
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
check of the quad check valve) per- amenable to upgrades, changes, reduced Biographical Sketch: W.T. Powers is a
formed at intermediate or depot mainte- maintenance costs, etc. senior measurement systems engineer in the
nance periods such as OMDP on the The collection and saving of test data/ Instrumentation Branch of the Astrionics
orbiter were not readily solvable with off- results allows for the potential correlation Laboratory of MSFC. He holds a bachelor
the-shelf or proven instrumentation of past data to predict the future health of of science degree in electrical engineering,
techniques. The application of yet the component versus several failure and minors in mechanical, nuclear and
unproven nonintrusive techniques such as modes. This demand management system physics from Tennessee Polytechnic
acoustic emission, Hall effect, etc. hold allows for proactive replacement of Institute. He has 33 years of service with
the best hope for addressing these failing parts, logistics stocking and NASA and primarily deals with the
requirements. replenishment based on actual component development of advanced sensors and
• The philosophy of checkout through health, identifying of anomalous trends measurement, acquisition, and processing
operational use versus only in-flight across vehicles, etc. systems.
checkout allows much of the IVHM
software to reside on the ground system. Sponsor: RLV--Long-Term/High-Payoff
This means the software is more Technologies Program
OMS-HE Schematic
• IP7(psia)_
....I I Mass-Flow(scfm) I0.0 I
ISOB PR4
IP3 (psig_ .... I To Vent
ITll .... I
10 micron
TP2
filter
MVl
Icml .... I
J Test Port THSV
_ Filter
• PR3
Regulator []
IF6 (psia)l .... I III,
IBVPOS
(°/°open)
].... I
[_ Hand Valve
Solenoid Valve IGMTI IIII I On-Board Bias and Vent
Control Unit
Thermocouple
ILABTI
.... I sPa3 PI
ILABOI
.... I II
L
r_ Pressure Sensor
I Save Helium
Set Points ....................
P4 and P8 are
Flow Meter/
Control Valve Combined in
3-Way Valve Flight System
_ Quad-Check Valve
_1 Relief Valve
Fzsune105._MS IVHM expert system screen.
108
Technology
Programs
Software Technology
Vehicle Health averages, differences, normalizations, engines, developing an adaptive health

constants, transforms, or other rules joined monitoring system that responds to small
Maintenance and Analysis by "and" statements. The inequality could hardware changes, and chaining several
Using Advanced Statistical be less than or equal to B or greater than B small expert systems (as described above)
in all the evaluations. There are no together to create a real time diagnostic
Methods and Adaptive constraints to how many relationships are system for the SSME. Additionally, the
evaluated. For example, a rule could be: If
Techniques A>B and C=D and A<=E, then blades are
techniques will be applied to power plant
turbine generators for detection of broken
breaking, where A, B, C, D, and E are turbine blades, which should save money
Anthony R. Kelley/EB23 values as defined above. and shorten downtimes.
205-544-7646
E-mail: anthony.kelley@msfc.nasa.gov The analysis technique described above was Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary
applied to the data base from the first SSME Fund
failure and detected all five blade breaks
The Center Director's Discretionary Fund with no false indications. Next, the Biographical Sketch: Anthony Kelley has
proposal, Vehicle Health Maintenance and technique was applied to other normal tests been an electrical engineer with MSFC
Analysis Using Advanced Statistical and one other test where turbine blades since 1985. He has a bachelor of science in
Methods and Adaptive Techniques, was broke. On the larger data base, the rule electrical engineering from the University
funded in October 1995 for 2 years. The detected the known blade breaks, but gave of Alabama in Huntsville and a master of
primary objective was to develop vehicle six false positive signals. Due to the desire engineering, operations research and
health monitoring algorithms using to have zero good engine test terminations, industrial engineering, from Cornell
statistical methods, genetic algorithms, the causes of the false signals generated by University. He is currently designing and
neural networks, expert systems, and fuzzy the analysis technique were carefully building data acquisition and control
logic. These methods have been applied to reviewed. As a result of the review, a simple systems for various instruments flown on
several different kinds of problems with modification eliminated all the false satellites, sounding rockets, zero-g planes,
successful results. positive signals. The analysis technique then and the shuttle. O_
detected all six (100 percent) blade breaks
The project discussed is detection of high- out of 35 test runs and gave no false positive
pressure fuel pump turbine blade breakage indications (0 percent) of failure. The
in real-time during the Space Shuttle Main 35 tests correspond to approximately
Engine (SSME) ground tests. During two 35,000 test samples in which the analysis
ground test firings, turbine blades have technique never failed. The analysis
broken without the turbine exceeding the technique form and values may require
redline shut-down values. The first time this slight modification for SSME hardware
failure occurred, a technician manually shut changes, but should maintain high-fidelity
down the engine after seeing an abnormal results similar to those indicated above.
plume. The second time, redlines shut down
the engine much later than the actual blade If the proposed analysis technique provides
breaks occurred. Blade breakage can be zero or near-zero false indications in all
located in post-test analysis, but cannot be available test data, then the algorithm could
monitored in real-time at present. This type be included in the ground test monitoring
of failure can destroy a high-pressure fuel system and possibly in the engine controller
pump valued at approximately $2 to for real-time vehicle health monitoring.
4 million and/or the engine valued at $40 to Each detected blade failure could save a
60 million. If the blade breakage can be turbopump ($2 to 4 million) or an engine
detected accurately, then the probability of ($40 to 60 million). The same analysis
extensive engine damage may be reduced techniques should be applicable to anomaly
and may reduce engine development costs. detection in other types of turbines, engines,
and machinery used in industry.
To detect turbine blade breaks, an analysis
technique was developed using algorithms Future work in this area will concentrate on
in the following form: IfA>B, then blades using artificial intelligence to create sensor
are breaking, where A and B can be redundancy and sensor validation on
109
Modular Rocket Engine niques with fewer software specialists, thus Modular main propulsion system software
has been identified as a task item in the
reducing costs. The modular software
Control Software Update concept creates a "fire wall" between Reusable Launch Vehicle Long-Term/High-
modules so that when code is changed, only Payoff Technologies Program. Preliminary
Richard H, Beckham/EB42 the affected module needs to be reverified. results from the MRECS contract indicate
205-544-3747 Some of the logic errors discovered in the that it is the proper approach for future
current SSME software might not have flight software. The testing currently
E-maih richard.beckham@msfc.nasa.gov
occurred with more compartmentalized planned should serve as further validation
software. of this approach. The reduction in time and
NASA is conducting studies with the goal manpower required for the verification and
of enhancing and furthering the technology The Marshall Avionics System Test-bed validation of software should result in
base to support high-priority programs. To (MAST) is being used to develop the significant cost savings.
support the propulsion system activities, MRECS software and for demonstrations of
basic research and technology must be this software at key milestone events. The Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics
accomplished in the engine control and MRECS engine controller system was
health monitoring arena. To accommodate installed in the MAST laboratory for Industry Involvement: Lockheed Martin
evolving technologies this system must be verification of the software. A demonstra- Space Information Systems
modular to allow interface redesign as the tion of a sensor input task was performed in
system requirements change. Modular June 1995, with a proof-of-concept Biographical Sketch: Richard Beckham is
rocket engine control software (MRECS), demonstration, including an engine health a computer engineer in the Astrionics
which is being developed by Lockheed management task, held in September 1995. Laboratory at MSFC. His primary duty is
Martin Space Information Systems, is a the coordination and evaluation of require-
research and technology effort whose The tasks planned for 1996 and 1997 were ments, development, testing, and flight
primary purpose is to demonstrate software postponed so that MRECS could be used to support for the Space Shuttle Main Engine
development and maintenance cost support the f'wing of an SSME with a controller software. Since March 1995, he
reduction by implementing a modular, controller that uses a commercial off-the- has been the contracting officer's technical
flexible software architecture. shelf computer, operating in a predomi- representative for the Modular Rocket
nately simplex mode. Lockheed Martin is Engine Control Software contract. He holds
Approximately 35 people are presently developing the software using requirements bachelor of science and master of science
working full time to support the develop- derived from the SSME controller software degrees in electrical engineering from The
ment, verification, and validation of the requirements, as furnished them by MSFC. University of Tennessee.
Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) The test firing, which is known as PC
controller software. A significant percentage Quickf'Lre 2, is planned at Stennis Space
of the time and manpower required for this Center in January 1997. This is the second
effort is the verification and validation of of four planned testing phases. Phase 1 used
SSME software. Software logic changes, a laptop computer and was conducted in
resulting from flight requirement changes February 1996. MRECS was not used on
and/or software logic corrections plus the that test. Phases 3 and 4 are planned to
need for special test software, have occurred follow and would consist of SSME tests
at a relatively high frequency, each new with fully redundant and flight-worthy
software version requiring verification and controllers, respectively. These would be
validation. Sixteen software versions have further steps in the evolution of MRECS
been flown on 53 Space Shuttle missions toward future space applications. No
since return to flight in 1988, an average of commitment to these phases has been made
one new software version every 3.3 flights. at this time, however.
The purpose of the MRECS contract is to MRECS will also be used to support a test
determine and develop an approach to t-wing in January 1998, of a low-cost booster
modular rocket engine control software that technology propulsion test article. Require-
will allow the incorporation of new system ments for this test are being written by
requirements and technology developments MSFC. MSFC and Lockheed Martin will
in sensors, actuators, input/output, connec- develop the software, starting with the
tors, and health/safety monitoring tech- existing modular design.
110
Technology
Programs
Optical Systems
Large Optic Coating The Fixture Design Branch here at MSFC is This will allow NASA to achieve great
performing preliminary design, design and accomplishments and benefit the corporate
Facility detailing to complete the conversion sector. Tasks we are pursuing include
modifications. Equipment to be designed coating of large mandrels, segmented and
TommyL.Thompson/EB52 includes a protected shroud/liner, scaffold- nonsegmented optics, and large polymer
205-544-3489 ing to support evaporation sources, film-type optics. A future objective for this
E-mail:Tommy.Thompson@msfc.nasa,gov 12-ft-diameter optic support structure, and a vacuum chamber, should additional
replicated optic support structure. The optic support become available, will be to
support structures will contain rotary perform multilayer dielectric coatings or
The Optics and Radio Frequency Division motion capability. Once the designs are perhaps multilayer x-ray coatings with
here at Marshall is in the process of completed the fabrication will begin. New "depth-graded d-spacing. ''1 The coating
converting a fully operational thermal equipment is being procured which will possibilities for this large optic vacuum
vacuum test chamber, (fig. 106), into a give this vacuum chamber the capability to chamber are limited only by one's
multipurpose large optic coating facility. perform thermal, electron beam and imagination.
During the 1996 fiscal year, the thermal eventually sputtered coatings. The various
vacuum test chamber here at MSFC has types of coatings will include aluminum, Ijoensen, K.P.; Hoghoj, P.; Christensen, F.;
become a lifesaver for two major gold, and magnesium fluoride just to name Gorenstein, P.; Susini, J.; Zeigler, E.;
projects--the Advanced X-Ray Astrophys- a few. The completion date for this large Freund, A.; and Wood, J.: "Multilayered
ics Facility (AXAF) and Space Station optic coating chamber is approximately Supermirror Structures for Hard X-ray
Alpha. It has contributed greatly by serving June 1997. Synchrotron and Astrophysics
a dual role as a preliminary and certified Instrumentation." Harvard-Smithsonian
bakeout chamber for AXAF, and as a test The Optics and Radio Frequency Division Center for Astrophysics, Reprint Series,
facility for the Space Station nonpropulsive plans to transform the large optic coating no. 3732, 1993.
vent test. In the near future, resistive and chamber into a world-class coating facility.
electron beam coating sources will be
installed in this 18-ft-diameter chamber.
This will give NASA the capability to coat
large mandrels for replicated optics, large
segmented and nonsegmented optics, and
large polymer film type optics.
The large optic coating facility houses the

thermal vacuum test chamber which will be
converted into a large optic coating
chamber. The vacuum chamber has a
usable inner diameter of 15 ft and total
outside length of 16 ft. On the chamber
there are a multitude of ports for
feedthroughs and fixturing. The chamber is
housed in a class 10,000 cleanroom that has
a 26-ft ceiling, two-piece monorail with a
1-ton crane, and 24-ft doors that allow
entrance for large apparatus. The control
center displays all the functions of the
system, and has a 486 computer to monitor
the interior temperature. The supporting
crew of the chamber consists of four
roughing pumps and blowers, two 48-in
cryopumps, two 48-in gatevalves, and one
13,000-gal liquid nitrogen tank. The
conversion from bakeout chamber into a
large optic coating chamber is presently FIGURE106.--Large optic coating chamber Interior. NAS, Inc. personnel are shown
in progress. removing an AXAF support structure.
111
Sponsors: Solar Thermal Upper Stage TechnologyMirror Alignment of the TMA requires a specially
Flight Experiment (STUS); AXAF; built alignment instrument. This instrument
International Space Station Assembly Testing consists of a Helium-Neon laser source, a
rotating scanner, and a detector. The laser
Biographical sketch: Tommy Thompson is RonEng/EB52 output, a beam from the TMA's focus to
an optical physicist in the Optics and Radio 205-544-3603 the exiting aperture, retroreflects off an
Frequency Division at MSFC's Astronics 18-in-diameter precision flat mirror and
e-mail:ron.eng@msfc.nasa.gov
Laboratory. He conducts scientific research double passes through the TMA and back
on thin film deposition, surface roughness, onto the detector to analyze the relative
optical phase conjugation, and x-ray coded The realignment of the technology mirror misalignment of the TMA. Earlier
masks. He earned a B.S. degree in applied assembly (TMA) is completed, and x-ray alignment attempts determined that the
physics from Alabama A&M University, detector assembly calibration rehearsal with alignment could be improved by applying
and is pursuing an M.S. in thin film the TMA at the X-Ray Calibration Facility external forces to the ends of the TMA.
deposition from A&M. Thompson has been (XRCF) at MSFC is underway. During the
employed at MSFC since 1988. _._ calibration rehearsal, several x-ray detector In the first realignment attempt, the TMA
assemblies will be checked out with the was found to be misaligned and it required
TMA. The TMA alignment requirements 56 lbf to align the hyperboloid to the
are 0.75-arc sec relative tilt or 44-ktm spot paraboloid mirror. The alignment in 1989
diameter. required only 24 lb of lateral force to align
the TMA. With the 56 lb of stainless steel
The TMA was built in the mid-1980's as a weights, the TMA was aligned to 0.05 arc
part of the AXAF development program in sec or 3-l.tm-diameter spot.
order to gain valuable experience with
grazing incidence mirror fabrication, Since the TMA was not stored in a clean
metrology, and alignment techniques. Much room, the TMA was subjected to a series
of the experience was applied in fabrication of vacuum bakeout at elevated temperature
and testing of the AXAF's high-resolution of 110 °F until it passed the MSFC-SPEC-
mirror assembly (HRMA). 1238. Vacuum bakeout of the TMA was
conducted to ensure that it would not
The TMA's diameter is 410 mm, or contaminate the XRCF during testing. The
approximately one-third of the HRMA's TMA was brought to the XRCF for final
outer diameter, and half of HRMA's length. alignment. There the TMA was found to be
Its focal length is 6 m. TMA consists of a grossly misaligued (3 arc sec) with more
parabola and hyperbola mirror supported by than 100 lbf required to realign the TMA.
graphite-epoxy cylinders which are In addition, another residual error term was
supported by aluminum center aperture much greater than before the vacuum
plates. Each of the mirrors is bonded to four bakeout. The residual error indicated
invar pads. The pads are bonded to the comes from the same quadrant where the
graphite-epoxy mirror support. debonded pad is located. The cause of this
additional error is not known with
The TMA was aligned and tested in the late certainty, but it is known that graphite-
1980's at the XRCE The alignment of the epoxy is hygroscopic and changes shape
TMA was found to be unstable during the when moisture escapes under vacuum
x-ray testing. Tested with a sensitive bakeout. A spring-loaded device was
acoustical instrument, one of the graphite- fabricated and placed inside the TMA to
epoxy pads indicated a difference in pull on the paraboloid mirror to correct the
response and was suspected to be debonded residual error. Afterward, it required 80 lb
or partially debonded from the TMA's of weight placed on each mirror to align
parabola mirror. The TMA had been in the TMA. The residual error due to relative
storage since 1990. Classified as program tilt was between 0.38 arc sec or21 pro. The
critical hardware, it was taken out of storage residual error due to the ovalized parabola
in 1995. mirror (delta-delta radius error) is 36 ktm.
The RSS spot size is 42-_tm diameter.
112
Technology Programs
During the calibration rehearsal, the x-ray

spot diameter is well within specification
Specialized Optical Coating properties of specific coating materials
using process parameter modulations in
and seems to be stable and repeatable. Solutions for Astronomical order to obtain elements with demanding
Instruments optical characteristics. The physical
The aligned TMA will be a valuable asset properties of coatings are characterized
to the x-ray science community. The TMA through the use of advanced surface
will serve as an x-ray optical instrument for Alan P.Shapiro/EB52 morphology equipment such as atomic
calibration of any future x-ray detectors in 205-544-3488
force microscopes, surface profilometers,
vacuum. The TMA, along with the XRCF at e-mail:alan.shapiro@msfc.nasa.gov and spectrophotometers.
MSFC, will be available to serve the science
community in x-ray instrument testings. EdwardA.West/ES82 A significant portion of the coating and
The lessons learned from the TMA 205-544-7625 surface morphology research conducted in
alignment will be valuable in future optical the Optical Fabrication Branch at MSFC is
e-mail:edward.west@msfc.nasa.gov
telescope engineering programs. directed toward the development of unique
coating design solutions for optical systems
The TMA with a debonded pad is tempo- The performance of specialized astronomi- with demanding performance characteris-
rary cured with an internal fixture. Addi- cal instruments can often be greatly tics. A Center Director's Discretionary Fund
tional forces are needed to realign the TMA. enhanced by the implementation of project initiated October 17, 1995, entitled
Preliminary test data agrees with the data specialized optical coating solutions. These "Development of Polarization Optics for
from the TMA alignment scanner. solutions may include the design and High-Resolution Vector Magnetic Field
subsequent deposition of unusual multilayer Measurements," encompasses the develop-
Sponsor: AXAF Development Program coatings composed of dielectric materials, ment of wavelength selective transmission
metals, or combinations of the two. Wave- filters, reflective mirrors, and beamsplitters
Biographical sketch: Ron Eng is an optical length selective transmission coatings may which introduce minimal instrumental
design engineer at the Optics Branch at be combined with specially designed polarization effects. One instrument which
MSFC. His accomplishments include the reflective coatings in the same instrument in will benefit from this effort is the Experi-
wide field angle lenses for the Lightning order to obtain the desired performance mental Vector Magnetograph (EXVM),I
Imaging Sensor (LIS), Optical Transient characteristics. The various coating design shown in figure 107. Scientists at MSFC's
Detector (OTD), and the Solar Vector options, when included as a part of the Space Sciences Laboratory use this
Magnetograph. He received a B.S. degree in initial system design, can be utilized to instrument to characterize the magnetic
optics from the University of Rochester, and produce an instrument with optimum field of the Sun by measuring the polariza-
took additional graduate courses at the spectral and polarization response. In some tion of light in iron ion absorption bands at
University of Rochester and the University cases, it is desirable to tune the optical 525 and 630.2 nm wavelengths. Light
of Alabama in Huntsville. _
Full-Aperture Prefilter
f 30-cm Cassegrain
Telescope Apertu[e Stop _ Polarimeter
[I _4 _'_ . _ Fold-Mirror
= , ¢,-'-Articulated
/I / Waveplate _' _¢t::=== I,

Correlation J ' '_- Beamsplitter
Scientific CCD_. Tracker CCD

m ii1_11
J_ '_N._. _ iL_Ji :old-Mirror

Shutter/Stop Lens Holder
FmuaE107.--Schematic of the Experimental Vector Magnetograph at MSFC. Specialized

optical coating solutions are being applied to develop a full-aperture
prefilter, specialized infrared transmitling nonpolarizing mirror coatings
and a nonpolarizing wavelength selective beamsplitter which is used with
the image motion compensation correlation tracker.
113
associated with the hydrogen-alpha line at of these materials can be modified via The utilization of specialized optical
656.3 nm is also measured. A separate process parameter changes thus yielding coating solutions for applications listed
submission to the 1996 Research and inhomogeneous or graded index films. The above, as well as other NASA and commer-
Technology Report by John Davis et. al. films are being characterized via advanced cial applications, is expected to result in the
describes the use of wavelength selective surface morphology equipment such as the fabrication of instruments that would not be
mirror coatings designed to reflect light Optical Fabrication Branch's atomic force possible by other means. Designers of
around the spectral regions described above microscope. Dr. Sahoo is also developing optical instruments can now consider the
while rejecting significant amounts of specialized computer algorithms to model use of nontraditional coating designs and
infrared, and in some cases visible, inhomogeneous coating designs and to exotic materials in order to meet the
radiation. Development of a full aperture predict the sensitivity of multilayer coatings demanding requirements of future NASA
prefilter and a specialized beamsplitter has to variations in individual layer parameters. programs.
also been initiated. These optics will be
coated in the near future in the existing
30-in Balzers coating system which is
100,
equipped with a Temescal four-pocket
electron beam evaporation source and a
advanced thin film optical monitor.
The EXVM beamsplitter is required to

direct some of the light from the instrument
,ot/I
into a motion compensating correlation
tracker charge coupled device (CCD). The
majority of the polarization sensitive light
must be directed to the scientific CCD with e
an instrumental induced polarization of i

0.1 percent or less. These requirements led
i,
EB52 personnel to design a specialized
cube-type beamsplitter containing a
specially designed all-dielectric coating.
The transmission of the beamsplitter as a
function of wavelength is shown in
figure 108. It is clear that the design shown
meets the requirements very well. There is
very little separation between s- and
p-polarized components of the transmitted
light at the polarization-sensitive wave-
20
lengths. About 20 percent of the randomly
polarized light around the hydrogen alpha
line is reflected to the tracker. The difficulty
10--
of designing useable nonpolarizing cube-
type beamsplitters, formed by cementing
one coated and one uncoated right angle 0 I I 1 I I [ I
prism together, is described by Macleod. 2 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700
Wavelength (nm)
A National Research Council Fellow,
Dr. Naba K. Sahoo, stationed at MSFC is
investigating the properties of some FIGURE108.--This graph shows the expected transmittance as a function of wavelength
specialized dielectric coating materials for a cube-type beamsplitter containing an MSFC-deaigned all-dielectric
which may facilitate the design and coating. This beemsplitter is designed for use in the Experimental Vector
fabrication of optimum broadband antire- Magnetograph st MSFC. The three curves indicate the transmission for light
flection coatings and filters useful for with three types of polarization. The top curve (solid) corresponds to
numerous astronomical missions. Prelimi- p-polarized light, the middle curve (dotted) to random or unpolarized light,
nary results indicate that optical properties and the bottom curve (dashed) to s-polarized light.
114
Technology Programs
lWest, E. and Smith, M.H.: "Polarization Fabrication of Normal and time consuming as evidenced by the
Characteristics of the MSFC Experimen- extreme cost of the Hubble Space Telescope
tal Vector Magnetograph." Polarization Incidence Mirrors by primary mirror. Also, a conventional glass
Analysis and Measurement If, SPIE vol.
a Nickel Replication mirror must be relatively massive so that it
2265, pp. 272-283, 1994. (Proceedings can possess enough rigidity to be finished,
1994 SPIE International Symposium on Process ground and polished to its final figure. A
Optics, Imaging, and Instrumentation, San conventional glass mirror must also survive
Diego, California, July 24-29, 1994). JohnW.Redmon,Jr./EB52 the launch environment, making the mirror
205-544-9297 even heavier. The brittle nature of glass,
2Macleod, H.A.: "Thin-Film Optical combined with low strength and high-
E-mail:redrnoj2@msfc.nasa.gov
Filters." Macmillan Publishing Company, manufacturing costs, severely limits our
New York, 1986, pp. 148-154, 334-342. ability to economically launch future
Space telescopes that are larger, lighter, and astronomy missions the size of Hubble or
Sponsors: Center Director's Discretionary less costly than ever before are a step closer larger. In short, higher performance in space
Fund; The National Research Council. to reality due to a novel mirror fabrication optical systems cannot be realized until a
technique under development at MSFC. lighter, more economical replacement to
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Alan Shapiro is a Mirrors that are over 10 times lighter than conventional glass mirror technology is
coating physicist at the Optics and Radio current space technology will enable larger, developed.
Frequency Division at MSFC's Astrionics lighter optical systems with unprecedented
Laboratory. He conducts research on performance. Similarly, manufacturing costs Fabrication of normal incidence mirrors
specialized optical coatings, many of which are reduced since the critical and time- by nickel replication is an alternative to
are utilized for astronomical and astrophys- consuming task of grinding and polishing conventional mirror technology which
ics related programs. He also conducts glass is eliminated. exploits manufacturing economy in a low-
research on the surface morphology of weight system. Figure 109 depicts the
material surfaces. Shapiro earned his Ph.D. Conventional mirror manufacturing process. As shown, nickel is electroplated
in condensed matter physics from the techniques applied to large normal onto a highly polished mandrel (typically
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign in incidence mirrors are extremely expensive aluminum) to a thickness of around 1 mm.
1987, after which he worked at International
Business Machine Corporation, East
Fishkill, NY. He has worked for NASA at 1. Machine 2. Single-point 3. Electroless Nickel Plate 4. Single-point
MSFC since May 1989. Diamond Turn Diamond Turn
Edward West is a solar physicist in the

Physics and Astronomy Division at MSFC's
Space Sciences Laboratory. He worked at
Johnson Space Flight Center as a solar
observer during the Skylab missions. After
the Skylab missions, he was transferred to
the Solar Physics Branch to work with the
5. Polish 6. Apply Reflective Layer 7. Electroform 8. Separate
vector magnetograph project. Since that time
he has worked in both the hardware
software development of the vector
and 1
magnetograph. His main research interests
have been in the development of stable,
high-resolution polarimeters for both
ground-based and space-based solar
magnetographs, in the development of real-
time analysis techniques to be used in flare
prediction, and in studies relating polariza-
tion measurements to magnetic field
evolution and magneto-optic effects in FIGURE109.--Replication applied to normal incidence optics. (1) Machine; (2) Single-point
sunspots. D_, diamond turn; (3) Electroless nickel plate; (4) single-point diamond lurn;
(5) Polish; (6) Apply reflective layer; (7) Electroform; (8) Separate.
115
Once the desired thickness is achieved, the optical testing. The key parameters involve Next Generation Space
nickel "shell" is released from its mandrel control of the plating bath so a mirror is
leaving an optical quality surface. The produced having zero residual stress. Zero Telescope
nickel shell (mirror) can then be laminated residual stress in the plating process
onto a lightweight composite structure thus produces a high-quality optic which truly HowardD. HalI/EB52
producing a mirror 10 times lighter than replicates the optical prescription of the 205-544-3191
that of conventional manufacture. Since the mandrel. As of this report, several one-
E-mail:howard.hall@msfc.nasa.gov
mandrel can be reused, multiple mirrors can quarter-meter-diameter mirrors have been
be produced in a short time, thus allowing produced with remarkable results. A larger
spare units, or multiple segments, of a larger half-meter-diameter mirror is scheduled for The Next Generation Space Telescope
mirror to be produced. 1997. Upon successful completion of the (NGST) is a component of the origins
half-meter program, it is hoped that a flight program. The NGST will assist in determin-
As mirrors are fabricated thinner, the effects experiment can be scheduled to test the ing the origins of galaxies, stars, and
of mounting and holding become increas- mirrors in an actual space environment at planetary systems. The baseline concept for
ingly sensitive to the optical surface. cryogenic temperatures. the NGST is an 8-m-diameter, filled
Fastening, bonding, and joining of typical aperture telescope with diffraction limited
optical substrates to adjacent structures are This research will allow NASA to build the performance at wavelengths between
particularly problematic. These effects are next generation of space telescopes with 0.5 and 5.0 I.tm, operating in a high-Earth
known as "print-thru" or "quilting." In substantially lower cost and higher orbit. The operating temperature of the
nickel replication techniques, these effects performance. The production of light- optics will be 30 Kelvin. The launch vehicle
can be mitigated since the nickel electro- weight, low-cost, high-performance optics is to be an Atlas IIAS with a 12-ft ID by
plating process lends itself to the ability will usher in a new era for astronomy, and 32-ft tapered fating. The weight of the
to plate to the optic an intricate array of spawn countless benefits to the commercial optical telescope assembly is not to exceed
flexures, or mounting provisions. The and military sectors by allowing large, high- 2,200 lb and the costs are not to exceed
plating technique also lends itself to the performance optical systems to be trans- $100 million.
ability to produce odd shaped mirrors which ported to places that are today impossible.
would be particularly difficult by conven- The mass production of large, super- Two industrial teams and a Government
tional methods. This facilitates the produc- precision, intricate parts is now economi- team, including Goddard Space Flight
tion large segmented mirrors comprised of cally feasible; electroforming can produce Center, Marshall, and the Jet Propulsion
"petals" which would unfurl and lock into parts in virtually any shape or form. Laboratory personnel, have each prepared
position upon insertion into orbit. Potential applications are limitless. preliminary designs and feasibility studies
for NGST. Estimates of predicted perfor-
The fact that nickel can be fabricated in Sponsor: Office of Space Science mance, costs, weight, and launch volume
very thin sections, along with its character- have been included. MSFC members of the
istics of high strength, nonbrittle behavior, University/Industry Involvement: UAH/ Government team were responsible for the
make it an excellent candidate for adaptive CAO, Darell Engelhaupt optical telescope assembly. Key elements of
schemes as well. Adaptive schemes would this design include:
be used to correct residual errors in the Biographical Sketch: John Redmon Jr., is • Optical design: A 4 mirror, centered
telescope due to inherent deployment errors, an opto-mechanical design engineer in the design that achieves diffraction limited
gravity release, and the like. Here, the thin Optical Fabrication branch of the Astrionics performance at a wavelength of 2.0 Ixm
nickel "shell," or membrane is actually Laboratory. over a 4 by 4 arc rain field, has been
"shaped" by an array of electromechanical prepared. The primary and secondary
or electrostrictive actuators. The application mirrors are much like a conventional
of adaptive schemes allows for residual Cassegrainian. The tertiary is a concave
correction of the optic, and/or compensation asphere located behind the primary. The
of errors and disturbances elsewhere in the quaternary is piano and is designed as a
optical path of the telescope. An example of deformable mirror allowing wavefront
this would be the correction of atmospheric correction.
disturbances in ground-based telescopes. • Structural design: An articulated design is
required to fit the telescope assembly
Current research is focused on the produc- within the launch vehicle shroud. The
tion of subscale prototype mirrors to be primary mirror design provides an array
used in structural, environmental, and of eight folding panels around a central
116
Technology Programs
section. Four of the panels fold forward implemented to select the optimum design,
toward the secondary mirror location, and
Replicated X-Ray Optics
material, and fabrication process for the
four of the panels fold backwards toward primary mirror. The most promising
William D. Jones/EB52
the instrument package for launch. All technologies are being selected, and
eight panels are deployed and locked in demonstration mirrors will fabricated. 205-544-3479
place on orbit. The secondary mirror is These mirrors will be concave, 0.5-m- E-mail: bill.jones@msfc.nasagov
positioned near the vertex of the primary diameter spheres. They will be tested
mirror for launch and is deployed in the interferometrically at room temperature and The objective of this research is to demon-
required position on orbit by an expand- at cryogenic temperatures to determine and strate large, lightweight, high-performance
ing structure. compare figure, power, smoothness, and x-ray optics. These optics will enable future
microroughness at the two temperatures. x-ray astronomy missions such as the High
Primary Mirror Design: The principal Tests to determine structural properties, Throughput X-Ray Mission (HTXS), which
elements in the primary mirror design are: including launch survivability, will also be is now in the mission definition phase as a
• The mechanisms that deploy and lock the conducted. follow-on to the Advanced X-Ray Astro-
segments in place; physics Facility (AXAF).
• The mechanisms that phase and align the At the completion of this phase, a down
segments with the central segment; and selection to two approaches will be made. The replicated x-ray optics program at
• The mirror substrate design itself, Subscale panels will be fabricated using MSFC began in 1992 when the design of
including material selection, method of each approach. Each panel will be inte- the spacecraft for the spectroscopy portion
support, and the fabrication approach. grated with a backing structure and tested of the AXAF mission (AXAF-S) was
The weight allocation for the primary optically and mechanically. The final assigned to the Center. The baseline optics
mirror requires its areal density to be in the design, material, and fabrication technique for this mission were grazing incidence
range of 5 to 7 kg/m 2. to be used for the flight mirror will be epoxy replicated foil mirrors (Serlemitos,
selected based on the results of this testing. et. al.). A group at MSFC proposed to
While each of these areas presents formi- develop electroformed nickel replica (ENR)
dable tasks, the design, fabrication, and Sponsor: Office of Space Science mirror which would offer four to eight times
testing of the primary mirror are believed better resolution than the baseline optics.
to present the greatest challenge. The Biographical Sketch: Howard Hall has Grazing incidence mirrors are exactly
magnitude of this challenge is best more than 40 years of experience in the analogous to the primary mirror of a
understood when the requirements for the fabrication and testing of large optical conventional telescope--they collect the
NGST primary mirror are compared to the systems and components. He currently is incident radiation and concentrate it onto
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) primary the team lead, Optics Fabrication, in Optics the detector. The essential difference is that
mirror. The area of the NGST primary Branch of the Optics and RF Division of the the wavelength of the incident light is much
mirror is more than an order of magnitude Astrionics Laboratory. Hall graduated from shorter--1 to 12 A in the case of x-ray
larger than HST, while its areal density is the University of Michigan with bachelor mirrors versus 4,500 to 7,000 A for the
5 to 7 kg/m 2 compared to approximately degrees in engineering mathematics and mirrors in a visible light telescope. In order
160 kg/m 2 for HST. Furthermore, the HST chemical engineering, m] to obtain efficient reflection at these short
primary is a stiff monolith operating at near wavelengths, the angle of incidence must be
room temperature while the NGST primary very nearly 90 degrees. At these very large
is an articulated ensemble of compliant angles of incidence, the incoming light
panels, deployed on orbit, operating at a "grazes" along the surface--hence the term
cryogenic temperature. grazing incidence optics. The very short
wavelength also makes the performance of
The design, choice of materials, and the the mirrors very sensitive to slight irregu-
most effective fabrication approach have not larities in the surface. Even a slight
been determined. Materials still under roughening of the surface can cause
consideration are replicated electroformed scattering of the incident light, resulting in
nickel, silicon carbide produced either by a "halo" surrounding each image.
vapor deposition or reaction bonding, glass
or glass-like materials with an ultra-low Grazing incidence x-ray optics are manu-
coefficient of thermal expansion, composite factured by first creating a "master"--a
materials, and thin membranes. A technol- form whose surface has the inverse shape
ogy plan has been prepared and that the f'mal optic should have. In the case
117
of grazing incidence optics, the master has 175 mm to a small end diameter of mirrors which were tested earlier. This
the appearance of two truncated cones with =59 mm. The first mirror had on-axis x-ray mirror (and others similar to it) are awaiting
the base of the smaller cone joined to the performance of =8 arc sec full width at half testing at MSFC.
larger cone at the plane of the truncation. maximum and half-power diameters of
The outer diameter of this shape ("man- =15 arc sec at a x-ray energy of 4.5 keV, The primary NASA program to benefit from
drel"), which is typically made of alumi- increasing to 27 arc sec at 8.0 keV. The this technology development is the High
num, is covered with plated nickel- second mirror had slightly lower perfor- Throughput X-ray Spectroscopy Mission
phosphor alloy, which is hard, amorphous, mance at the lower energy but was nearly (HTXS) which has been proposed as a
and can be polished to an extremely smooth the same at 8.0 keV. These results are much follow-on to the AXAF mission, scheduled
surface. The proper optical shape ("pre- improved compared to the larger mirrors for launch in September, 1998. The HTXS
scription") is machined into the plated built in 1992 and 1993. mission, as currently envisioned, would
surface, using an ultraprecision machine consist of six x-ray telescopes, each on a
and a single-crystal diamond as a cutting After x-ray tests of the initial set of mirrors, separate satellite. The mirror assembly of
tool. The surface is superpolished and is a series of experiments were conducted to each of these satellites would consist of
then ready for use to replicate the actual make mirrors that were much lighter 80 individual x-ray mirrors, nested to save
mirror. weight. Mirrors with a wall thickness as space. The HTXS mission schedule has
thin as 0.1 mm (0.004 in) were successfully baselined the launch of the first telescope in
To replicate a mirror, a thin ( 1,000 to electroformed and removed from a mandrel. the 2004 to 2005 time frame.
1,500/_) film of gold is applied to the Of course, the thinner the walls of the
surface in a vacuum chamber. Then the mirror, the more flexible the mirror The techniques for electroforming precision
mirror is placed in a nickel sulfamate becomes. To restore much of the stiffness optics have a number of applications in the
plating bath, where a 0.1- to 1.0-mm thick lost when the walls are thinned, a mirror commercial sector, a few of which are
layer of nickel is electrolytically deposited was made with external reinforcing rings at described here:
over the gold film. This process is con- each end and in the center (fig. 110). This • Low-cost precision optics. Most of the
trolled so there is negligible internal stress mirror weighs only 20 percent of the effort in the replicated optics process is in
in the nickel to avoid warping the mirror
later when it is removed from the mandrel.
At the end of the plating process, the
mandrel and mirror assembly is removed
from the bath, cleaned and then is ready for
removal of the mirror from the mandrel.
To remove the mirror, the entire mandrel/
mirror assembly is chilled. Since the core of
the mandrel is aluminum and the mirror is
nickel, the aluminum contracts more
quickly when cooled than does the nickel.
This results in a force developing which
eventually exceeds the adhesion of the gold
to the nickel-plated surface of the mandrel,
causing the mirror to separate from the
mandel. The mirror can then be removed
from the mandrel, and is ready for use. The
mandrel is unharmed by this procedure and
can be used to manufacture additional
mirrors.
During the year, two grazing incidence

replicated x-ray mirrors were manufactured
and tested. These mirrors were 1/10-scale
models of the innermost mirror pair used in
the mirror assembly for the AXAF
instrument and were =62 mm in diameter at
the large end, tapering over a length of FIGURE110.4ing-reinforced x-roy mirror.
118
Technology Programs
creating the master surface from which

Lidar Testing components were used where possible to
the replicas are made. Multiple replicas minimize costs. The CO 2 lidar transceiver
can be generated at low unit cost. These was provided by NOAA, based on their
optics could be used in mass-produced
SteveJohnson/EB53
highly successful WindVan system. MSFC
applications where the precision
205-544-3478
provided an existing scanner and inertial
requirements exceed those obtainable E-mail:steve.johnson@msfc.nasa.gov measurement unit, and JPL provided an
from other replica materials such as existing optical table. Some modifications
plastic. Coherent lidar testing, performed in FY96 were required to ensure DC-8 compatibility
• Precision manufacturing of components. for scientific and/or engineering purposes, and flight safety.
A nonoptical application of the low-stress included two airborne programs and one
process that has been refined in the ground-based program in which lidar The MSFC lidar atmospheric remote
research is electroforming components groups from several agencies and compa- sensing group cooperated with the Air
where close dimensional tolerances must nies participated. The cooperative efforts Force, Wright Laboratory in their Ballistic
be maintained. The low-stress technique allowed pooling of resources and expertise Winds program. A flashlamp-pumped,
helps insure that the shape of the finished to accomplish the research objectives, and chromium, thulium:yttrrium aluminum
part very closely duplicates that of the resulted in cost savings through the use of garnet (Cr, Tm:YAG) 100-m J, 7-Hz lidar
master surface used to create it. A existing equipment and sharing of data. transceiver, built for MSFC by Coherent
specific case is creating replicas for Technologies, Inc. under Small Business
pressing CD's (both digital audio and The Multi-center Airborne Coherent Innovative Research (SBIR) and RTOP
data (CD-DA and CD-ROM)). The Atmospheric Wind Sensor (MACAWS) is funding, was used by the Air Force to
replicas for pressing the individual CD's an airborne, scanning coherent Doppler improve the accuracy of air drops by a
must be quite flat or the resulting product lidar designed to acquire remote multi- factor of 2 to 10 times over conventional
will be rejected. The low-stress process dimensional measurements of winds and methods. Unguided, parachuted cargo and
has been used to improve the yield in this absolute aerosol backscatter in the tropo- conventional bombs, dropped from aircraft,
manufacturing process. sphere and lower stratosphere. These are affected by the winds between the
measurements enable study of atmospheric aircraft and the ground. The cargo release
Development of precision electroformed dynamic processes and features at scales of point can be adjusted to compensate for the
grazing incidence optics for x-ray applica- motion that may be undersampled by, or intervening winds if they are known.
tions continued during 1995 and 1996. Two beyond the capability of, existing or Conventional methods of obtaining the
mirrors manufactured at MSFC were tested planned sensors. MACAWS capabilities winds such as rawinsondes are not always
and shown to have quite good performance. enable more realistic assessments of available and an alternate method of using
Additional mirrors with reduced weight concepts in global tropospheric wind the aircraft true air speed at various altitudes
have been manufactured and are awaiting measurement with satellite Doppler lidar, as to infer winds is incomplete and compro-
testing. well as a unique capability to validate the mises aircraft safety. The MSFC lidar
NASA Scatterometer. MACAWS consists transceiver was ruggedized by the U.S. Air
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary of a Joule-class carbon dioxide (CO2) Force and installed in a C-141, profiling
Fund; Office of Space Science coherent Doppler lidar on a rnggedized winds beneath the aircraft in real-time in a
optical table, a programmable scanner to series of tests from June 1995 through
lndustry/Uaiversity Involvement: direct the lidar beam in the desired March 1996.
University of Alabama in Huntsville-- direction, and a dedicated inertial measure-
Center for Applied Optics ment unit to account for the variable aircraft Because of its potential for efficient,
attitude and speed. MACAWS was flown compact, and long-lived operation with
Biographical Sketch: William D. Jones is for the first time in September 1995, and a diode-pumping, new eye-safe, 2 I,tm lidar
senior research engineer in the Optics second time in June 1996, aboard the technology using thulium- and/or holmium-
Branch at MSFC. He is a graduate of the NASA Ames Research Center DC-8 doped solid-state lasers is being considered
University of South Florida. aircraft, over the eastern Pacific Ocean and for satellite-based wind sensing as well as
western United States. MACAWS was other airborne and ground-based wind
jointly developed by the lidar atmospheric sensing applications. The lidars rely on
remote sensing groups of Marshall, the signals backscattered from entrained
National Oceanic and Atmospheric atmospheric aerosols to make the wind
Administration (NOAA), the Environmental measurement. Knowledge of atmospheric
Technology Laboratory and the Jet backscatter levels is necessary to specify
Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Existing such lidar parameters as output power and
119
telescope aperture size to ensure that wind TechnologyDevelopment circuits led many people to grant solid-state
measurements can be made reliably at the lasers a brighter future for space-based
locations and to the altitudes required. A
for Satellite-Based Laser sensing in the categories of mass, robust-
ness, and lifetime.
backscatter measurement program was Wind Sensing
conducted in FY96 using an existing Air
Force 2 ktm lidar to collect nominally In FY93, NASA Headquarters began
Michael J. Kavaya/EB53 funding a NASA multi-center program to
weekly, calibrated backscatter data at
various locations in the United States. The 205-544-8453 enable a solid-state coherent Doppler lidar
data were collected by Coherent Technolo- E-mail: michael.kavaya@msfc.nasa.gov system to perform the difficult space
gies, Inc. under contract to MSFC. mission. MSFC manages and participates in
This paper discusses the technology needed this effort that includes technology
Rothermel, J.; Hardesty, R.M.; Menzies, to profile the Earth's winds from space with development at LaRC and JPL. Naturally,
R.T.; Howell, J.N.; and Johnson, S.C.: a pulsed laser radar (lidar or ladar) system; early emphasis was on development of the
"Measuring Atmospheric Winds with the status of the key system components; required pulsed transmitter and continuous-
Airborne Doppler Lidar." AIAA Space and the efforts being made at MSFC, wave (CW) local oscillator (LO) lasers,
Programs and Technologies Conference, NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), which attract the greatest attention in a lidar
Huntsville, AL, paper 96-4392, Septem- and NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) system. But analysis revealed that other key
ber 24-26, 1996. to develop the required technology. coherent lidar components also needed
performance confirmation and/or develop-
Overbeck, J.A.; Salisbury M.S.; and Global climate change scientists, atmo- ment, and funding has allowed some work
Richmond, R.: "Airborne Lidar System spheric dynamics researchers, and in these areas by MSFC in FY94 to 1996.
Profiles Wind Fields." Laser Focus numerous agencies such as NASA, NOAA,
World, pp. 89-92, April, 1996. DOD, and DOE greatly desire continuous, In 1993, MSFC also began a series of in-
global measurements versus height of the house studies to try and reduce the cost and
Sponsor: Mission to Planet Earth tropospheric wind. The necessary attributes spacecraft accommodation requirements of
of this difficult measurement are good a coherent Doppler lidar wind profiling
Biographical Sketch: Steve Johnson is an horizontal and vertical coverage and instrument. These instrument-mission point
electrical engineer in the Electro-Optics resolution, horizontal vector accuracy of designs were called Autonomous Earth
Branch at MSFC working on space-based, about 1 m/sec, and very low bias. Numer- Orbiting Lidar Utility Sensor (AEOLUS),
airborne and ground-based coherent lidar ous studies over the past 20 years have and examined the possibilities with both
systems and components. He received a consistently identified pulsed coherent solid-state and CO 2 laser technology
BSEE from Purdue University in 1977 and detection laser radar (lidar) as the optimum (fig. 111).
an MSEE from the University of Alabama and perhaps unique technique to fulfill the
in Huntsville in 1987. p._ measurement requirements. Figure 112 shows a possible block diagram
of a solid state coherent Doppler lidar
Despite 30 years of successful wind system for space-based tropospheric wind
profiling with coherent lidar--from profiling. Key elements that NASA has
laboratories, trailers, trucks, airplanes, and either begun to develop or plans to develop
ships--the coherent lidar technology was include:
not ready for space science missions. Key • The pulsed laser transmitter;
attributes that take on enormously ampli- • The frequency-agile (tunable) local
fied importance for space flight include oscillator (LO) laser;
mass, volume, pulse energy, electrical • The signal detector used to heterodyne
efficiency, launch survival, eye safety, and two optical signals;
lifetime. Almost all the coherent lidar wind • An optical derotator;
measurements for 30 years have employed • An optical fiber-based interferometer to
CO 2 lasers. The first wind profiling with assist heterodyning;
the newer emerging solid-state laser • A lightweight scanner;
technology began in the late 1980's. • An optical lag angle compensator (LAC);
Although the solid-state laser technology • Lidar auto alignment technology; and
trailed CO 2 lasers in pulse energy, maturity, • System integration and demonstration.
and wind measurement heritage, the
obvious analogy with electronic integrated
120
Technology Programs
shots at the same location from two

perspectives, a continuous or step/stare
conical scan is usually baselined. For a
Mirror typical nadir angle at the instrument of
30 degrees, the Doppler shift of the light
Wed, Y
backscattered from the aerosol particle
Scanner
Assembly ,pe targets will vary with the azimuth angle of
Enclosure the conical scan over +3.9 GHz. If
Primary Mirror uncompensated, this Doppler shift would
Electronics
Boxes stress the specifications of the optical
detector, preamplifiers, A/D conveners, and
data rate. Therefore a tunable, controllable
Bulkhead
solid-state CW local oscillator laser is
(4 places)
required to compensate for the spacecraft
forward velocity, and possibly to compen-
sate also for the Earth's rotation (465 m/sec
at the equator). Since FY93, JPL has been
Spacecraft developing this laser for MSFC, and
Interface delivery is expected in FY97. JPL
demonstrated the 8-GHz tuning specifica-
tion in early FY97.
RGURE111.---AEOLUS Coherent Lidar design.
MSFC is ensuring the compatibility of the

The pulsed transmitter laser is the "heart" 10-Hz, diode-pumped slave oscillator lasers being developed by LaRC and JPL,
of any lidar system. The transition of a breadboard. This will be delivered to MSFC and their joint compatibility with the space
space-based coherent lidar mission from in March of 1998. MSFC had previously wind mission. The MSFC LCF will also be
"technology demonstration" to "science procured a 100-mJ, 6-Hz, flashlamp- used to characterize the JPL laser.
mission" can be related to the sensitivity or pumped laser from CTI in 1993. This laser
size of the lidar system. The five primary was loaned to the U.S. Air Force Wright If the pulsed laser is the "heart" of the
parameters which determine a lidar's Laboratory, who flew it on a C-141 as part coherent lidar system, then the optical
sensitivity are laser pulse energy, optical of the Ballistic Winds program. The heterodyne detector represents the "eyes."
diameter, transmitter/receiver alignment, successful wind profiles with the MSFC It must meet several specifications
orbit height, and laser beam nadir angle. laser represent the current pulse energy simultaneously. These are efficiency,
Although frequently debated, the "transi- record for solid-state coherent lidar wind bandwidth, iinearity, saturation level, active
tion" pulse energy occurs somewhere measurement. area, and uniformity. Excellent wind
around 200 mJ for reasonable values of the velocity measurement is possible with only
other parameters. Since FY93, LaRC has In order to allow prospective lasers to be about 50 photons striking the detector, and
been developing a 500-m J-pulsed solid- tested, MSFC developed a Laser Character- less than 10 "coherent" photoelectrons
state laser for MSFC. Delivery is expected ization Facility (LCF) during FY93. The contributing to the signal current. A key
in FY97. LaRC is using the material LCF has been used to characterize several parameter, the heterodyne quantum
Tm,Ho:YLF to make the 2.06-I.tm wave- lasers for the U.S. Air Force, LaRC, and efficiency, is not well understood or
length, diode-pumped, 10-Hz pulse others. measured by detector manufacturers. Yet it
repetition frequency (PRF), 5 percent is crucial since the SNR is proportional to
electrically efficient, linearly polarized A typical altitude proposed for the lidar it. Gain or loss in this parameter means
laser. The beam quality must be excellent to wind instrument is 350 km. At lower good or bad news for the required laser
avoid heterodyne losses. The pulse altitudes, atmospheric drag increases. At pulse energy and/or the optical mirror
spectrum must be narrow and well behaved higher altitudes, the range squared effect on diameter. MSFC developed a Detector
to allow accurate velocity estimation. A the lidar's signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) hurts Characterization Facility (DCF) during
major milestone occurred in early FY97 the system sensitivity. At 350 km, the FY94 and FY95 for the purpose of
when LaRC demonstrated 700-mJ pulse spacecraft and instrument have a tangential allowing characterization of an assortment
energy at 1 Hz PRE Recently, Coherent velocity of about 7,700 m/sec. Since good of candidate detectors. Several detectors
Technologies, Inc. (CTI) won a NASA horizontal coverage is desired, and since have been procured and are being tested.
SBIR Phase II contract to build a 500-mJ, accurate horizontal winds require laser Specialty and custom detectors may be
121
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
Transmitter Laser Mirror
,Seed Laser_
I
iLaser Frequencyl I Frequency L
Controller [-I Monitor i /
_
_*
F
Expander
LO Laser [_ Beam
lFrequencyl __ BS /!
Locking
F'IFB Control _ ^ Lag Angle T
I' ' I uompensator De-Rotator / "4
fL_Bs '0_ C_ -'_--._ -- Pol_rizi: _sL_'s U_ _ _._d .rrOr

'/ Cootro, " 0
I Optical Fiber r.___t.._,JJLe'ns Signal ..... -..-__ _ Scanner
II I I id_rI'lpt.rtnr/
f oI I cou--,o -7 II./
I I Lidar Detector/I Laser Controller i _ _ _ _ -_ !1L_ _
i,_ ..-
I I ere-Amplifier I & i--,_-Scan Controller I I_" .-7, ........ -ql .... --{I I_ _'_
I ' _ ' / / L_ Telescope III " % ..
I I IComputationl .
and Data Scan
L_lFReceiver_[_"_ Control mRecorder C°ntr°l_'_Oontroller_
System I ' i ........ blgnal -- ' Scanner
-- nua_a uransmmer Motor
Plattormt
Inertial/GPS Data/
FIGURE112.--Coherent Doppler Lidar System block diagram.
procured depending on the performance of The job of the optical derotator is to fiber tools such as variable ratm couplers,
commercial detectors, and on the envi- realign the signal photons. Studies of this pigtailed detectors, and robust connectors,
sioned receiver configuration of the space element began at a low level in FY95. A the reliability of the lidar system alignment
instrument. novel derotator was invented by engineers may be improved. Furthermore, compo-
at the University of Alabama in Huntsville nents may be separated for electromagnetic
The backscattered photons must be (UAH), who have applied for a patent. interference (EMI), heat removal, or other
collected and well aligned with the LO Further refinement will continue in FY97 reasons, rather than being forced close
photons in direction, curvature, and as part of an overall optical subsystem together on one optical bench. The MSFC
polarization. In the case of a continuously design. DCF has been enhanced during FY96 to
rotating scanner, the 2 to 3 rn/sec round trip allow study of the performance of optical
time of light to the atmosphere and back Optical fibers may be used instead of free- fibers for 2-btm coherent detection. Several
will produce an error in alignment when space propagation for some or all of the candidate components have been procured
the backscattered photons enter the lidar photon paths within the coherent lidar and laboratory measurements have recently
through the scanner in its new position. system. With the assortment of optical begun.
122
Technology Programs
Conventional means to effect the required are not known. MSFC hopes to receive Optical Instruments," Orlando, FL,
conical scan of the transmitted laser beam funding to develop this technology in April 6, 1994.
include a rotating telescope, a rotating fiat FY97.
mirror, and a rotating wedge. Each of these Sponsor: NASA Headquarters, Office
has disadvantages for space applications Demonstration of successful operation of of Aeronautics
such as mass, volume, electrical power all the developed technologies as a system
requirements for rotation, or center of mass is extremely important for a coherent lidar University Involvement: University of
displacement from axis of rotation. The instrument. MSFC is planning to test each Alabama in Huntsville
recent development of diffractive and new technology individually in a coherent
holographic optical elements (DOE, HOE) lidar system; eventually leading to wind Biographical Sketch: Dr. Michael J.
holds much promise of a significantly profile measurement utilizing all of the Kavaya is chief of the Electro-Optics
lighter and more benign scanner. MSFC novel technology. A novel compact, Branch in the MSFC Astrionics Labora-
began studying and procuring experimental thermally stable coherent iidar beam tory. He received his BSEE from Purdue
HOE's and DOE's in FY95. To date, the expanding telescope has been invented by University, and his MSEE and Ph.D. EE
necessary clear aperture of 50 cm and UAH engineers under contract to MSFC. A from the California Institute of Technol-
preservation of beam quality have not been 25-cm version of the telescope was ordered ogy. He has worked at MSFC since 1991.
demonstrated simultaneously with efficient and was delivered to MSFC in November
deflection of laser light by 30 degrees. of 1996. This will be tested in a coherent
Several promising development efforts are lidar system and then used itself to test the
now underway including a joint effort with other novel technology. Performance will
UAH, a partnership with the Army/ be compared with the predicted perfor-
MICOM, and a NASA SBIR contract. Any mance using the MSFC coherent lidar wind
sufficiently successful HOE or DOE will he measurement computer simulation
tested in a 2-txm coherent lidar system for developed by UAH. The lidar will be used
its performance impact. to collect atmospheric data for NASA
scientists. The 500-mJ-pulse energy will
Just as the optical derotator compensates allow wind and aerosol backscatter
for the continuous rotation of the scanner measurements at much higher altitudes
during the "echo" time of the photons, a than currently possible. Packaging of the
LAC is needed to compensate for the lidar for NASA aircraft science missions is
continuous nadir rotation (orbiting) of the also a possibility.
spacecraft, for the varying scanner and
spacecraft orientation during receipt of the For more information, see our WWW site:
signal photons from the "thick" tropo- http://eo.msfc.nasa.gov
spheric target, and for any misalignment
information available to the control l Kavaya, M.J.: "Instrument and Mission
computer before the return of the signal Design of a Space Doppler Wind Lidar
photons. at NASA." Technical Digest of the ESA
Doppler Wind Lidar Workshop, p. 9,
For the "short" optical wavelength of 2 _tm, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands,
and for larger optical mirror diameters, this Sept. 20-22 1995.
fine-tuning of the transmitter and receiver
axes prevents significant loss of SNR. 2Kavaya, M.J.; Spiers, G.D.; Lobl, E.S.;
MSFC began to study this technology at a Rothermel, J.; and Keller, V.W.: "Direct
low level in FY95, and has contracted with Global Measurements of Tropospheric
UAH engineers to do investigation and Winds Employing a Simplified Coherent
design in FY97. Laser Radar Using Fully Scaleable
Technology and Technique." Paper
It is anticipated that a space lidar will 22t4-31, Proc. SPIE, vol. 2214, pp.
maintain alignment through a combination 237-249. Space Instrumentation and
of passive and active feedback loop Dual-Use Technologies, Session 5 on
techniques. However, the optimum mixture "Faster, Cheaper, Smaller Space Science
of techniques, and the optimum technology
123
Mission Operations
4 MB Texture memory, 4 GB disk, impact The development of several VR applications

Applied Virtual Reality channel option (ICO)). Other additions are currently underway. These include:
at MSFC include Kaiser Electro-Optics VIM • Spacelab stowage reconfiguration
1000 HRpv and VIM 500 pv head-mounted training: The essential feature of this
Joseph P. Hale/E066 displays (HMDs), the StereoGraphics Corp. application is a virtual Spacelab module
205-544-2193 CrystalEyes2 three-dimensional stereo (VSLM). It involves using this VSLM
eyeware (two pair of glasses), the Ascension during the last 6 to 9 months before
E-mail: joe,hale@msfc.nasagov
Technology Corp. "Bird" spatial tracking launch. There are always late changes to
systems (two) and the Crystal River on-board stowage. As changes are made,
Application of virtual reality (VR) technol- Engineering, Inc. Acoustetron II 3D Sound the MSFC Payload Crew Training
ogy offers much promise to enhance and Server. EXOS, Inc., under a Small Business Complex (PCTC) training mockup is
accelerate the development of space Innovative Research (SBIR) Phase II updated. It is desirable to allow the crew
systems infrastructure and operations while contract, developed and delivered a sensing the opportunity to tour the mockup to
simultaneously reducing developmental and and force-reflecting exoskeleton (SAFiRE) "see" the latest stowage configuration.
operational costs. From control center for the hand. This device provides force- This helps to "internalize" the location of
design analyses to extravehicular activity reflecting feedback to the fingers and hand items within the Spacelab module.
(EVA) operations development to mission as the user touches and grabs virtual Unfortunately, as the launch date
and science training for crew and ground objects. Other CAVE laboratory equipment approaches, access to the crew becomes
controllers, VR can provide cost-effective includes SUN Microsystems, Inc. increasingly limited, particularly during
methods to prepare for and conduct space SUNSparc 20 and SUNSparc 10, a the last 3 months when the crew is
flight operations. Panasonic AG-1960 VCR, and the dedicated primarily to the Johnson Space
Videonics MX-I NTSC digital video mixer. Center (JSC).
A VR applications program has been under
development at MSFC since 1989. The
objectives of the MSFC VR applications
program are to develop, assess, validate,
and utilize VR in hardware development,
operations development and support,
mission operations training and science
training. 1 One of the goals of this technol-
ogy program is to enable specialized human
factors analyses earlier in the hardware and
operations development process and
develop more effective training and mission
support systems. 2
The MSFC VR systems reside in the

Computer Applications And Virtual
Environments (CAVE) Laboratory. Until
recently, the CAVE Lab VR system (the
"Legacy VR System") consisted of VPL
Research, Inc. Eyephones (Models 1 and
LX), DataGloves, and VPL software
(Swivel 3D, Body Electric, and ISAAC),
Polhemus Isotrak and Fastrac spatial
tracking systems, two Macintosh Ilfx
computers and two Silicon Graphics Inc.
(SGI) graphics computers (4D/310VGX
and 4D/320VGXB). The CAVE Lab VR
capabilities have now been upgraded.
Sense8, Inc. WorldToolKit has replaced the
VPL software. It runs on an SGI Indigo2 FIGURE113._ensing and force-reflecting exoskeleton (SAFIRE) in action. International
High Impact (250 MHz, 128 MB memory, Space Welding Experiment (ISWE) on monitor.
124
Technology
Programs
A VSLM with the updated stowage placed in the classroom (currently a added. Teaching efficacy will continue to
configuration would enable a more Pentium-based PC). A "virtual cadaver" be empirically assessed.
convenient, even remote, method to with abdomino-pelvic organs is being
"visualize" changes in stowage locations. developed. International Space Welding Experiment
Updated VSLM files could even be (ISWE) analytical tool and trainer: The
electronically transmitted to JSC for the Modeling and functional evaluation on objectives of this project are to develop,
crew to "tour" on the JSC VR system. To the Legacy VR System is complete. evaluate, and utilize a VR application of
further enhance this training application, Portage to WorldToolKit for Windows the ISWE for use in support of upcoming
using both the MSFC and JSC VR and Pentium PC is complete. In the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (NBS) tests
systems simultaneously, the users could coming year, more organs and a skeleton and in training the flight crew and POCC
enter and interact within the same VSLM will be added to the model. Three- cadre in general orientation, procedures,
at the same time, even though they are dimensional sound will be added to the and location, orientation, and sequencing
physically located in different states. This major organs. An empirical study of the welding samples and tools. Since
would permit, for example, a mission comparing the learning of gross anatomy some of the hardware and operational
specialist at JSC to be accompanied by in the VR human cadaver versus the analyses have already occurred in the
the stowage manager or a payload current method of instruction will also NBS, ISWE will serve as a test case for
specialist at MSFC for the stowage occur during the coming year. Assess- this technology. Analytical results from
"walk-thru." ments will include whether the students the NBS and VR can be compared. The
learned faster, gained a deeper level of 1SWE is a cooperative venture between
The pathfinder Spacelab for this VR understanding, and/or had longer the Paton Welding Institute of the
application is the second International retention. In subsequent years, more Ukraine and MSFC. It will involve the
Microgravity Lab (IML-2). A VSLM detail (subdivided organs, texture use of an existing Ukrainian electron
with two "stocked" lockers has been mapping, etc.) and networking will be beam welder to be located in the cargo
developed along with application-unique
kinematic and object behavior attributes.
Modeling and functional evaluation on

the Legacy VR System is complete.
Porting to the new VR system and further
enhancements (including expanded
functionality, texture mapped photos
from the PCTC mockups, etc.) are
planned. Analog empirical studies as well
as crew and Payload Operations Control
Center (POCC) cadre assessments are
proposed. Evolution to the International
Space Station (ISS) U.S. lab element is
proposed.
• VR human anatomy teaching: The

objectives of this project are to develop,
evaluate, and utilize a VR application of a
human cadaver for use in the classroom.
The expectation is that this immersive
learning environment affords quicker
anatomic recognition and orientation and
a greater level of retention in human
anatomy instruction. This is a pathfinder
for developing and assessing VR
applications to be used for science
training. A unique feature of this project
is that the target platform must be FIGURE114.--Immersive VR with head-mounted display and DataGIove.
inexpensive enough to be affordably
125
bay of the orbiter. The ISWE is planed for Several future VR applications are being Alabama A&M, Huntsville, AL; Calhoun
flight as an element of the fourth United pLanned. These include: Community College, Decatur, AL;
States Microgravity Payload Mission • A microgravity science glovebox (MSG) University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
(USMP-4), currently scheduled for analytical tool for use in training the
October 1997. flight crew and POCC cadre in general Biographical Sketch: Joe Hale is team
orientation and procedures, as well as for leader of the Human Engineering and
Teleoperations using virtual reality: The use in design analyses and operations Analysis Team in the Mission Operations
ISS modules will be linked together using development; and Laboratory. He received a B.A. in psychol-
devices known as "common berthing ogy from the University of Virginia in 1976,
mechanisms" (CBM's), the mating Further development and assessment of an M.S. in applied behavior science
portions of which must be aligned within the use of immersive VR for ISS payload (psychology) from Virginia Tech in 1981,
plus-or-minus 1 in and plus-or-minus training for the flight crew and POIC and an M.S. in systems management from
one half-degree on each axis prior to cadre. Of particular interest is the the Florida Institute of Technology in 1990.
activation of the automatic closure latches capability of remote, multiperson, He developed and currently directs the
which draw the two station elements interactive simulations and the ease with MSFC Computer Applications And Virtual
together. In the current design, position- which training simulators can be Environments (CAVE) Laboratory which
ing of the elements is performed by either reconfigured to support increment- includes the MSFC immersive virtual
the Shuttle or Station RMS (remote specific integrated training. This activity reality laboratory and test-bed. Hale is also
manipulator system) under man-in-the- plans to make advances in four classes of a certified human factors professional
loop control from on board the Shuttle payload training for the flight crew and (CHFP) (Board of Certification in Profes-
nor Station. Unfortunately, neither a POIC cadre. These classes are: Payload sional Ergonomics).
direct or video view of the berthing systems, facility systems, element spatial
interface from useful vantage points is orientation and stowage configuration,
available in most scenarios. and science education.
This project proposes an alternative LHale, J.E: "Marshall Space Flight Center's
control scheme which involves replace- Virtual Reality Applications Program". In
ment of the boresight camera with a Proceedings, 1993 Conference on
precision video alignment sensor (already Intelligent Computer-Aided Training and
developed for autonomous rendezvous Virtual Environment Technology, pp.
and docking), which would provide the 271-276, NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson
CBM relative position and attitude data Space Center, Houston, TX, 1993a.
to a real-time computer graphics system
generating stereoscopic views of the 2Hale, J.P.: "Virtual Reality as a Human
mechanisms and their surroundings. Factors Design Analysis Tool". In
These views would be presented to the Proceedings, Southeastern Simulation
operator using a head-coupled head- Conference, pp. 140-144, Huntsville,
mounted display, creating a sense of AL, 1993b.
visual presence in the manipulator
workspace. The operator will thus be able 3NuU, C.H. and Jenkins, J.E (Eds.): NASA
to see the mechanisms depicted from any virtual environment research, applica-
useful vantage point desired simply by tions, and technology. NASA, 1993.
navigating to and looking in that relative
direction. RMS handcontrollers have Sponsors: International Space Welding
been integrated with the CAVE Labora- Experiment; Microgravity Science
tory VR system and linked with a high- Glovebox; Equal Opportunity Office;
fidelity simulation of the Shuttle RMS Center Director's Discretionary Fund;
performing Space Station element Summer Faculty Fellowship Program;
berthing. Further refinements and tests Community College Enrichment Program;
are planned. Engineering Technology Base
University/Industry Involvement: Boeing;

Antares; Oakwood College, Huntsville, AL;
126
Technology Programs
Polymer Waveguide Waveguide couplers were fabricated and will be required for effective optical
analyzed for structural accuracy, output- interconnections between electronic
Output Couplers beam accuracy, and output efficiency. The components. Rectangular relief diffraction
results for the two different materials are gratings were investigated as a method of
MichaelD.Watson/E036 compared. Applications for these couplers providing efficient nonplanar coupling. In
205-544-3186 include data bus and clock distribution addition, efficient integration of optical and
E-maihmike.watson@msfc.nasa.gov system interfaces requiring coupling to out- electronic components requires compatible
of-plane detectors. material and fabrication processes. Optical
HelenCole/EB52 polymers were evaluated for electronic
205-544-6790 This research was conducted as a joint component compatibility, fabrication
E-mail:helen.cole@msfc.nasagov effort between MSFC and the U.S. Army repeatability, and optical device efficiency.
Missile Command Weapons Sciences
Directorate Research, Development, and Gratings were fabricated in both the NOA
Researchers are currently investigating Engineering Center. The research was and Amoco materials with 1 I.tm feature
numerous applications of optics to informa- initiated in March 1994 and concluded in sizes. Figure 117 illustrates the expected
tion processing problems. Integrated optics, March 1996. The research was supported by output angles for the fundamental mode of
in particular, is being researched as a MSFC under a Center Director's Discre- either material.
mechanism to increase information tionary Fund activity in the area of binary
exchange speeds and capacities beyond optics. Several characteristics of the fabricated
electronic limitations. To accomplish these couplers were evaluated. These characteris-
increases, optical devices are interspersed The objective of this effort was to design tics include waveguide thickness, output
with electronic devices. This allows and produce waveguide couplers for power, number of output angles, near-field
designers to take maximum advantage of efficient optical coupling between output profile, and the far-field output
the benefits from both optical and electronic nonplanar devices. Couplers of this nature profile. Fundamental mode coupling
technologies. Integrating optical circuits
with electronic circuits requires small
feature sizes, high efficiency to minimize
power consumption, conversion between r
t= A =1
optical and electrical signals, nonplanar
interconnections, and manufacturing
compatibility.
To address the problem of nonplanar

interconnections fabricated in materials WaveguideGuidingRegion(ng)
compatible with electronic fabrication
technology, waveguide output couplers
were designed and fabricated in Norland
Optical Adhesive (NOA) No. 81 and
AMOCO Ultradel 9020D polyimide. The FIGURE115.--Basic relief grating structure.
output couplers were implemented using
periodic relief gratings (fig. 115) on a
planar waveguide (fig. l 16). Design theory
of the couplers was based on the perturba-
tion approach. Coupling of light from
waveguide propagation modes to output Cladding (nc)
radiation modes can be described by
coupled mode theory and the transmission
T
line approximation of the perturbed area ,,,ii,, .eoJon
(.o)
(grating structure). Using these concepts,
gratings were accurately designed to output Substrate (ns)
a minimum number of modes at desired
output angles.
FIGURE116.--Planar waveguide structure.
127
science in engineering in the Electrical and

Computer Engineering Department from the
University of Alabama in Huntsville in
1996.
._0-2(c)
nc 0.-3(_
Dr. Helen J. Cole is an optical physicist in
the Electro-optics Branch of MSFC's
Astrionics Laboratory. She has been a
.z
member of that lab since May of 1991. She
is currently responsible for diffractive optics
research efforts as they relate to MSFC's
participation in a 2-1/2-year DARPA-
l(s)
ng sponsored technology reinvestment project
(TRP) activity. MSFC and MICOM are
e--4(s) partners with four industrial participants
that will consider commercialization issues,
and space and military insertion points for
x_ O---2(s) the technology. Cole holds a B.S. in
mechanical engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, and a Ph.D. in mechanical
engineering from the University of Alabama
FIGURE117.---Coupler output angles for the fundamental waveguide mode. in Huntsville. _,_
efficiencies of 69.39 percent and 74.28 per- 1Watson, M.D.: "Polymer Waveguide
cent were measured for the NOA and Output Couplers". Master's Thesis,
Amoco materials, respectively.l University of Alabama in Huntsville,
1996.
Preliminary results of this research were
presented at the 1995 Society for Photo- 2Watson, M.D.; Abushagur, M.; Ashley, E;
optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Johnson-Cole, H.: Proceedings, SPIE
International Symposium in San Diego, International Symposium, July 1995.
California. These results were published in Application and Theory of Periodic
the conference proceedings. 2 Structures, vol. 2532, pp. 131-140.
There are several applications which could Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary
utilize coupler designs based on this Fund
approach. Among these are optical
interconnections of various types and Biographical Sketches: Michael D. Watson
optical gyroscopes. Using optical coupling is the lead engineer for HOSC Remote
in systems provides several benefits both to Services Systems. He has been a member of
NASA and commercial applications. Using the Mission Operations Laboratory since
the results of this research, efficient April 1989. Currently, he is responsible for
couplers can be designed yielding high defining, designing, and developing remote
bandwidth, electromagnetic interference services systems and concepts for the
(EMI) immunity, negligible beam interfer- Huntsville Operations Support Center
ence, large fanout, higher interconnection (HOSC). These responsibilities address
complexity, and ground loop isolation. services for the Spacelab, Space Shuttle,
These characteristics may be used to International Space Station, and Advanced
simplify systems and reduce weight of both X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF).
space and other commercial applications. Watson earned a bachelor of science in
electrical engineering from the University
of Kentucky in 1987 and a master of
128
Technology Programs
Expert System Software Corporation. The broad objective of this Users were provided data via graphic
G2-based application was to demonstrate interfaces on any off-nominal conditions
Assistantfor Payload the enhancements and cost savings that can that occurred on orbit. The focus of the tool
Operations Control Team be achieved through expert system software was to demonstrate payload command and
utilization payload operations in a ground control efficiency improvements through
control center. Spacelab provided a valuable the use of "smart" software which monitors
Mark N. Rogers/E026
proving ground for this advanced software flight telemetry, provides enhanced
205-544--6969
technology--a technology that will be schematic-based data visualization, and
E-mail: mark.rogers@msfc.nasa.gov exploited and expanded for future Interna- performs advanced engineering data
tional Space Station operations. analysis. Features for the STS-75 mission
Richard Mark McElyea/E026
included schematic-based monitoring of
205-544-2034
So, when the STS-75 mission launched on 512 telemetry readings using an intuitive
E-mail: mark.mcelyea@msfc.nasa.gov
February 22, 1996, the operations personnel object-based graphical user interface,
in the POCC welcomed a new member to exception limit monitoring, a messaging
The Payload Operations Control Center their team. This new member was not a system, advanced diagnostics, real-time
(POCC) at MSFC has been the leader in trained engineer, but rather a trained plots, trend analysis, automated malfunction
innovative approaches to payload operations computer. The Operations Execution procedure execution, crew message
since 1987. Beginning with the flight of the Assistant (tEA) expert system accurately downlink, data logging, and quick recall of
Astro-1 Spacelab mission, POCC opera- and tirelessly watched both United States stored telemetry through a near real-time
tions personnel in the Mission Operations Microgravity Payload-3 and Tethered plot utility. The tEA knowledge base was
Laboratory at MSFC have been concerned Satellite System-lR (USMP-3/TSS-IR) hosted on a SunSparc20 workstation which
with operational efficiency and reducing the flight telemetry during the entire mission. received the real-time telemetry via an
cost of Spacelab payload operations, while
maintaining a high level of responsiveness
to the science user's requirements and .... : w&i_m_ ............................
mission needs. A labor intensive area for
flight preparation has been the development
of special software and ground displays to
monitor critical telemetry of payloads and
Spacelab payload support systems.
Additionally, the real-time mission support
task of monitoring this data during flight
has often required two payload system
engineers (PSE) to provide timely and
adequate response to anomalies and to
assess potential problems identified in
telemetry before they develop into major
concerns. In an effort to find better and
more cost effective ways of addressing
these payload operations needs, the Office
for Life and Microgravity Sciences and
Applications at NASA Headquarters
provided funding for an integrated team of
McDonnell Douglas carrier subsystem
experts, Teledyne Brown payload experts,
and NASA MSFC operations control
experts to develop and deploy a mission
software knowledge base using the
McDonnell Douglas Optimized Advanced
System Integration and Simulation tool
developed in the G2 expert system FIGURE118.--Various workspaces provided by the Operations Execution Assistant (OEA)
environment. G2 is a commercially show the schematic-based data visualization which includes animation, the
available product developed by the Gensym reai-Ume data plotting, and the expert system messaging panel.
129
asynchronous data subset that was fed to the In 1996, Rogers received the NASA Special Computerized Prediction
system once per second through a custom Service Award for innovation in the
G2 Standard Interface bridge. The bridge C application of expert systems to payload of Extravehicular Activity
code decoded the raw data block, performed flight operations. Currently, Rogers is a Task Feasibility
engineering units conversion, and passed team member in the Flight Control Branch
changed data into the OEA system. Figure and is responsible for the development of
H. CharlesDischinger,Jr./E066
118 shows a typical OEA tool display. The operations concepts for future NASA
payload projects.
205-544-9526
OEA expert system tool was labeled as
"invaluable" and "indispensable" by the E-mail:c.dischinger@msfc.nasa.gov
POCC operations personnel who used it. In Richard Mark McElyea has been with
the software debrief held after the USMP-3/ Marshall since 1981. Completing his The difficulty of accomplishing work in
TSS-1R mission, Richard Weaver, one of bachelor of science in industrial and extravehicular activity (EVA) is well
systems engineering at the University of documented. It arises as a result of motion
the Payload Systems Engineers from
Teledyne Brown Engineering, stated, "It Alabama in Huntsville, he began his career restraints imposed by a pressurized
would not have been possible for one developing simulation hardware and spacesuit in a near-vacuum and of the
software to support payload flight crew frictionless environment induced in
position (one person) to effectively monitor
all the subsystems for this complex mission training. In 1983, McElyea moved from microgravity. The appropriate placement
had it not been for the OEA tool." The OEA crew training to payload operations control of foot restraints is crucial to ensuring that
was also used successfully on the Life and where he served as operations controller for astronauts can remove and drive bolts,
Microgravity Science (LMS) mission in the Astro-2 mission. Currently, McElyea is mate and demate connectors, and actuate
June 1996 and is being prepared for the a team lead in the Flight Control Branch levers. The location on structural members
Microgravity Science Laboratory mission and is responsible for the development of of the foot restraint sockets, to which the
planned for March 1997. operations concepts for future NASA portable foot restraint is attached, must
payload projects. He was awarded the provide for an orientation of the restraint
In conclusion, expert system technology has NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1995 that affords the astronaut adequate visual
great potential for effective use in the for outstanding leadership in the manage- and reach envelopes.
payload mission operations environment. ment of continuous improvements in
The environment nature of commercial Spacelab operations. D2 Previously, the initial location of these
tools like G2 greatly reduces the manpower sockets was dependent upon the experi-
necessary to develop and deploy payload enced designer's ability to estimate
operations support systems like OEA and placement. The design was tested in a
simultaneously multiplies a single simulated zero-gravity environment; space-
operator's ability to monitor telemetry and suited astronauts performed the tasks with
respond in a timely manner. These kinds of mockups while submerged in water. Crew
systems will become increasingly important evaluation of the tasks based on these
to NASA during the Space Station era as the designs often indicated the bolt or other
need for reduced operations cost increases. structure to which force needed to be
applied was not within an acceptable work
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity envelope, resulting in redesign. The
Sciences; Spacelab Payload Projects Office development of improved methods for
location of crew aids prior to testing would
Industry Involvement: McDonnell result in considerable savings to the design
Douglas Aerospace effort for EVA hardware. Such an effort to
streamline EVA design is especially relevant
Biographical Sketch: Mark N. Rogers has to International Space Station (ISS)
been with Marshall since 1991. Completing construction and maintenance. Assembly
his bachelor of science in electrical operations alone are expected to require in
engineering at the University of Alabama, excess of 400 hr of EVA. Thus, techniques
he began his career developing payload which conserve design resources for
operations concepts for the Space Station. assembly missions can have significant
Rogers has served as experiment computer impact.
operator for the ATLAS-3 mission and as
operations controller for the LMS mission.
130
Technology Programs
An experiment has been conducted at modeled predictions were accepted as

Marshall to test the efficacy of a human correct. This level of accuracy was
modeling software package in placement of considered by the crew to he both high and
foot restraint sockets. An 1SS assembly valuable to test conduct. Marshall is now
mission which is being managed as a refining the models and will compare a new
Marshall payload was used as the experi- set of predictions with crew evaluations in
mental test situation. The mission is the an upcoming test at the NBS.
delivery of the Space Station remote
manipulator system to the U.S. Laboratory INASA-STD-3000; vol. 1. Man-Systems
on Assembly Hight 6A. The robot will be Integration Standards, Rev. B, 1995.
carried to orbit in the orbiter payload bay on
a Spacelab logistics pallet. CAD models of 2pantermeuhl, J.D.: EMU Reach And
the space hardware, including the foot Proximity Modeling Data. LMES-31732,
restraint, were incorporated into the Lockheed Engineering and Sciences
package, and a model of the space suit was Company, Houston, 1995.
acquired and modified for the human
model. Limits of motion were placed on the Sponsor: Space Station Program Office/
suit based on mobility studies published in Payload Projects Office
NASA standards documentation.l.2 A series
of simulations was run, in which the Other Involvement: Johnson Space Center
astronaut model performed bolt-removal
and cable-connection tasks from the foot Biographical Sketch: Charles Dischinger
restraint inserted into sockets placed on the is a human factors engineer in the Mission
hardware. Locations of the sockets based on Training Division of the Mission Operations
these simulations were used to develop Laboratory. He is responsible for human/
neutral buoyancy mockups. An evaluation machine interface design for Marshall
of the design was conducted in the Marshall payloads. He received the M.S. degree in
Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (NBS). A team biology from West Virginia University in
of six astronauts rated each of the tasks for 1981 and has worked for Marshall for
ease of accomplishment. 2 years.
The foot restraint support is jointed to

provide 4 degrees-of-freedom. It can thus
be configured and oriented in different
directions from a given socket. In the course
of the modeling, 9 socket sites were
identified to support the 17 tasks. The
placement of the socket by modeling was
considered successful if the astronaut
evaluators rated the task as acceptable. The
accuracy of the location of the sockets was
94 percent. This is a higher rate of reliabil-
ity than is typically achieved; it resulted in a
time-efficient test, and design changes after
the test were minimized. In addition to
simple placement of the sockets, the
modelers attempted to predict the joint
settings required to reach the task. Success
in this effort results in reduction of test time
and is used to develop on-orbit procedures.
For the four settings, the astronaut evalua-
tors made no changes 79, 78, 78, and
59 percent of the time; in these cases, the
131
Space Environmentsand Effects
SEE Program establishes new plateaus of Two examples of these technology

Space Environments technical capability to reduce the cost of development activities are as follows:
and Effects Program NASA's science and exploration missions
which enables new and more challenging 1)The Ionizing Radiation Environment and
missions. The SEE Program also provides its Effects on Satellites.
Billy Kauffman/EL23
205-544-1418 leading-edge exploratory and focused
technology to promote continued U.S. This effort developed an improved model
E-maih Billy.Kauffman@msfc.nasa.gov
preeminence in space. Figure 119 shows the of the ionizing radiation environment in
relationship to other space flight programs. space and its effects on satellites. It is a
A hazard to all spacecraft orbiting the Earth user-friendly computational tool for use
is the existence of a harsh environment with The objectives of the SEE Program are to by the aerospace community. It estimates
its subsequent effects. Some of these develop, verify, and transfer space environ- single-event effect rates as a guide to:
environmental hazards, such as plasma, ment and effects technologies that are • Electronic parts selection for space-
extreme thermal excursions, ionized required to design, manufacture, and operate craft; and
radiation, and meteoroids result from reliable, cost-effective spacecraft. In order to • Demonstrate compliance of a proposed
natural sources. Others, such as orbital satisfy these objectives, initial research spacecraft design regarding reliability
debris and neutral contamination are proposals were solicited through a NASA and operability.
induced by the presence of spacecraft Research Announcement (NRA) in the areas
themselves. This subsequently can produce of engineering environmental definitions, 2) Development of Design Standards and
damaging or even disabling effects on environments and effects guidelines, Guidelines for Electromagnetic Compat-
spacecraft, its materials, and its instru- assessment models and data bases, and ibility and Lightning Protection for
ments. In partnership with industry, flight/ground simulation/technology Spacecraft Utilizing Composite
academia, and other Government agencies, assessment data. Utilizing a peer review Materials.
the Space Environments and Effects (SEE) process that included nongovernmental
Program defines the space environments reviewers, 18 proposals were selected for This effort will develop design guidelines
and advocates technology development to initial funding. Each winning proposal was relating to electrical bonding, shielding,
accommodate or mitigate these harmful assigned to a NASA Center based on the fault current carrying capability, and
environments on spacecraft; hence the residence of the Technical Working Group lightning protection for aircraft and
technology is transferred to spacecraft chairperson for that particular discipline aerospace vehicles using composite
developers for incorporation in design. The under which the proposal was categorized. materials. The guidelines will contain the
results of the following:
• Development of a data base that
identifies electrical properties of
nonmetallic composite materials
I esearch Programs used on spacecraft, satellites, and
aircraft;
/ Research l • Results of tests to determine fault
carrying current capability of selected
materials; and
• Results of simulated lightning tests to
Technology development and demonstration programs:
determine effects of high currents
update models, data bases, design guidelines; perform flight
especially across joints in
experiments to demonstrate & develop technology
composite materials.
o_pemtllnsert technology Most of the 18 activities are 3 years in

Key:
into design and / duration ending in 1997. As the SEE
Program receives the technology
ons pro_e, deliverables, the program actively pursues
and Effects Program
the integration of these new technologies
Space Focus
Environment
Design and Operations Programs into spacecraft design.
Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics

FzGunz119.--Relationship to other programs.
132
Technology Programs
Biographical Sketch: Billy Kauffman is an

aerospace engineer working with AST,
studying the flight vehicle atmospheric
environment. In this position, he plans,
coordinates, and participates in engineering
research activities as they apply to NASA's
SEE Program. Kauffman establishes liaison
with management and technical echelons of
other laboratories and offices of MSFC,
NASA Headquarters, other NASA Centers,
government agencies and private industry
involved in the SEE Program. He also
participates in research studies relative to
the improvement of engineering models and
guidelines, develops publications and
provides forums that aid in the transfer of
technical information within the NASA
SEE community. Kaufman earned his B.S.
degree in mechanical engineering in
December 1987 at the University of
Alabama in Huntsville.
133
MicrogravityScience
Germanium Directional The growth and solidification of materials Gallium-doped single-crystalline germa-
implies a temperature gradient across a nium was chosen as a model substance
Solidification in United solid/melt interface in pure materials, and since its thermo-physical properties are well
additional solute concentration gradients in understood. In this growth system, the
States Microgravity doped semiconductors. However, such passage of well-defined electrical pulses of
Laboratory-2 temperature and solute gradients in a approximately 20A/cm 2 current density
normal gravitational field induce free across the solid-melt interface of the
convection in the melt, and the accompany- solidifying crystal introduces localized
Charles R. Baugher/ES71
ing generation of changes in density and changes in the dopant segregation behavior
205-544-7417
latent heat of fusion at the interface at the interface (interface demarcation).
E-mail: charles.baugher@msfc,nasa.gov
strengthen or weaken these gradients.
Special Notice: This research task is being Although nontrivial -- the heights of the
performed as a part of the cooperative These gradients and the propagation interface demarcation lines to be observed
agreement fi_r microgravity research velocity of the interface are coupled in a are in the nanometer range -- differential
between MSFC, the Universities Space complex way to the shape of the solid/melt interference contrast optical techniques
Research Association, and the University interface during the solidification process. fairly readily resolve these features on
of Alabama, Huntsville. The principle This dictates strict control of the thermal highly polished and carefully etched crystal
investigator for the investigation is: and solute environment in the melt, crystal, segments grown, and thus allow the
Man fred Lichtensteiger/USRA and the containment ampoule inserted in the determination of the shape of the interface.
205-544-7798 processing cartridge in the CGE Hence, it is With knowledge of the pulse repetition rate,
E-mail: manfred@mgrav l.rnsfc.nasa.gov mandatory to develop a thorough under- these interface demarcation lines can be
standing of the thermal properties involved used to measure the instantaneous micro-
in the solidification process prior to scopic growth rates throughout the grown
The primary purpose of this task is an attempting any correlation of a ground- material. The accompanying microphoto-
assessment of the change from crystal based crystal growth experiment to its graph (fig. 120) demonstrates the power
growth furnace (CFG) to gravity gradient duplicate in a microgravity environment. of this technique: It shows a segment of the
(GG) attitude during the second United
States Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2)
mission in an otherwise steady-state growth
system using the demonstrated capabilities
of the interface demarcation technique
which are briefly outlined below. Thus, it
will be possible for the first time to quantify
a tolerable deviation of the space shuttle
microgravity environment from ideal
microgravity conditions. This information
should prove useful in defining parameters
for future materials processing in space.
Materials processing in space is an

important aspect of the commercial
utilization of the space environment by
taking advantage of the tremendous
reduction of the gravitational force acting
on a crystal growth system (microgravity
environment), representing a decisive
advantage for producing high-quality
crystalline materials. The production of
such high-quality crystals in space process-
ing invariably implies defect-free large
crystals without compositional inhomoge-
neities.
FIGURE120.--Meltback interface.
136
_IOlOlo IOIOIOlO IOIOIOIO _OIO IOIOIOIOIOIOIO_
ResearchPrograms
initial 15 min of regrowth with a portion of University Involvement: Massachusetts

the Czochralski grown rotational striations, Institute of Technology
Utilizing Controlled
the original meltback interface as a narrow Vibrations in a Microgravity
white band, and the increasingly spaced Biographical Sketch: Charles Baugher is a
interface demarcation lines.
Environment to Understand
materials scientist and deputy division chief
in the Microgravity Science and Applica- and Promote Micro-
Complemented by high-resolution electrical tions Division of Space Sciences Labora-
measurements (spreading resistance tory. His recent research has been in the structural Homogeneity
profiling) which yield information on area of defining the low-level acceleration During Floating-Zone
localized dopant concentration changes, environment of the Space Shuttle during
instantaneous growth rate changes can be microgravity experimentation and in Crystal Growth
correlated with dopant segregation behavior. studying effects of that environment on
This information can be used in the solution materials processing. He has been published Charles R. Baugher/ES71
of the equations describing solidification in the areas of electromagnetic propagation 205-544-7417
processes in terms of heat transfer and fluid in plasmas, the interactions of plasmas with E-maih charles.baugher@msfc.nasa.gov
dynamics: First, the so-called Stefan spacecraft, astronomical observations in the
problem in which solely the effects of the infrared, and the morphology of the Earth's
thermal gradients on the speed and shape of magnetosphere. Special Notice: This research task is being
the crystal/melt interface are analyzed. performed as a part of the cooperative
Next, the combined effects of both the
agreement for microgravity research
solute gradients and the temperature between MSFC, the Universities Space
gradients are analyzed. In addition, the Research Association, and the University
formation of morphological instabilities due of Alabama, Huntsville. The principle
to small departures from the theoretical investigator for the investigation is:
limits of the energy and mass fluxes must Richard IV. Grugel/USRA
also be examined, since they can lead to the 205-544-9165
formation of non-planar or even unstable
oscillatory interfaces. Finally, the "rubber Solidification processing with the floating-
band effect", i.e. the degree of coupling of zone method is an established technique for
the growth system with the furnace, both at
growing semiconductor crystals. Advantages
the onset and during directional solidifica- include a self-contained melt which
tion using these techniques must be minimizes the introduction of impurities and
analyzed, and explained. thermal stresses. Unfortunately, inherent to
processing is the development of detrimen-
Preliminary results on one of the crystals tal thermocapillary flow. Consequently,
grown during mission USML-2 which crystal quality should improve during float-
included a translation arrest during a period zone processing if convective flow within
of 90 min, i.e. one orbital period, clearly the liquid volume is minimized. The
define the change over from steady-state objective, therefore, of this proposed
growth conditions to stationary fluctuations, experimental and theoretical investigation is
followed by a transient growth region upon to utilize vibration driven surface streaming
resumption of growth. These results also flows in an effort to negate the effects of
indicate a very gradual change in the thermocapillary convection. A schematic
interface shape upon completion of the representation of the experimental apparatus
change of attitude maneuver. A three- is shown in figure 121. The processing para-
dimensional reconstruction of this event is meters will be evaluated with the intent of
in progress. optimizing microstructural homogeneity.
Sponsor: NASA Microgravity Science and The ground-based experimental and

Applications Division theoretical work will concentrate on
defining the role various processing
Industry Involvement: Computer Aided parameters play in promoting microstruc-
Process Engineering, Inc., Wellesley, MA tural uniformity during floating-zone crystal
137
_ I _IIOIOI_IOIOIOIOIOIO
IOIOIOIOIOIO_ _ IOIO_IO IOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOiG_
f lexiglas
r
Jar
Gear_
Motor i a
,, -Moving
I / Heating
Feed_ inV./ Ring
ul
Rod@_
Float_ s
Liquid I _,a =_, Processed
Zone I _ I Sample
II I I II/.-control
Vil_atorl ._ J' II/Panel
. ' "_ TO
_Vacuum
Pump
FtGURE
121..--Schematic representation of
the experimental apparatus. FIGURE122._ross-sectional micrograph FIGURE123.---Cross-sectional micrograph
of a sodium nitrate-barium of a sodium nitrate-barium
nitrate eutectic which has nitrate eutectic which has
growth. In particular float-zone dimensions, been float-zoned without been float-zoned with
aspect ratios, oscillation frequency, and vibration. Note non- vibration. Note overall
amplitude will be evaluated with the intent uniformity between center improvement in uniformity.
of understanding how thermocapillary flow and periphery.
is negated. To this end, work has already
been initiated by utilizing the transparent
sodium nitrate-barium nitrate model system, sedimentation of tracer particles will be Laboratory. His recent research has been in
figures 122 and 123; further insight minimized. Here then is an opportunity to the area of defining the low-level accelera-
regarding crystal homogeneity will be evaluate crystal growth and homogeneity in tion environment of the Space Shuttle
gained by processing sodium nitrate crystals association with a stable and dimensionally during microgravity experimentation and
which have been doped with silver nitrate. optimized floating-zone. The results of this in studying effects of that environment
This ground-based work would then be study could well demonstrate a novel and on materials processing. He has been
extended to the microgravity environment inexpensive way of considerably improving published in the areas of electromagnetic
of space where the effect of thermocapillary crystal uniformity. propagation in plasmas, the interactions of
flow on crystal homogeneity may be studied plasmas with spacecraft, astronomical
in an optimized floating-zone. Shen, X.F.; Anilkumar, A.V.; Grugel, R.N.; observations in the infrared, and the
Wang, T.G.:"Utilizing Vibration to morphology of the Earth's magnetosphere.
Gravity driven flow which occurs during Promote Microstructural Homogeneity P2
float-zone processing is minimized in a During Floating-Zone Crystal Growth
microgravity environment and thus permits Processing." Journal of Crystal Growth,
thermocapillary flow to be singularly vol. 165, pp. 438-446, 1996.
investigated. Here, utilizing incremented
and calibrated vibration, the consequence of Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
flow velocities on microstructure can be Sciences and Applications
controlled and systematically investigated,
not just acknowledged. The microgravity Biographical Sketch: Charles Baugher is a
environment will minimize unit-gravity materials scientist and deputy division chief
induced biases such as static shape in the Microgravity Science and Applica-
distortion and buoyancy flow; furthermore, tions Division of Space Sciences
138
OZOlOlOlOZOlOlOlOlO_olOZOlOlOlOlOlOlO_]
Research Programs
Novel Directional eters for the systems investigated experi- Temperature (°C)
mentally. This will require close interaction 5O
Solidification Processing with the experiment in order to determine
of HypermonotecticAlloys more precisely the role of the various

dynamic processes induced by ultrasound in
these monotectic systems. Experimentally,
Charles R. Baugher/ES71
ultrasound will be utilized to suspend and
205-544-7417
maintain separation of the liquid II
E-maih charles.baugher@msfc.nasa.gov (glycerol) droplets which precipitate from
the bulk once the temperature drops below
Special Notice: This research task is being the miscibility gap boundary so that a
performed as a part of the cooperative uniformly aligned hypermonotectic
agreement for microgravity research composite might actually be produced by
between MSFC, the Universities Space controlled directional solidification. This
Research Association, and the University concept is demonstrated with a hyper-
of Alabama, Huntsville. The principle monotectic, succinonitrile-glycerol mixture,
investigator for the investigation is: figures 124 and 125.
Richard N. Grugel/USRA
205-544-9165 The systematic, controlled directional 105
solidification, experimental investigation
Time (min)
The proposed investigation has several will utilize a series of alloy compositions
scientific objectives which will be realized ranging from the monotectic reaction to
by conducting a systematic experimental FnGuae125.--Photograph showing a well-
well into the miscibility gap. Two sample
investigation in conjunction with a thorough maintained dispersion of the
sets will be investigated, one in conjunction
modeling effort. The theoretical study will with ultrasonics and one, otherwise liquid II phase in the presence
develop a semiquantitative predictive model of an applied ultrasonic field.
identically processed, without. Metallo-
relating microstructure to process param- graphic examination will provide informa-
tion regarding phase spacings, phase

Temperature (°C) distributions, and volume fractions. The
model will pay particular attention to the
73.8 67.3 50.7
nature of the ultrasonic waves, including
reflection and refraction of longitudinal
waves and the two-liquid phase boundary,
and on the importance of standing waves.
Evaluation of the model and analysis of the
data will provide valuable guidelines for
optimizing a microgravity experiment.
Subsequent examination of the processed

samples will promote our understanding of
diffusion and coalescence processes, liquid-
liquid interactions, wetting phenomena, and
microstructural development. The liquid
volume fraction ultrasonics can maintain
dispersed versus the coalescing (settling)
force imposed by gravity will be determined
and then evaluated whether or not this could
0 9 45
be improved upon in a microgravity
Time (rain) environment. The value of this work will be
a demonstration and mathematical charac-
FmuRz124.--Time sequence as a function of decreasing temperature showing terization of a novel solidification process-
precipitation and settling of liquid II (glycerol) from the bulk liquid. ing technique. The knowledge acquired
139
from investigating model alloys might then A Demonstration to crystal growth from melts tend to be
be applied to technologically relevant especially susceptible to the spacecraft
miscibility gap systems, e.g., Experiment to Study acceleration environment, generally referred
to as g-jitter, and great care has to be
superconducting Cu-Ba-Y, with the the Effects of Spacecraft
potential of producing novel composites exercised in minimizing its deleterious
having improved properties. Vibrations on Thermal effects. The objective of this investigation
was to develop a simple scientific experi-
Diffusion
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity ment that would provide a rigorous
Sciences and Applications experimental basis for assessing the actual
Charles R. Baugher/ES71 influence of jitter on thermal buoyancy
Biographical Sketch: Charles Baugher is a 205-544-7417 driven convection. It employed very simple
materials scientist and deputy division chief E-mail: charles.baugher@msfc.nasa.gov geometry, in a well understood circum-
in the Microgravity Science and Applica- stance, to allow materials science investiga-
tions Division of Space Sciences Labora- A fundamental and intrinsic objective of a tors to verify analytical and numerical
tory. His recent research has been in the microgravity experiment, especially a models currently utilized for design and
area of defining the low-level acceleration crystal growth or materials processing theoretical studies in a wide range of
environment of the Space Shuttle during experiment, is to obtain diffusion limited experiments. Its design, build, testing and
microgravity experimentation and in growth conditions. Experiments pertaining integration was achieved in a record
studying effects of that environment on
materials processing. He has been published
in the areas of electromagnetic propagation
in plasmas, the interactions of plasmas with •, 5.99 in ID
spacecraft, astronomical observations in the

infrared, and the morphology of the Earth's
magnetosphere. _,_
(3
O
E
t'_
I Mirror
i Cell
I
I
T
4.5in
_---_ ..... 4.... , F]
9.25 in \ i i i =l_l
_,. _x 1 I I O_ i r-I
\\I ' ' "l_l
\N--- -r,.... a_. -9 I
©
<
n
% Lens
'4
8.25 in
FIGURE126._chematic representation of the Mlchelson Intederometric system

showing component layout adapted to fit STABLE space constraints.
140
ResearchPrograms
5 months duration using essentially off-the- Conference, Brekenridge, CO, Feb. 7-11,
shelf components and minimal costs. 1996, AAS 964)71.
A schematic diagram of the experiment Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary

called "Chuck" is shown in figure 126. As Fund.
the figure shows, the entire unit is compact
so that it could be integrated with the University/Industry Involvement:
STABLE (suppression of transient events by Universities Space Research Association;
levitation) vibration isolation platform that Mevatec Corporation
flew on the United States Microgravity
Laboratory-2 (USML-2) mission in Biographical Sketch: Charles Baugher is a
October 1995. The unit was designed to be materials scientist and deputy division chief
modular and flexible so that not only Fenuae127.--Interferograms from in the Microgravity Science and Applica-
different optical diagnostic configurations "Chuck" operation in tions Division of Space Sciences Labora-
could be easily realized for studying space and on Earth. Note tory. His recent research has been in the
different scientific phenomena, but also the the marked contrast area of defining the low-level acceleration
unit could easily fit into the middeck/Space between the two runs and
environment of the Space Shuttle during
Station gloveboxes or the Canadian the presence of microgravity experimentation and in
microgravity isolation mount (MIM). convective plumes in the studying effects of that environment on
Figure 126 shows two cell locations, one of ground experiment. materials processing. He has been published
which is the experiment cell and the other is in the areas of electromagnetic propagation
the optical path compensating cell used in in plasmas, the interactions of plasmas with
the Michelson interferometer configuration. "Chuck" was a unique experiment that was spacecraft, astronomical observations in the
The test cell consisted of an optical quality simple, modular and showed that a rugged infrared, and the morphology of the Earth's
glass cell (4 cm by 4 cm by 1 cm), pre-filled flight science instrument could be built in a magnetosphere.
with 0.8 halocarbon oil, and outfitted with a very short time with relatively minimal cost
uniform heat flux surface at the bottom of using essentially off-the-shelf components.
the cell (length 1.3 cm). At activation, It is a high-resolution interferometric
power is applied to the heater. The progress system that can be used for optical
and profile the thermal front is monitored diagnostics (to obtain qualitative and
by a combination of thermistors and the quantitative information) of different
optical interferometric system and the scientific phenomena. It contributed
temperatures, interferograms and accelera- advanced design data on optics investiga-
tion data are recorded for future analysis. tions (such as protein crystal growth)
The experiment time line is about 15 min at through the early solution of several
a power level of 0.5 to 1 W followed by a engineering problems relating to the
sufficiently long cooling time (45 min) application of laser diodes and optics to
between runs. Due to the fairly quick small flight experiments.
system response, four different experiment
runs were planned and executed; two runs IRamachandran, N.; Baugher, C.R.; Rogers,
without vibration isolation (hard mounted J.; Peters, E; Roark, W.; Pearcy, G.:
so that the experiment was subjected to the "Thermal Diffusion Experiment
spacecraft acceleration environment) and 'Chuck'--Payload of STABLE."
two runs with active vibration isolation. Proceedings of SPIE conference on
Figure 127 shows a comparison of the Space Processing of Materials, Denver,
interferometric fringe behavior from the CO, Aug. 4-9, 1996. Ed. N.
experiment in space and on Earth. In the Ramachandran, pp. 367-378.
terrestrial experiment, Earth's gravity
causes thermal buoyancy driven convection, 2Edberg, D.; Boucher, R.; Schenck, D.;
seen in the figure as rising thermal plumes Nurre, G.; Whorton, M.; Kim, Y.; Alhorn,
or blobs. This behavior is absent in the low- D.: "Results of the STABLE Vibration
gravity experiment. Isolation Flight Experiment." 19th
Annual AAS Guidance and Control
141
_JloIo_ODIO IOIOlOIO Io IOIOloIO_Io I oI ololoIOlOloIO IO_ IOIOlOlo;
Particle Engulfmentand ments. Although the metallic systems behavior in the vicinity of the interface.
Initial experiments were done on the NASA
currently have the most important applica-
Pushing at Solidifying tions, transparent systems allow the detailed DC-9 parabolic aircraft. These experiments
Interfaces study of the solidifying interface/particle found that convection level and/or particle
interactions which are important for a buoyancy significantly influences to critical
comprehensive understanding of the velocity for particle engulfment. The critical
Peter A. Curreri/ES75 velocity was found to increase, at the higher
process.
205-544-7763 levels of natural convection, up to 40 per-
E-maih peter.curreri@msfc.nasa.gov The x-ray transmission microscope (XTM) cent. At the highest convection levels the
developed for solidification studies--under particles failed to interact with the solidify-
Obtaining uniform distribution of particles a NASA advanced technology development ing interface. A systematic study of current
in the solid matrix during fabrication is an program--has been utilized at the MSFC's models showed that none could effectively
important issue in the manufacture of metal Space Sciences Laboratory. The instrument quantify the observed convection effects on
matrix composite materials. The main allows the imaging in real-time of particle the critical velocity. These studies will be
interactions in the introduction and pushing and engulfing during solidification. extended to near-convectionless conditions
incorporation of particles into the solid Solid-liquid interfacial interaction with utilizing the middeck glovebox during the
matrix especially when prepared by in-situ particles and voids were studied. Spherical fourth United States Microgravity Labora-
solidification are influenced by gravitational zirconia spheres 30 to 60 tim are clearly tory Mission scheduled for launch in
acceleration. The achievement of uniform resolved in aluminum samples 5 mm in October 1997. The microgravity environ-
distribution of particles in the matrix of diameter. The technique allows the ment on orbit will allow the observation of
these materials can only be achieved by monitoring of critical velocities for pushing particle pushing in steady-state conditions.
understanding and controlling the particle and engulfment while monitoring the
interface interaction that determine when a interfacial morphologies in-situ to test The initial Shuttle flight experiments for
particle is pushed or engulfed by the theory. Recent theory predicts the interfacial PEP metal matrix samples were done during
solidifying interface. curvature response to approaching particles the Life and Microgravity Sciences
or voids can be significant for metallic Spacelab mission in July 1996, utilizing the
The Solidification Laboratory at The systems. The XTM was also utilized to help European advanced gradient heating
University of Alabama (Dr. Doru select from candidate samples the metal/ furnace. The PEP, flight complement
Stefanescu, principal investigator) in ceramic particle samples for flight experi- contained three samples. The first two with
collaboration with co-investigators at ments. pure aluminum matrix and 500 I,tm ZrO 2
MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory are spherical particles. The third had A1-Ni
performing both experimental and theoreti- Transparent matrix samples of biphenyl eutectic alloy matrix and 500 I.tm ZrO 2
cal work determining the critical velocity of matrix containing glass particles, and spherical particles. The thermal objectives
engulfment of particles at a solidifying succinonitrile matrix containing spherical of the experiment were successfully
interface. polystyrene particles are being studied to satisfied. The samples are to be delivered to
quantify how liquid convection ahead of the the investigator team for analysis in fall
The objectives of the particle engulfment solidifying interface alters the particle 1996.
and pushing at solidifying interfaces, PEP,
project are to gain a fundamental under-
standing of the physics of solidifying metal-
ceramic particle systems, and to investigate
the melt processing of metal matrix
composites in the microgravity environment
to obtain vital data for the processing of
these important materials for terrestrial
industry.
The experimental approach involves

ground, aircraft low-gravity and orbital
Pushing Engulfment
microgravity experiments that will compare
data to comprehensive analytical and
numerical models. Both metal and transpar-
ent matrices are to be used for the experi- FIGURE128.---Dynamics of particle-interface interaction.
142
_ _lol_olololol@l@IoloIo IololoIo_@I@Iolololo _ Io_o_
Research Programs
Sen, S., Dhindaw, B.K.; Stefanescu, D.M.;

Fundamental Studies
and Curreri, EA.: "Melt Convection
Effects on the Critical Velocity of Particle of Solidification Using
Engulfment." Accepted for publication in
Journal of Crystal Growth, Aug. 1996.
Real-Time X-Ray
Microscopy
Sen, S., Dhindaw, B.K.; Stefanescu, D.M.;
and Curreri, EA.: "Melt Convection
Peter A. Curreri/ES75
Effects on the Critical Velocity of
205-544-7763
Engulfment in the Biphenyl/Glass
E-maih peter.curreri@msfc.nasa,gov
Particles System." Presented at the Eighth
International Symposium on Experimen-
tal Methods for Microgravity Materials Physical processes which occur at, or near,
Science, Feb. 4-8, 1996, Anaheim, CA, the solid-liquid interface during solidifica-
125 TMS Annual Meeting, to be tion or other phase transformations,
published in proceedings. partially determine important properties of
solids. To date, interfacial morphologies and
Sen, S., Kaukler, W.; Curreri, E; and particle-interface interactions in the
FIGURE129.mA1-18 in solid/liquid interface
Stefanescu, D. M.: "Dynamics of Solid/ respective metallic, optically opaque growing at 12.4 _m/sec in a
Liquid Interface Shape Evolution Near an systems have been deduced from post- 45 °C/cm temperature
Insoluble Particle." Submitted to process metallographic analyses of gradient showing solute
Metallurgical Transactions, October specimens. Thus, little information is rejection to the liquid after
1996. obtained about the detailed dynamics of the the step increase of
processes. translation rate.
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
Sciences and Applications We are developing a high-resolution x-ray
microscope to view, in-situ and in real-time, mm) which is contained in a specially
University Involvement: University of interfacial processes in metallic systems designed, high-transmittance crucible and a
Alabama in Tuscaloosa during freezing or even during solid-solid high-temperature furnace on a translation
transformations. The x-ray transmission stage imposes a temperature gradient onto
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Peter Curreri is a microscope (XTM) operates in the hard the sample. The solid-liquid interface is
materials scientist in the Microgravity x-ray range (10 to 100 keV) and achieves positioned in close proximity to the focal
Science and Applications Division at magnification through projection. We have spot of a microfocus x-ray source. The
MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory. He obtained, using select aluminum alloys, diverging x-ray beam permeates the sample
serves as the United States Microgravity in-situ records of the evolution of interface and the resulting shadow falls on an x-ray
Payload mission scientist. His research morphologies with characteristic lengths as image converter. The resulting visible image
focuses on solidification processes for small as 25 p-m, interfacial solute accumula- is converted to a digital image by a CCD
metals, alloys and composite materials tion (fig. 129) and formation of droplets. camera and stored in a computer. This
utilizing the unique properties of low and image is displayed on a high resolution
microgravity. Curreri earned his Ph.D. With metallic and semiconducting samples, monitor, either in real-time or after further
degree in materials and metallurgical the penetration of macroscopic layers processing (contrast enhancement,
engineering at the University of Florida. requires photon energies in excess of filtering, etc.).
He has worked for NASA for 15 years. 10 keV. This precludes the use of optical
approaches for imaging. Only projection At typical solidification rates, motion-
radiography can be practically employed in induced blurring limits the exposure time to
this energy range of over 10 keV. Projection a few seconds. With state-of-the-art x-ray
radiography uses the divergence of the image intensifier/camera combinations, a
beam from a small source. The ultimate magnification on the detector of some
resolution is limited by the diameter of the 20 times is the minimum required to obtain
SOurce. a spatial resolution of 10 I.tm. Such
resolution is needed to see the dendritic
The major components of the system structures formed in solidifying metals.
include a metal sample (thickness of order
143
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
2OO profiles.
180
Curreri, P.A.; and Kaulder, W.: "Real-Time
160
X-Ray Transmission Microscopy of
140 Solidifying Ai-ln Alloys." Metallurgical
Transactions 27A, no. 3, pp. 801-808,
1996.
100
120
80 Curreri, P.A.; Kaukler, W.: "Real-Time
60 X-Ray Transmission Microscopy of
Solidifying Al-ln Alloys." Presented at
40
The Metallurgical and Materials Society
20--
Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, NV,
o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I t I I Feb. 12-16, 1995; published in Proceed-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
ings of the Seventh International
Position Symposium on Experimental Methods
for Microgravity Materials Science, pp.
FIGURE130._ptical intensity (absorption) profile along the line in A) crossing the 93-101, Robert Schiffman, Ed., The
solute layer and interface. Solute gradient is clearly seen on the left Minerals, Metals and Materials Society,
part of the graph. Increasing in content represents increased 1995.
absorption. The diffuse interface region is in the marked area. Note the
solute layer is not uniform along the length of the interface. Curreri, P.A.; Kaukler, W.:"X-Ray Trans-
mission Microscopy Study of the
Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfacial
Of course such observations require train becomes much smaller than the Breakdown During Metal Alloy Solidifi-
sufficient contrast (difference in absorp- original image contrast. This can only be cation." Presented at the Eighth Interna-
tance) between features to be resolved and (partly) compensated for if the dynamic tional Symposium on Experimental
the retention of this contrast by the imaging range of the imaging train is high enough Methods for Microgravity Materials
devices (x-ray converter, image intensifier, and if the lowest intensities of interest Science, February 4-8, 1996, Anaheim,
camera, recording device). We found that remain above the noise of the system. CA, 125 TMS Annual Meeting, to be
employing higher magnifications than published in proceedings.
required by simple resolution arguments, We have been using a conventional x-ray
image intensifier coupled to cooled (visible Kaukler, W.K.; Curreri, EA.: "X-Ray
provide an improved response in detecting
low-contrast features. In monocomponent light) CCD camera of 12 to 16 bits dynamic Transmission Microscopy of AI-Pb
metallic systems, contrast between solid and range. The intensifier offers at best, a 10-bit Monotectic Alloys During Directional
melt is determined by the (electron cloud) dynamic range (1 part in 1,000). Evaluation Solidification." Presented at the Eighth
density of the two phases resulting in less of new CCD x-ray converter and camera International Symposium on Experimen-
than 2 percent radiographic (image) technology was performed using radiation tal Methods for Microgravity Materials
contrast. In alloy systems, solute segrega- hardened CCD's as a direct conversion, Science, February 4-8, 1996, Anaheim,
tion can provide further contrast enhance- hard x-ray detector. Comparisons between CA, 125 TMS Annual Meeting, to be
ment. The magnitude of contrast is these and phosphor-coated CCD's were published in proceedings.
proportional to the difference in atomic used to determine the best technologies to

number of the components and their view the low-contrast details of solidifica- Kaukler, W.K.; Curreri, EA.: "'Advancement
concentration. We therefore select the tion. of X-Ray Microscopy Technology and Its
alloys based on x-ray contrast, and we Application to Metal Solidification
Research goals include studying solidifica- Studies." Presented at the 1996 SPIE
employ the highest magnifications
practicable. tion of metals and semiconductors and the Technical Conference in Space Process-
dispersion of reinforcement particles in ing of Materials, August 4, 1996, and
How much of the original image contrast is composites. Features we have already published as paper no. 5 in Proceedings
retained depends on the dynamic range of observed include dendrites and cells, the vol. 2809, Ed. N. Ramachandran, pp.
the detector (imaging train) and the size of effects of voids and particles on the 34-44, 1996.
the features in the object. For small length morphology during solidification of metal
scales, the contrast retained by the imaging matrix composites, and solutal segregation
144
_D _J @ h I _. IOIOIOIO
IOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOIO
IOIOlOIOIOI@IOIOIO_IO IOlOIOIOIOIOIOIO_O_.
Research Programs
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity Solidification of II-VI temperature and a compositional standpoint.
Sciences and Applications
This stability prevents the oscillating
Compoundsin a Rotating temperatures which can give rise to the
University Involvement: University of
Alabama in Huntsville
Magnetic Field formation of inclusions. Indeed, in early
work on a Soviet flight, a dramatic
improvement in inclusion content was
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Peter Curreri is a Donald C. Gillies/ES75
realized when the RMF was switched on
materials scientist in the Microgravity 205-544-9302
midway through the flight.
Science and Applications Division at E-maih donald.gillies@msfc.nasa.gov
MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory. He Due to the nature of the process of
serves as the United States Microgravity The primary aim of this work is to study the solidifying alloys as compared to elements,
Payload mission scientist. His research effects of a rotating magnetic field (RMF) it is necessary to solidify from a zone to
focuses on solidification processes for on fluid flow and solidification of semicon- make full use of the controlled stirring
metals, alloys and composite materials ductor compounds such as mercury capability of the RME The zone enables
utilizing the unique properties of low and cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) and cadmium complete replenishment of the solute
microgravity. Curreri earned his Ph.D. telluride alloys. Control of the liquid component and thus permits the production
degree in materials and metallurgical boundary layer close to the solidifying of a uniform composition alloy. The types
engineering at the University of Florida. He interface has always been and continues to of solidification which will be studied are
has worked for NASA for 15 years. be of paramount interest to material float zone, and the traveling solvent zone,
scientists. The solid product is extremely or traveling heater method (THM). In this
susceptible to the behavior of such a layer program, the float zone research will
and properties such as composition, defect primarily be the responsibility of the
concentration, precipitates and grain University of Freiburg in Germany, while
selection and twinning are dependent on the the THM work will be concentrated at
physical nature of the boundary layer. In MSFC. The alloy chosen for the MSFC
Earth-based solidification, buoyancy driven study is the alloy of 80 percent HgTe and
convection and resultant fluid flows play a 20 percent CdTe, grown from a tellurium-
major role in establishing such a layer; rich zone. This alloy is strategically
indeed many of the flight projects involving important as a sensor material, it is
solidification have had as their major extremely difficult to grow with uniform
objective the establishment of diffusion properties, and it complements ongoing
controlled solidification where the fluid approved flight experiments for the United
flow becomes an insignificant contributor to States Microgravity Payload missions
compositional redistribution in the molten (USMP-2 and USMP--4). Conventional
alloy. THM work on Earth has been able to
produce high, but not premium, quality
The objective of the RMF is exactly the HgCdTe material. Problems have included
opposite. Fluid flow is encouraged and the incorporation of tellurium inclusions,
established by the interaction of the rotating the presence of low-angle grain boundaries,
magnetic field with the electrically and the tendency for the composition to be
conducting melt. The resulting flow cells non-uniform, particularly close to the edges
prevent the formation of any kind of of the wafer. All of these are deleterious to
boundary layer and the material transport in the production of large-scale arrays of
the liquid can be controlled by the strength detector devices. Control of the fluid flow
and frequency of the applied magnetic field. close to the solidifying front will result in a
In practice, field strengths of the order of degree of thermal and transport stability
mT are required. Several advantages can be which will alleviate many of the difficulties
obtained from replacing the boundary layer. associated with conventional THM.
Transport of the alloy species through the
melt is increased by using fluid flow rather Initial modeling of the process has shown
than diffusion so that controlled solidifica- that the interaction of the RMF with natural
tion can be more rapid. The liquid-solid convection makes the interpretation of flow
interface is more stable both from a fields difficult to assess. It is thus important
145
that microgravity experiments be under- Growth of Mercury crystals having large separation between
their liquidus and solidus temperatures. The
taken to verify models. This we propose to
do early in the program. Concurrent with Cadmium Telluride Single important goal is to explore the possible
this we shall grow THM HgCdTe both with advantages of growth in the absence of
Crystals gravity. Such crystals are extremely difficult
and without the application of the RMF and
fine tune the parameters. This work will be to grow on Earth due to large density
done concurrently and in close cooperation
SandorL. Lehoczky/ES71 variations in their melts which give rise to
with modeling efforts to understand the role 205-544-7758 fluid flows that result in large compositional
of the rotating magnetic field and the E-mail:sandor.lehoczky@msfc.nasa.gov variations.
interaction of the field with the solvent zone
both under terrestrial conditions and in a This flight investigation (experiment no. The alloy system being investigated is
microgravity environment. From these MPS77F069) was originally selected based Hg l_zCdx Te with x-values appropriate for
results, we anticipate defining a flight on the response to NASA OA-77-3 infrared detector applications in the 8 to
experiment to verify the science of the Announcement of Opportunity. The content 14 m region. Both melt and Te-solvent
technique. of the effort is based on an amended growth methods as well as growth in
proposal submitted in response to An- magnetic fields are being pursued. The
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity nouncement of Opportunity OSTA-77-3 study consists of flight experimentation and
Sciences and Applications (formerly OA-77-3). Some of the initial ground-based experimental and theoretical
work was done at McDonnell Douglas work needed to establish material properties
University/Industry Involvement: Research Laboratories under contract and optimum experimental parameters for
University of Freiburg, Germany; Com- NAS8-33107. The investigation is consis- the ongoing flight experiment and to assist
puter-Aided Process Engineering, Inc. tent with the committee recommendations material evaluation. Hg l_zCdx Te is
resulting from the "Review of the Micro- representative of several alloys which have
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Donald Gillies gravity Science and Applications Flight electrical and optical properties that can be
has been at MSFC working primarily on Programs" conducted January through compositionally tuned to meet a wide range
crystal growth and characterization of March of 1987. The majority of the ground- of technological applications in the areas of
II-VI compounds. Prior to that, he spent based studies are being performed in the sensors and lasers with applications to
5 years at McDonnell Douglas Microelec- Space Sciences Laboratory at MSFC. In optical computing and communications as
tronics Center in charge of liquid phase addition to crystal growth and characteriza- well as the national defense. The investiga-
epitaxy production of detector grade tion, this work has included thermophysical tion includes both Bridgman-Stockbarger
mercury cadmium teUuride. ___ property determination, thermal modeling, and solvent growth methods, as well as
phase diagram determination, fluid flow growth in a magnetic field. The alloys are
modeling, transient and diffusion analysis, prepared by reacting pure, elemental
and electronic property modeling. The flight constituents in evacuated, sealed, fused-
portion of the investigation is being silica ampoules. The crystals are gown in a
conducted using the advanced directional multizone furnace. The hot zone is heated
solidification furnace (AADSF) developed above the liquidus temperature of the given
by MSFC and manifested for flights on the alloy and the cold zone is maintained at
United States Microgravity Payload lower temperatures to provide temperature
(USMP) series of missions. The first flight gradient sufficient to prevent constitutional
of the instrument took place in March 1994 supercooling. Crystal growth is accom-
on STS-62, and it is manifested to fly on plished by slowly moving the ampoule from
USMP-4 in 1997. The ground-based the hot zone to the cold zone of the furnace.
portion of the experiment consisted of
growing crystals in several different Detailed microstructural and compositional
configurations of heat pipe furnaces, analysis has been completed for the
AADSF, and a similar furnace incorporated approximately 16 cm long Hgo.aCd0.2Te
in a superconducting magnet capable of alloy crystal that was successfully grown
operating up to 5T. 2 over a period of 11 days during the
USMP-2 mission. Equivalent analysis was
The major objective of this research is to done on a series of ground-control crystals.
establish the limitations imposed by gravity The space grown crystal was significantly
during growth on the quality of bulk solid different from crystals grown under similar
146
_oI_I_I_Io_I_I_I_Y_Io_I_I_I_I_I_I_I_o_Io_oI_I_I_IoIo__I_I_I_I_I_oI_IoI_I_
Research Programs
conditions on the ground. 3 One clear Growth of HgCdTe." Journal of Crystal

difference was that there was no hydrostatic Growth, in press, 1996.
Crystal Growth of Selected
force pushing the material against the II-VI Semiconducting Alloys
ampoule wall during the solidification as is 3Gillies, D.C.; Lehoczky, S.L.; Szofran,
the case on Earth. During the mission the ER.; Warring, D.A.; Alexander, H.A.:
by Directional Solidification
orbiter was maneuvered into several "Effect of Residual Accelerations During
different attitudes with the results that the Growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride Dr, Sandor L. Lehoczky/ES71
residual acceleration vector caused by drag (MCT) on the USMP-2 Mission." 205-544-7758
in on the orbiter and the distance of the Journal of Crystal Growth, in press, 1996. E-maihsandor.lehoczky@ssl,msfc.nasagov
ADSF from the center of gravity of the
orbiter was aligned differently with respect Sponsor: Microgravity Science and This research study is investigating the
to the growth axis of the solidifying Applications Division effects of a microgravity environment
material for distinct parts of the mission. during the crystal growth of selected
Significant differences were observed Biographical Sketch: Dr. Sandor Lehoczky II-VI semiconducting alloys on their
during three long, but uninterrupted, periods is the chief of the Microgravity Science and compositional, metallurgical, electrical and
at constant attitude. Compositional Applications Division at MSFC. optical properties. The ongoing work
variations along the crystal circumference includes both Bridgman-Stockbarger and
indicated residual fluid flows for the least
solvent growth methods, as well as growth
favorable vector orientations. Identifiable in a magnetic field. The materials investi-
regions exist in which a transverse vector
gated are II-VI Hg]_ x CdTe, Hgl_ x Zn x Te,
has pushed the material against the ampoule and Hgl_ x Zn x Se (0< × < 1), with particular
wall and allowed it to readily contract away emphasis on x-values appropriate for
from the opposite wall. Such surfaces infrared detection and imaging in the 5- to
showed etch pits produced by preferential 30-_tm wavelength region. Wide separation
evaporation at defect sites. X-ray scattering between the liquidus and solidus of the
showed that the regions pulled away from phase diagrams I (fig. 131) with consequent
the wall tended to be less strained or of segregation during solidification and
higher quality material that the opposite problems associated with the high volatility
surface, and considerably better than the of one of the components (Hg), make the
Earth-grown material. Composition preparation of homogeneous, high-quality,
determination on the surface of the material
bulk crystals of the alloys nearly an
demonstrated significant difference, impossible task in a gravitational environ-
dependent on the direction of the residual ment.
acceleration vector. These are clear
indications of three-dimensional fluid flow. The three-fold objectives of the ongoing
A significant portion of the boule was investigation are as follows:
grown with a component of the vector • To determine the relative contributions of
aligned in a direction from liquid to solid. gravitationally driven fluid flows to the
Synchroton x-ray studies of this material compositional redistribution observed
showed it to be single crystal and of much during the unidirectional crystal growth
less defect density that found in ground- of selected semiconducting solid solution
based growths. alloys having large separation between
the liquidus and solidus of the constitu-
ILehoczky, S.L.; Szofran, ER.; Gillies, tional phase diagram;
D.C.: "Growth of Solid Solution Single • To ascertain the potential role of irregular
Crystals." Second United States Micro- fluid flows and hydrostatic pressure
gravity Payload: One Year Report, ed. by effects in generation of extended crystal
P.A. Curreri and D.E. McCauley, NASA defects and second-phase inclusions in
Technical Memorandum 4737. the crystals; and
• To obtain a limited amount of "high-
2Watring, D.A.; Lehoczky, S.L.: "Magnet quality" materials needed for bulk crystal
Hydrodynamic Damping of Convection property characterizations and for the
during Verical Bridgman-Stockberger fabrication of various device structures
147
1,400 compositional distributions to appropriate

theoretical models was used to obtain an
estimate of the effective HgTe-ZnTe liquid
1,300
• Ref (22) diffusion coefficient. To assist the modeling
• Ref (21) of the pertinent heat and mass transport
1,200 • This Work processes, selected portions of the
pseudobinary phase diagram, 1 thermal
diffusivity 2 and melt viscosity 3 have been
1,100
measured. A microscopic theoretical model
for the calculation of point defect energies,
G"
o 1,000 charge-carrier concentrations, Fermi energy,
I,-- and conduction-electron mobility as
functions of x, temperature, and both
9OO ionized and neutral defect densities has
been developed and some of the pertinent
800 materials properties were measured.
Theoretical models have also been
developed for the axial and radial alloy
700 segregation as functions of alloy composi-
tion, growth rate, thermal gradient and
I I I I I growth interface curvature. The calculated
D 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 .0 results agreed well with experimental data
ZnTe and indicated that the axial alloy composi-
HgTe ZnTe Mole Fraction
tion is limited by diffusion-like behavior
and the radial segregation by fluid flow
FOGURE
131.--Pzeudobinary phase diagram of HgTe-ZnTe.
effects. Further numerical modeling
including the detailed sample, experiment
needed to establish ultimate material directional solidification compositional container and furnace system is in progress
performance limits. redistribution data differ by about a factor to further assess the role of gravity in the
of 10, from that of Hgl_ x Cd x Te being the overall solidification process.
The flight portion of the study was to be largest and Hgl_ x Zn x Te being the smallest.
accomplished by performing growth These variations will cause nongravity- A ground preprocessed and quenched
experiments using the crystal growth related effects to be more significant in sample was successfully back-melted and
furnace (CGF) manifested to fly on various some cases than in others. partially regrown in the CGF instrument
Spacelab missions. The investigation during the first United States Microgravity
complements the experiments being done A series of HgZnTe crystal ingots has been Laboratory (USML-I) mission. The
grown from pseudobinary melts by meltback interface was within 0.5 mm of
on the crystal growth of Hgl_ x Cd x Te using
the advanced automatic directional Bridgman-Stockbarger type directional the desired value. Because of the loss of
solidification furnace (AADSF) flight solidification using the CGF ground control power to the CGF, the experiment was
instrument. The main emphasis of the study experiment laboratory (GCEL) furnace, as prematurely terminated after approximately
involves the Hgl_ x Zn x Te and Hgl_ x Zn x Se well as MSFC heat pipe furnaces. Several 39 hr into the planned 150-hr growth
alloys. The combination of the two studies ZnTe crystals were also grown using a Te- period. About 5.7 mm of sample had been
provides the basis for the evaluation of the solvent zone growth method. Various grown at that point. Surface photomicro-
influence of alloy property variations on the thermal boundary conditions and growth graphs of the sample clearly showed
relative importance of various gravity- and rates were employed and several of the significant topographical differences
nongravity-related effects. Several alloy ingots were rapidly quenched during the between the space- and ground-grown
properties including the effective diffusion steady-state portion of growth to establish portions. Compositional measurements
coefficient, segregation coefficient, thermal correlation between thermal conditions and along the sample axis indicated that the
conductivity, 2 viscogity microhardness, etc., melt/solid interface shapes. These experi- desired steady-state growth for the axial
are known to vary substantially with ments also indicated that the ingots can be composition was reached at about 3 mm
composition and from alloy system to alloy successfully quenched and back melted to into the growth because of the quenched in
system. For example, the "effective" mass allow a rapid return to steady-state growth. melt composition for steady-state growth.
diffusion coefficients deduced from The fitting of the measured crystal An x-ray diffraction and SEM survey of the
148
_I@I@IOIOI@IOIOIOIOlO I@_ _ 0 _OIO
0 iOIOlOIOI03
Research Programs
sample showed that both the ground- and _ZnTe Seed ....
flight-portions of the ingot contained only a Hg/n _e _egments
few grains, i.e., were nearly single crystals,
and the crystallographic orientation was 'x
maintained
space growth.
compositional
following back-melting
The interface shape, radial
variations, and the quenched-
and
I
in dendretic structures of the flight sample 0.20
all have shown an asymmetric behavior. The
compositional data strongly suggest that the
most likely cause was unanticipated
transverse residual accelerations.
0.16 im ,
A new seeded method has been developed

_S
recently for the growth of HgZnTe crystal
ingots from pseudobinary melt by the 0.12
Bridgman-Stockbarger type directional
solidification for the second United States M. t
CD
Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2) I
E I
mission. A physical vapor transport method
0.08 -- I
developed by MSFC was used to grow e,,
N
Composition of Segments
2-cm ZnTe seed crystals in the fused silica I
ampoules. Then a stack of precast I .... Diffusion Boundary
pseudobinary alloys of varying composi- & (Calculated with Deft = 6x10 -e cm2/s,
0.04
tions were loaded in the remaining Growth Rate = 3.5 mm/day)
ampoules. The alloy compositional
variation in the stack was chosen to
correspond to the expected melt composi-
0.00 I I I I P J I I
tion variation along the growth axis for
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
steady-state diffusion-controlled growth
conditions (fig. 132). Composition analysis Distance (mm)
on the grown crystals confirm that steady-
state growth was achieved from the FIGURE132.--Sample configuration and compositional distribution in HgZnTe segments
beginning of the growth process. A series of used for seeded growth experiments.
Hgo.84Zno.l 6Te and Hgo.88Zno.!2Te crystals
were then grown using the CGF ground
control experiment laboratory (GCEL) Two Hgo.88Zno. 12Te seeded ampoules were Su, C.-H.; Sha, Y.-G.; Mazuruk, K.;
furnace, as well as in heat-pipe furnaces. chosen for processing in the CGF during the Lehoczky, S. L.: "Phase Diagram, of
Several crystals were also grown under the USML-2 mission. The results from a HgTe-ZnTe Pseudobinary and Density,
influence of a 5-T axial magnetic field and similar experiment that was inadvertently Heat Capacity and Enthalpy of Mixing of
0.5-T transverse magnetic field. 4 Detailed terminated during the previous USML-1 Hgl-x Znx Te Pseudobinary Melts."
compositional and microstructural charac- mission strongly indicated that residual Journal of Applied Physics, 80,1, 137,
terization of the samples indicated that the accelerations transverse to the growth axis 1996.
alloy stacks could be successfully back- are detrimental for achieving the primary
melted within 0.5 mm of the seed interface experiment objectives. Thus a Shuttle flight Sha, Y.-G; Su, C.-H.; Mazuruk, K.,
to assure that growth begins under nearly attitude that minimizes such accelerations Lehoczky, S. L.: "Thermal Diffusivity
steady-state growth conditions. The applied was requested for the USML-2 mission. and Conductivity of Hgl_ x Zn x Te Solids
magnetic fields had a significant influence Just prior to launch the attitude was and Melts," Journal of Applied Physics,
on radial alloy segregation and growth disallowed because of programmatic 80, 2, 752, 1996.
interface constitutional supercooling constraints and a decision was made not to
breakdown demonstrating the importance of perform the flight portion of the experiment Mazuruk, K.; Su, C.-H.; Sha, Y.-G.; and
gravity-induced fluid-flow effects. under unfavorable growth conditions. Lehoczky, S.L.: "Viscosity of
149
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
Hgo.84Zno. !6Te Pseudobinary Melt." Measurement of the Optical property data for nucleation
tion theories.
and solidifica-
Journal of Applied Physics, 79, 12, 9080,
1996. and Radiative Properties
The overall approach is to use the FTIR
of High-Temperature Liquid
Sha, Y.-G.; Su, C.-H.; Lehoczky, S.L.: spectrometer to measure the intensity of
"Growth of HgZnTe by Directional Materials by Fourier light emitted by a high-temperature liquid
Solidification in a Magnetic Field." Transform Infrared sample. Due to the intrinsic nature of FTIR
techniques, the light intensity can be
Journal of Crystal Growth, in press,
1996. Spectroscopy recorded over a wide range of wavelengths
(2 to 20 txm) in a rapid manner, on the order
Sponsor: Microgravity Science and Michael B. Robinson/ES75 of 100 spectrums per second. Spectral
Application Division emissivity values for any given wavelength
205-544-7774
would be found by comparing the spectrum
E-mail: mike.robinson@msfc.nasa.gov
University Involvement: Dr. Rosalia N. for a liquid sample to a spectrum recorded
Scripa, University of Alabama at Birming- using the same optical path, from a
ham; Dr. Yi-Gao Sha, Universities Space Basic to the understanding of high- standard. The standard would be a black-
Research Association temperature materials in the liquid state is body source such as a solid sphere of
first measurement of the optical and tungsten with a precise blackbody hole
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Sandor Lehoczky radiative properties. Unfortunately, very located in it. Additionally, laser polarimetric
is chief of the Microgravity Science and little spectral emissivity data are available techniques which have been developed for
Applications Division of the Space Sciences for high-temperature liquid and solid emissivity measurements on fiquids, would
Laboratory of MSFC. _ materials in the wavelength range 2 to provide additional verification of calibration
20 I.tm. These data are virtually nonexistent of the FTIR. Absolute specimen tempera-
when the case of undercooled materials is ture measurements would be obtained with
considered. The use of fourier transform a aid of a singlecolor pyrometer operating at
infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to investigate a wavelength where an independent
the radiative and optical properties of high- measure of the spectral emissivity has
temperature liquids is proposed. already been determined with the aid of the
laser polarimetric method. Once an FrIR
The first objective of this program is to fully spectrum is obtained, the normal spectral
develop the use of FTIR spectroscopy for emissivity over the 2- to 20fftm range is
the purpose of determining, at a high rate of derived. The spectral hemispherical
speed, the normal and total hemispherical emissivity (SHE) would then be derived in
emissivities. Spectral emissivities would be one of two ways.
measured in the 2- to 20-1am wavelength
range for high-temperature liquid and Research in the FTIR program over the past
undercooled materials. Due to the nature of year has been in the design and develop-
the approach, the spectral emissivities can ment of the FTIR system and adaptation for
be determined quickly over the complete the specific purpose of measuring the high-
wavelength range. The measurements temperature optical properties of under-
would then be conducted over a wide cooled metals. A complex innovative optical
temperature range, including the deeply system has been designed and developed. In
undercooled state. The second objective of addition, a modified electromagnetic
this research would be to apply this levitation system has also been designed
technique to materials that are of current and is nearing completion. Immediate plans
interest to the MSAD program; in particu- are to begin measurement of the optical
lax, where there is a strong need in the properties of standard samples and
numerous furnace programs and blackbodies to be used as calibration
containerless programs which include sources. Next the research will concentrate
electromagnetic, electrostatic and acoustic on the optical properties of undercooled
levitators as well as the 105-Meter Drop high-purity elements, such as zirconium and
Tube Facility at MSFC. A third objective niobium.
would be to provide optical and radiative
150
_IOIelOIOI$1_IO IOIOIOIOIoIOIOIO_YoIO I@IOIO]D IOIOIOIO_
Research Programs

Sciences and Applications, NASA
A Study of the Undercooling disappointing results in that massive
segregation still occurs during solidification
Headquarters Behavior of Immiscible in crucible contained experiments. It
Industry Involvement: Containerless

Metal Alloys: The Absence appears that separation of the liquid phases
is due to mechanisms other than sedimenta-
Research, Inc. of Crucible-Induced Wetting tion alone. Research activities have since
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Michael B.

and Nucleation focused on the evaluation of these different
mechanisms which would cause separation
Robinson came to Marshall Space Flight in either an Earth or a low-gravity environ-
Center in September 1976, and currently is MichaelB,Robinson/ES75 ment.
a member of the Crystal Growth and 205-544-7774
Solidification Physics Branch in the Space E-mail:mike.robinson@msfc.nasa.gov To achieve the above studies, the environ-
Sciences Laboratory. He currently serves as ment provided by the MSFC 105-Meter
project scientist for the MSFC 105-Meter Drop Tube Facility has been utilized. These
Drop Tube, for the modular electromagnetic In many metal binary systems, there exists a conditions are ideally suited to prevent the
levitator, and the German TEMPUS space region where the two phases in the liquid sedimentation effects and the crucible-
flight electromagnetic levitator, scheduled state will not mix; i.e., they are immiscible. induced wetting and nucleation phenomena.
to fly aboard the Space Shuttle on the In processing these binary systems for Research in a truly containerless, low-
International Microgravity Laboratory-2 commercial or scientific applications, gravity environment should provide much
mission. In addition, Robinson is currently decomposition of the homogenized liquid information to the question of whether
co-investigator on two flight programs, one into two separate liquid phases will occur preferential wetting of the free surface
involving the study of the effect of during cooling. Because of density occurs and more importantly whether it can
microgravity on the nucleation distribution differences between the two liquid phases, be controlled. Over the past year effort has
of pure metals, and the other involving processing of these systems in a gravita- been centered on initial studies of a number
directional solidification under microgravity tional field will result in a layered structure of immiscible systems. From these initial
conditions and influences of magnetic with the lighter phase at the top, the heavier studies, three representative systems, those
fields. He also serves as co-investigator on a phase on the bottom. Such difficulties have of Ni-Cr, Ga-V, and Ti-Ce have been
ground-based research program involving plagued the pursuit of commercially selected for more in-depth study. Initial
undercooling, nucleation, and solidification important materials such as Ag-Ni and processing and analysis of samples from
studies. Robinson received his M.S. in AI-Pb for electrical contact and self- these three systems indicate a wide range in
physics from the University of Alabama in lubricating bearing uses, respectively. the separation behavior after processing. In
Huntsville and his Ph.D. in materials
addition there is a range in undercooling
science from Vanderbilt in May 1988. Attempts have been made to process behavior depending on sample composition,
composite, immiscible systems having environment pressure, and amount of
uniform metallurgical structures of either overheat. The next year studies will
aligned rod-like structures, or uniform, continue with the intent of concentrating on
finely dispersed second phase within the the selected representative systems.
majority phase matrix. Because of the larger
particle interface-to-volume ratio in a finely Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
dispersed alloy, the latter structure would Sciences and Applications, NASA Head-
potentially be more viable for commercial quarters
application.
University Involvement: The University of
Microgravity materials processing has the Alabama in Huntsville
possibility of producing fine, homoge-
neously dispersed immiscible alloys. The Biographical Sketch: Dr. Michael B.
low-gravity environment of a drop tube or Robinson came to Marshall Space Flight
space experiment could greatly reduce Center in September 1976, and currently is
sedimentation and convection and thus a member of the Crystal Growth and
reduce or eliminate separation during Solidification Physics Branch in the Space
cooling through the two-liquid portion of Sciences Laboratory. He currently serves as
the phase diagram. However, space flight project scientist for the MSFC 105-Meter
experiments to date have produced Drop Tube, for the modular electromagnetic
151
IoIOIOlOIODIelOlOl.;
levitator, and the German TEMPUS space MSFC 105-Meter Drop nucleation temperatures of undercooled
flight electromagnetic levitator, scheduled metals and alloys.
to fly aboard the Space Shuttle on the Tube Undercooling Dr. Grugel of University Space Research
International Microgravity Laboratory-2 and Nucleation Studies Associates: A study of the effect of
mission. In addition, Robinson is currently undercooling on hypomontectic alloy
co-investigator on two flight programs, one systems.
Michael B. Robinson/ES75 Dr. Robinson of MSFC: A study of the
involving the study of the effect of
205-544-7774 separation and undercooling phoneme in
microgravity on the nucleation distribution
of pure metals, and the other involving E-mail: mike.robinson@msfc.nasa.gov immiscible metal systems through low-
directional solidification under microgravity gravity, containerless processing.
conditions and influences of magnetic In order to improve present metals and
fields. He also serves as co-investigator on a alloys through space processing, it is In addition to supporting the above named
ground-based research program involving necessary to first understand the effect of research efforts, the drop tube facility is
undercooling, nucleation, and solidification low-gravity processing on the structure and actively supporting a study of the effect of
studies. Robinson received his M.S. in properties of the material. The effect of low welding in space on space suit materials in
physics from the University of Alabama in gravity coupled with containerless process- support of MSFC's Materials and Processes
Huntsville and his Ph.D. in materials ing is being studied using the MSFC Laboratory.
science from Vanderbilt University in May 105-Meter Drop Tube Facility. This
1988. environment, achieved in both the drop tube Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
and during a containerless space flight, is Sciences and Applications, NASA Head-
conducive to large degrees of undercooling quarters
before solidification of the metal occurs.
Therefore this facility provides an ideal Biographical Sketch: Dr. Michael B.
environment for undercooling and nucle- Robinson came to Marshall Space Flight
ation studies of undercooled metals. Center in September 1976, and currently is
a member of the Crystal Growth and
In the past year, effort has been directed to Solidification Physics Branch in the Space
supporting six flight and ground-based Sciences Laboratory. He currently serves as
investigations. Approximately 600 research project scientist for the MSFC 105-meter
samples and a much larger number of test drop tube, for the modular electromagnetic
samples were processed in the drop tube in levitator, and the German TEMPUS space
support or preparation for these investiga- flight electromagnetic levitator, scheduled
tions. The supported investigations and a to fly aboard the Space Shuttle on the
brief description of the science objectives International Microgravity Laboratory-2
are listed below: mission. In addition, Robinson is currently
• Dr. Kelton of the Washington University: co-investigator on two flight programs, one
A study of the effect of low-gravity, involving the study of the effect of
containerless processing on the formation microgravity on the nucleation distribution
and properties of quasi-crystalline of pure metals, and the other involving
materials. directional solidification under microgravity
• Dr. Flemings of the Massachusetts conditions and influences of magnetic
Institute of Technology: An attempt to fields. He also serves as co-investigator on a
measure the viscosity and surface tension ground-based research program involving
of undercooled metals samples by undercooling, nucleation, and solidification
recording the shape and rate of the studies. Robinson received his M.S. in
spreading front from a splat quenched physics from the University of Alabama in
sample. Huntsville and his Ph.D. in materials
• Dr. Johnson of Cal. Tech.: A study of the science from Vanderbiit University in May
thermophyscial properties (heat capacity, 1988. P._
surface tension, viscosity) of metallic
glass forming materials.
• Dr. Bayuzick of Vanderbilt University: A
measurement of the distribution of
152
_eloIolololololoIolo Io IOlo_oloIOIOlOlOlOIOlO_
Research Programs
Bridgman Crystal Growth completely mix the melt, that is, there is no furnaces normally used at MSFC, the
detectable diffusion contribution to the mass sample can be observed during growth.
in Static Magnetic Fields transport. In a non-zero magnetic field, the Fluid motions that were unexpected were
convection is reduced because the liquid is observed and some expected motions were
FrankR.Szofran/ES71 highly electrically conductive. Thus, much higher in intensity than anticipated.
205-544-7777 applying a high enough magnetic field In summary, static magnetic fields are
E-mail:frank.szofran@msfc.nasa,gov should reduce the convective flow velocity useful to reduce convection in semiconduc-
to the point that diffusion is the predomi- tor melts. The three growth schemes
nant mass transport mechanism. The field at employed, floating zone and Bridgman
The objectives of this study are: which this occurs will be dependent on the growth in two configurations, have been
• To experimentally test the validity of the diameter of the melt and the thermal field in shown to be complementary. Each one
modeling predictions applicable to the the melt. For the configuration which was provides a part of the information that will
magnetic damping of convective flows in used, both experimental evidence and be needed to understand more thoroughly
conductive melts as this applies to the numerical simulations suggest that a field of the role of gravity in the solidification of
directional solidification and floating 3 Tesla is sufficient to reduce the convective semiconductor materials. Work on doped
zone growth of solid solution semicon- transport to less than the diffusive transport. Ge is essentially complete and attention is
ducting materials; and A comparison of the experimental data and being intensified on the Ge-Si alloy system.
• To assess the effectiveness of steady a diffusion-controlled model is shown in
magnetic fields in reducing the fluid figure 133. 1Rolin, T. D. and Szofran, F. R.: "Determi-
flows occurring in these materials during nation of the Electrical Conductivity of
space processing that result from density The collaborative experiments with KI Liquid Ge0.95Si0.05." Journal of Crystal
gradients (driven by the residual steady- included silicon float zone growth and Growth, vol. 153, pp. 6-10, 1995.
state acceleration or g-jitter), or surface additional Bridgman growth using a K1
tension gradients (Marangoni flow). mono-ellipsoid mirror furnace installed in a Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
5-Tesla magnet in the MSFC Space Science and Applications, Microgravity
During the past year, experimental work has Sciences Laboratory. The Bridgman Science and Applications Division
continued on Bridgman and floating-zone experiments were especially interesting in
growth experiments and numerical the mirror furnace because, unlike the
modelling of the Bridgman experiments.
Ingots of gallium-doped germanium and
germanium-silicon alloys _<5 percent
silicon) been grown by the Bridgman
method while the floating-zone experiments
¢-
were done with silicon and silicon- = le+19
germanium alloys (>95 percent silicon).
E
Some of these experiments were carried out
jointly with colleagues from the Crystallo- 0
graphic Institute (KI), Freiburg University

in Germany.
iE B
C,3 _
The immediate goal of the gallium-doped

germanium experiments was to determine
ID
• Experimental /
/
0
the magnetic field intensity necessary to ....... Diffusion Model (Initial)
achieve diffusion-controlled
conditions.
growth
This refers to the fact that there
•=" le+18 _e, m__ Diffusion Model (Final) ]
are primarily two mass transport mecha- i I I I
nisms taking place in the molten material
20 40 60 80 IO0
ahead of the solid-liquid growth interface.
These include convection driven by Relative Position (mm)
thermally induced density differences and
diffusion of the gallium dopant within the
molten germanium. At zero field, the FIGURE133._ial Ga distribution in a Ge:Ga sample grown at 8-1.un/sec
convection is sufficiently vigorous to in a 5-Tesla field.
153
Containerless Processing Containerless processing provides a partial
Crystallographic Institute of the University solution to these difficulties. Crucible
of Freiburg, Germany; Co-investigator of YBa2Cu307-d contamination is eliminated, allowing
Dr. Shariar Motakef, CAPE, Inc.
Superconductors access to the high-temperature portions of
the phase diagram. In addition,
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Frank R. Szofran containerless processing affords the
is a senior scientist in the Space Sciences Marcus Vlasse/ES76
possibility to deeply undercool melts
Laboratory responsible for studying the 205-544-7781
leading to unique solidification paths and
effects of magnetic fields on semiconductor E-mail: marcus.vlasse@msfc.nasa.gov microstructures. This degree of undercool-
crystal growth with emphasis on the ing should lead to enhanced physical
application of this method to microgravity The production of bulk YBa2Cu3OT-d properties, in particular, improved critical
experiments. In 1996 he spent two months (YBCO) and other high-Tc superconductors currents (Jc).
at the University of Freiburg at the that maintain high-current-carrying
invitation of Prof. K.W. Benz, the director capabilities has been hindered by weak Containerless processing was performed
of the Crystallographic Institute. Szofran connectivity along grain boundaries, using pure YBCO powders and small
has a Ph.D. in solid state physics from reactions at elevated temperatures with the spheres in a drop tube, as well as an aero-
Brown University (1973) and a B.S. in container materials, incongruent melting acoustic levitation device. The drop tube
physics from Washington University in St. behavior, and phase instabilities. (fig. 134) consists of a graphite element
Louis, 1966. p__
Heating Tape
Coolant
Shaker Table
NJchrome Booster
Heater
Therrnocouple
Muffle
Tube
Power
Supply
Controller
Pyrometer I
Viewport
FIGURE134._chematic of the drop tupe.
154
__ IOIOIOIOIOIO_ IOIeIOI@IOIOIOIOI@_IOIO IOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOlOi
Research Programs
muffle furnace, a zirconia muffle tube, samples. The microstructures developed in Containerless processing of oxide supercon-
oxygen atmosphere control and associated the samples were primarily single-phase ductors can lead therefore to deep under-
electronics. The levitation device was a tetragonal YBCO and YBCO with several cooling prior to solidification and result in
single dry air jet coupled to a three-axis other related phases. In both cases, a enhanced superconducting properties.
acoustic positioner. In this device, the small dendritic structure appears in clusters. The
spheres were heated using a CO 2 laser. Two formation of tetragonal YBCO indicates that Associated work was also carried out in
video cameras recorded the experiments the liquid was undercooled to below the optimizing the processing parameters of
and monitored transient thermal events. peritectic temperature for this phase. Upon pure phase YBCO and Bi-based supercon-
During the experiment, the samples were annealing in oxygen, the samples became ductors. The preheat treatment appears to be
annealed (kindled) for several minutes at single-phase orthorhombic YBCO with a very important parameter in achieving this
1,270 K and then heated quickly to about randomly oriented grains of 10 to 20 mm in objective. The synthesis of pure phases in
2,070 K. They were then cooled rapidly size. The outer surface of the sample shows the Bi-based system also involves effects
(300 to 400 K/sec). A pronounced recales- a 70-mm layer with columnar structure. The due to oxygen partial pressure, time and
cence (increase of heat) was observed in magnetic data indicate an intragranular Jc of temperature. The optimization of this
some samples upon cooling. After solidifi- 4x 103 A/cm 2 at 50 KOe and 5 K, using the processing is a key step toward the
cation, those spheres that showed pro- Bean critical state model (fig. 135). If the successful continuation of superconducting
nounced recalescence were annealed in actual grain size is used (at 20 mm) in the materials development and eventual
oxygen at 1,210 K for 14 hr and then cooled calculation, the Jc values would be two application. In conclusion, the objectives of
slowly to 690 K and held for 40 hr to induce orders of magnitude higher. The samples processing oxide superconductors by
the tetragonal-to-orthorhombic transforma- processed in the drop tube show similar containerless methods and optimizing their
tion and the superconducting state. SQUID behavior, and structural and physical preparation have been attained and have led
magnetometer measurements were properties. Both the structure and properties to enhanced Jc under magnetic fields. The
performed to calculate intragranular critical of processed YBCO depend on the degree significant improvement in Jc would result
current densities. X-ray diffraction and of undercooling, and deeply undercooled in a major step toward the use of such
microstructural analysis were also carried samples show excellent critical current materials in the Materials Processing in
out on preannealed and postannealed densities in high magnetic fields. Space Program and in other NASA-specific
ground and space applications such as
shielding, magnetic levitation and magnetic
18,000 900
bearing development.
Olive, J.R.; Hofmeister, W.H.; Bayuzick,

00 0 I OT=5K
[] T=77 K R.J.; Cart•, G.; McHugh, J.P.; Hopkins,
13,500
5' o 675 R.H.; Vlasse, M.; Weber, J.K.R.;
Nordine, P.C.; and McElfresh, M.:
:lg 3 0 X
a_ 0 "Formation ofTetragonal YBa2Cu307-d
I',,,,,
II
0 II From an Undercooled Melt." Journal of
Material Research, 9, 1, 1994.
9,000
"1 00
¢%1 450
[] 0 Olive, J.R., Hofmeister, W.H., Carro, G.,
Bayuzick, R.J., McHugh, J.E, Hopkins,
0
[] ( R.H., and Vlasse, M.: "Containerless
Processing of YBa2Cu307-d Oxide
4,500 225
Superconductors." Containerless
[] Processing: Techniques and Applications,
W. H. Hofmeister and R. Schiffman Eds.,
Oo
p. 111, 1993.
5 10 15 20 25 Vlasse, M., Golben, J., Decher, R.: "Process

Optimization for 123 and Bi-based
H (kOe)
Superconductors." Applied Superconduc-
tivity, 4, 79, 1996.
FIGURE135.--Magnetic intragranular critical current density versus applied magnetic field
at 77K and 5K.
155
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity Crystal Growth by Physical • Numerical fluid-dynamic modeling of the
Sciences and Applications growth system; and
Vapor Transport • Crystal growth experiments.
University Involvement: Vanderbilt
University MartinVolz/ES75 Since the initiation of the project (May
205-544-5078 1995), thermochemical analysis of PVT of
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Vlasse is a Pb (Se, Te) has been done; experimental
E-maihmartin.volz@msfc.nasa.gov
materials scientist in the Microgravity verification of the model is under way. The
Sciences and Applications Division at technique for determining residual gases in
MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory. He Physical vapor transport (PVT) offers sealed ampoules (important for a meaning-
conducts research in the area of oxide several advantages (e.g., lower process ful description of the actual growth
superconductors and their applications, as temperature, improved purity and stoichi- conditions) has been developed. Purification
well as in crystal growth of organic and ometry) over other techniques of bulk procedures for the source materials
macromolecular materials. Vlasse earned a crystal growth. The quality of the crystals (removal of oxygen) have been determined
Ph.D. in crystallography from the Univer- may, however, be downgraded by the theoretically and verified experimentally.
sity of Pittsburgh and a D.Sc. degree in presence of convection in the growth Two furnaces suitable for visual monitoring
materials science from the University of system. Another source of crystal imperfec- of the growth process have been fabricated.
Bordeaux. tions may be interactions (sticking) of the Numerical modeling of the thermal field in
crystal with the walls of the growth capsule. the system has been initiated.
Our research program addresses these
topics. To investigate the convective effects in PVT,
a suitable growth system for terrestial and
Growth of crystals by "contactless" PVT microgravity experiments is necessary. Such
(without contact with the side walls of the a system should enable a meaningful
growth ampoule) depends on such factors as comparison of the theoretical predictions of
the geometry of the ampoule and furnace, convective effects with experimental results.
their configuration, temperature field, That requires the geometry that would be
thermal and thermochemical properties of feasible for a realistic modeling of the fluid
the materials (crystal, ampoule), composi- flow and crystal growth in the ampoule. The
tion of the vapor phase, type of medium main technical problem here is how to
outside the ampoule, and others. The maintain a flat crystal-vapor (c-v) interface
technique of "contactless" PVT in compact for the duration of the experiment. The
geometry (the diameter of the crystal is shape of the interface is a complex function
close to that of the ampoule) has been used of the system parameters, particularly the
in the past. However, the literature reports geometry, temperature field, thermal and
on the subject are primarily experimental, thermochemical properties of the materials,
and no comprehensive treatment of the and the growth rate. With the aid of
method exists. The technique could be very numerical modeling, different ampoule
useful for a prospective experiment(s) designs, materials, and other process
performed under microgravity conditions: conditions will be tested and their effect on
elimination of crystal defects generated by the shape of the c-v interface will be
crystal-wall interactions would improve the anticipated. The theoretical predictions will
crystal quality and facilitate (or even be verified experimentally.
enable) identification of gravity-related
effects. The project consists of the follow- Another important task of the project is to
ing tasks: develop a growth system which will provide
• Theoretical and experimental determina- a means for identifying convective flows
tion of the mass transport properties of during growth. This will be accomplished
the Pb (Se, Te) (lead selenide-teUuride) by using an appropriate doped binary and/or
and (Cd, Zn) Te (cadmium-zinc telluride) ternary source materials and investigating
model materials; the distribution of the minority
component(s) in the grown crystal.
156
ResearchP;ograms
Our research program is aimed at a better

understanding of the role of convection and
Diode-Laser Holographic a variety of test cell modules. The device
could find applications in ground-based
its significance for crystal growth from the Imaging System Applied laboratories, as well as reduced gravity
vapor. The results of this work will provide
the basis for designing a related micrograv-
to the Study of Fluids environments, such as the Space Shuttle, the
KC-135 aircraft and sounding rockets. The
ity experiment on convective phenomena in in Microgravity goal of the design effort is to develop and
vapor growth systems. The results of the test a compact, state-of-the-art, modular
work may be also beneficial for industrial holographic imaging system. No such
William K. Witherow/ES76
applications of the PVT technique. integrated apparatus is presently available.
205-544-7811
E-maih bill+witherow@msfc.nasagov
Palosz, W.; Grasza, K.; Gillies, D.; and A second objective of the research de-
Jerman, G.: "Growth of Cadmium-Zinc
scribed in this proposal is to develop a
Telluride by Controlled Seeding The objective of the proposed study is to compact apparatus designed for such low-
'Contactless' PVT." Journal of Crystal create a compact holographic system that gravity fluid physics studies. This fluids
Growth, in press. will fit inside a Shuttle locker. Holography module will be designed to plug in to the
is an important research method because it imaging system, and will be used in order to
Palosz, W.; George, M.A.; Collins, E.E.; records an image of the entire volume of a verify the functionality of the imaging
Chen, K.T.; Zhang, Y.; Hu, Z.; and test cell at a given instant in time. When a system. The module will be designed to
Burger, A.: "Growth and Characterization hologram is constructed, it records the wave have several fluid handling functions:
of Cadmium-Zinc Telluride Crystals front coming from the test cell. Then when producing well-defined dispersions having
Grown by Seeded PVT." Journal of the hologram is reconstructed the same user-specified characteristics, deploying
Crystal Growth, in press. wave front is reproduced. The reconstructed numerous small droplets of selected
wave front can be analyzed by the same volumes, and delivering selected volumes of
Palosz, W.: "Removal of Oxygen From optical techniques that could have been fluid.
Electronic Materials by Vapor Phase used on the original test cell.
Processes." Journal of Crystal Growth, in An initial breadboard system has been
press. This capability is important in many areas constructed to test the capabilities of the
of research, such as solution crystal growth, diode laser to construct holograms. In-line
Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity fluid physics, and particle phenomena. For holograms of static 200-0.m-diameter glass
Sciences and Applications. example, quantitative studies of the growth beads suspended in water and of calibration
of transparent dispersions require diameter test patterns have been made. Side-band
University/Industry lnvolvment: Fisk measurements from numerous microscopic holograms of melting ice in water (fig. 136)
University, Nashville, TN; University of droplets at a given instant of time in order to have also been made. The capabilities of the
Durham, Durham, UK; Albert-Ludwigs produce statistically significant results. initial system are being evaluated. The
Universitat, Freiburg, Germany; FhG, Typically the droplets will be undergoing
Institut for Physikalische Messtechnik, changes in position or size as the experi-
Freiburg, Germany. Universities Space ment progresses. Accurate measurement of
Research Association (USRA), CFD the entire population of droplets is impos-
Research, Inc., Huntsville, AL; Brimrose sible by normal techniques. However, by
Corporation, Baltimore, MD. recording a hologram of the experiment the
entire test cell volume is stored. The entire
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Martin Volz is a test cell from the reconstructed hologram
research scientist in the Space Sciences can be investigated by microscopy to
Laboratory, and is currently working in the measure all of the droplets.
area of semiconductor crystal growth and
characterization. The primary objective of the proposed
research is the development of a compact,
state-of-the-art, modular holographic
imaging system, based on laser-diode
technology which will incorporate micro-
optics in order to record full three-
dimensional images of the test cell. The Fzr.UaE136.--Double exposure holograms
apparatus is designed to be compatible with of ice melting in water.
157
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
holographic system was flown on the Phase Shifting utilizing

collected
x-ray or neutron diffraction,
information allows the direct
the
KC-135 flight in May 1995 has been
established. A fluids processing module was Interferometric Analysis identification of active sites of the macro-
molecule, its conformation, and sequence
developed for the KC-135 flight with of Protein Crystal Growth of the amino acids. Sections of very large
heating and mixing capabilities.
Boundariesand Convective assemblies of proteins such as structural
proteins or viruses can also be crystallized.
A miniaturized holographic system will be Flows Crystallization is therefore the starting point
designed based on current optics technol-
ogy. An optics breadboard table that is the of any study aiming at the development of
same size as a Shuttle locker will be used to William K Witherow/ES76 new drugs and the understanding of viral
construct the holographic system on. 205-544-7811 diseases. Crystallization techniques for
Miniaturized optical components will be E-mail:bill.witherow@msfc.nasa.gov proteins are now well known, but a
used to construct the system. Once a biophysical understanding of the growth
holographic system is constructed it will be mechanisms is underdeveloped. This aspect
tested and refined. A variety of experiments The objective of the proposed study is to of protein research needs to be expanded as
will be performed in the system to demon- obtain experimental evidence of several the proteins being studied are more complex
strate its capabilities. Also a microgravity characteristics of a crystallizing protein and their purification more costly.
fluids module will be designed and solution and model their effects on the
developed. The system will be tested for crystal growth process. The characteristics Microgravity grown crystals of several
various modes of fluids processing, such as to be studied include: the presence of proteins were found to be larger or
dispersion generation, fluid delivery, and concentration gradients during the crystal diffracted with higher resolution than ones
heating. The fluids module will also be growth, the extent of the boundary layer previously grown on the ground. These
from the crystal face, and the effect of results tend to demonstrate that a reduction
added to the holographic system to help
define its capabilities. The microgravity buoyancy driven convection on the growth. of gravity affects the interfacial growth
fluids module and the holographic system Whether such convection is able to produce mechanisms which are directly dependent
will be combined and tested on the flows capable of disturbing the attachment upon the mass transport regime. Convection
KC-135. of macromolecules onto the crystal surface is known to play a significant role in the
is still a matter of controversy among growth kinetics of inorganic crystals but its
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary scientists in the field. Phase shifting importance is still debated in relation to the
Fund interferometry (PSI) can provide significant crystallization of biological macromol-
insight to this issue. PSI will produce a ecules. There is little doubt about the
Biographical Sketch: William Witherow visual confirmation of the concentration existence of convective flows in proteinic
currently holds the position of AST, Basic profile at the boundary layer and concentra- solutions, but the flow rates they generate
Properties of Materials, at MSFC. He tion values within the depletion region. PSI close to the crystal/solution interface and
designs and fabricates optical data acquisi- has the potential to offer a direct visualiza- their effect on growth kinetics have not been
tion systems for various experiments. The tion of convective flows within proteinic quantified experimentally. The technique of
areas of experiments include protein crystal crystallizing solutions. The importance of PSI will allow us to determine these values
growth, immiscible fluids studies, crystal this matter is enhanced by the accepted fact and provide direct comparison between
growth, multicolor holography, phase- within the field that the suppression of these solutal flows in crystallizing solutions under
shifting intefferometry, optical measure- convective effects is the only proven various levels of gravity. An examination of
ments of alloy solidification in a micro-g consequence of establishing a low gravity the flows in the fluid and its correlation
environment, and nonlinear optics measure- environment for protein crystals. On a with crystal growth will strongly depict the
ments. His current work also includes recent Shuttle flight (USML-1), Dr. Larry role of microgravity in protein crystal
image analysis, image digitization, and he de Lucas observed that the nucleation rates growth.
also serves as the project scientist for the seemed lower and that the crystals were still
observable protein crystal growth facility. in a growing regime at the end of the Mach-Zehnder and Michelson-Morley
He holds a B.S. in engineering physics, mission. The investigation of convective interferometry will be used to examine
1977, from the University of Tennessee, flows in relation to gravity as a parameter growing protein crystals. Phase shifting will
Knoxville; and an M.S. in physics, 1981, for protein crystallization is therefore of be accomplished using an electro-optic
from the University of Alabama in importance. phase modulator or a piezo-electric mirror.
Huntsville. PSI can provide a resolution of at least
Protein crystals are grown to determine the 1/100 of a wavelength. Phase maps
three-dimensional structure of proteins. By generated by the PSI will provide a
158
I_ IOIOIOIOIOIOl_IOIOIO_
ResearchPrograms
Mechanics of Granular
Polarizer
Dove
Materials
Prism
NicholasC. Costes/ES71
205-544-1637
I _Polarizing Cube
, Camera J /Beamsplitter E-rnail:Nicholas.C.CostesDr@msfc.nasa.gov
Unlike materials such as metals, polymers,

concrete, rocks, etc., which derive their
strength and deformation characteristics
mainly from strong cohesive forces of
chemical cementation, the constitutive
Liquid Crystal relations of uncemented granular materials,
Phase Modulator eg. strength, modulus behavior, dilatancy,
Microscope Objective_ ' _\ i_]
localization of deformations, shear band
formation and instability behavior are, to a
RM_fr?_er
nce"J _L.Quarte /
large extent, derived from interparticle
Waveplates
friction resulting from normal forces acting
on particles and particle groups.
FIGURE137.--Schematic of phase shifting interferometer.
Particle bonding by weak electrostatic and
correlation between crystal growth and Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity short- or long-term Coulomb forces may
convective flow in the growth fluid. Science and Applications also influence, to a small extent, the
Inorganic crystals and protein crystals have constitutive behavior of granular materials.
been grown. The optical system (fig. 137) is Biographical Sketch: William Witherow However, their behavior is mainly governed
a phase shifting Michelson-Morley currently holds the position of AST, Basic by interparticle friction which, in turn,
interferometer. The phase-shifting algorithm Properties of Materials, at MSFC. He under very low effective stress levels is
chosen to collect data uses five rd2 phase designs and fabricates optical data acquisi- highly dependent on gravitational body
shifts. By using _2 phase shifts, the PSI tion systems for various experiments. The forces. Erosional processes, which among
algorithm becomes insensitive to phase shift areas of experiments include protein crystal other effects, cause an irreversible loss of a
errors. A computer program has been growth, immiscible fluids studies, crystal very significant amount of fertile soil in the
developed that controls the phase shifter, growth, multicolor holography, phase- midwestern United States; dust storms and
collects the interference data, and calculates shifting interferometry, optical measure- off-road locomotion are illustrative
the phase map. Initial experiments used ments of alloy solidification in a micro-g examples.
sodium chlorate crystals to test the PSI. environment, and nonlinear optics measure-
Strong concentration gradients are formed ments. His current work also includes The force-deformation behavior of granular
around sodium chlorate crystals when they image analysis, image digitization, and he materials is fabric or internal structure
grow. The next experiments will grow also serves as the project scientist for the dependent, highly nonlinear, dilatant and
lysozyme protein crystals. The PSI system observable protein crystal growth facility. nonconservative. The gravity-induced
is also being developed into a flight system He holds a B.S. in engineering physics, stresses in laboratory specimens on Earth
to be flown on the Russian Mir station next 1977, from the University of Tennessee, are nearly of the same order of magnitude
year. After the Mir experiments, ground- Knoxville; and an M.S. in physics, 1981, as the externally applied tractions, thus
based protein crystal growth will be from the University of Alabama in limiting the size of the specimens. On the
compared with the same type of crystals Huntsville. _,] other hand, the same laboratory specimens
grown in micro-g. Variations of the PSI must be sufficiently large to replicate the
system and software developed at MSFC/ behavior of large geologic deposits in-situ,
NASA are being used by groups at the or the behavior of large masses of industrial
University of California at Riverside, CA, or agricultural products during storage,
and at the De Montfort University in handling and transportation.
England.
159
DI_Io_oI_I_IoIoIoI_I@DI@I_I_IoI_I_I_I_I@I_I_IoI_I_I_I_IoIoIo_l_IoI_IoI@IoIoI_IoIoIo_I_I@I_Io_
During critical, unstable states, such as the centrifuge tests performed at very high sizes of 0.1 to 0.3 mm (with no grains
liquefaction of saturated loose sands under stress levels. below 0.074 mm present--the demarcation
earthquake or wave loading, landslides due size between coarse and fine granular
to pore water pressure buildup, or the Because of the above considerations, NASA materials), removing all silt and clay-sized
collapse of sensitive clays, gravity acts as a has supported the development of a particles. The soil specimens are contained
"follower load," causing these events to take microgravity experiment called mechanics in a latex sheath that is 0.3-mm thick and
place essentially instantaneously and of granular materials (MGM), figure 138. inprinted with a grid pattern so cameras can
making the sequence of such phenomena This experiment entails the performance of record relative changes in shape and
impossible to observe and study as they a test series of nine displacement-controlled position. On the top and bottom of each
occur on Earth, either in the laboratory or in triaxial compression tests on right cylindri- specimen are placed special platens. These
the field. cal specimens 75 mm in diameter by are made of polished tungsten carbide steel
150-mm long, consisting of Ottawa to provide the necessary hardness and low
In granular materials, gravity-driven particle F-75 banding sand, a natural quartz sand coeffient of friction between the platens and
convection induces material inhomogene- (silicon dioxide). Because Ottawa sand is the soil specimen.
ities and anisotropies during testing, widely used as a standard material in soil
especially under low-confining pressures, mechanics experiments on Earth, results Each specimen is placed in a test cell
which alters the initial fabric of the test from tests on the same material in a shaped like an equilateral prism consisting
specimens and hence their constitutive microgravity environment will allow direct of a Lexan jacket sandwitched between
relations. Accordingly, from an engineering comparisons with experimental results metal end plates connected by guide rods.
point of view, uncertainties of unknown already obtained on Earth. Within the Lexan jacket the cell is filled
magnitude are introduced into the labora- with water which is pressurized to keep the
tory tests performed to emulate the actual specimen stable under confinement during
field behavior of large masses. launch, and during re-entry in its posffailure
configuration. An electric stepper motor on
Under moderate to high stress levels, the top of the test cell drives a gear assembly
influence of gravity on the behavior of test that moves the top platen, which is centered
specimens may not be pronounced and, over the soil specimen by the guide rods
therefore, the test results in a terrestrial along the longitudinal direction of the
(l-g) environment may be sufficiently specimen. A load cell measures the
conclusive for engineering purposes. resistance to deformation of the specimen
However, testing of granular materials during the prescribed displacement of the
under very low stress levels can only be top platen.
performed in a microgravity environment in
order to yield meaningful results. It should Three fluid lines connect the test cell to the
be emphasized again that the the laboratory MGM hydraulic system. During the first
specimen which would, on one hand, best mission the specimen is completely dry.
resemble a magnified version of the One line is connected to the specimen and
elemental cube in a continuum mechanics allows the air to escape from the specimen
sense, should, on the other hand, be as it compresses. The second line supplies
representative, in a statistical sense, of the water to the jacket to confine the specimen
particle fabric of the real mass. and the third line measures the jacket water
pressure. During the other missions, the
The gravity induced stresses within a specimens are completely saturated and the
specimen transform the experimental setup water is not allowed to escape from the
into a very complex boundary value specimen as it compresses. In other words,
problem, in which the constitutive proper- the tests are undrained tests. In this
ties and stability issues cannot be resolved configuration, the air line is replaced by a
by inverse identification techniques due to FIGURE138.mMechanics of granular water line. The fluid pressure on the test
the highly nonlinear nature of the constitu- materials test cell. cells is enacted and controlled by two
tive behavior. For the same reasons, one hydraulic accumulators which also measure
cannot determine the constitutive relations pressure.
of granular materials at very low effective The sand has been tumbled, degreased,
stress levels by extrapolating results from washed, and dried. It has been screened to
160
ResearchPrograms
STS-79 (3 Specimens; DrySand) Upon the completion of Shuttle mission

Second Mission (3 of 6 Specimens; Wet Sand) STS-79, and the return of the Atlantis to
..........I
Earth, the three MGM test cells were
unstowed and flown to MSFC. There they
I
J I
I
underwent
the MSFC
profilometer
Space
measurements
Sciences
at
Laboratory,
I using an MTI CCD 72, black and white
# I
detector, connected to a "frame grabber."
"6 I
w
I Longitudinal profiles were obtained from
0
LL I
°
I
"I
I
iI I
I the specimens at 5-degree rotation intervals.
I During the same time, holograms were also
.2 I |1 II I obtained using a HeNe-6328 A laser. To
I
.m
I perform these activities, the specimens had
I II |1
I to be removed from their test cells and be
II II ii I subjected to the same confining pressure of
I
11
yI I ,,I 13 lb/in 2 by drawing the air from the
interconnected pores of their interior
Displacement through a vacuum pump. The specimens are
now kept at the MSFC MGM Laboratory
FtCURE139.--Typical compression-unloading sequence. and are scheduled to be flown to the
University of Colorado, Boulder, for epoxy
During each test, the test cell is held on a cell was stowed according to procedures. impregnation and thin sectioning to observe
rigid test/observation pad mounted between Figure 140 was taken on Atlantis showing and analyze their interior fabric in their
an array of three CCD cameras and banks of Mission Specialist Carl Walz observing an compressed and deformed configuration.
small light-emitting diodes. Each camera is MGM specimen during testing. The thin sections will be returned to MSFC
pointed at a different side of the prismatic
Lexan jacket to provide full coverage of the
specimen. The MGM video control system
electronically obtains the images and
transmits the signals to a portable video
recorder. The stepper motor, accumulators,
and cameras are controlled by the payload
general support computer (PGSC), a laptop
computer operated by the flight crew during
the mission.
The first series of MGM tests, consisting of

three dry specimens tested under drained
conditions were performed during the
STS-79 Shuttle-Mir mission, aboard the
Space Shuttle Atlantis in September 1996.
All tests were performed successfully, each
under a different confining pressure, e.g. the
first test was performed under a confining
pressure of 0.007 lb/in2; the second under
0.075 lb/in 2 and the third test under a
confining pressure of 0.189 lb/in 2. All
specimens were subjected to 5 compres-
sion-unloading cycles (fig. 139), resulting in
a 25-percent longitudinal strain. Upon the
completion of each test, the confining
pressure was increased to 13 lb/in 2 to keep FIGURE140.--Mission Specialist Carl Walz with MGM specimen during testing
the deformed specimen stable and the test on STS-79.
161
_OIOIOIO_IOIOIO]_I@DIOIOIOIO_IOIOlO_@I@IOIOlO_d)]_'__
MSFC Research
andTechnology1996
Prec. International Conference Recent

from UCB for postmission analyses and Integrated Optics in Films
theoretical studies. Advances in Getechnical Eartquake
Engineering and Soil Dynamics, of Organic and Polymeric
The joint effort between UCB and MSFC St. Louis, Missouri, vol. 3, pp. 929-959, Materials
will be reported in three postflight reports, 1981.
scheduled for October 1996, March 1997
DonaldO.Frazier
and September 1997, respectively. Costes, N.C.; Janet, V.C.; Sture, S.:
"Microgravity experiments on Granular
205-544-7825
The current plans for the subsequent two Materials." Prec. Materials Research e-maihdon.frazier@msfc.nasa.gov
test series of the MGM experiment are now Society, vol. 87, pp. 203-212, 1987.
scheduled for STS-g6 to take place in In recent years, a great deal of interest has
August 1997. In both test series, The Costes, N.C.; Sture, S.; McTigue, D.E: been directed toward the use of organic
specimens will be fully saturated with water "Mechanics of Granular Materials at Very materials in the development of high-
and will be undrained during testing. In the Low Effective Stress Levels." Prec. efficiency optoelectronic and photonic
first of these two test series the specimens ASCE, 9th Engineering Mechanics devices. There is a myriad of possibilities
will be subjected again in five compression- Conference, pp. 1035-1038, 1992. among organics which allow flexibility in
unloading cycles (fig. 139), whereas in the the design of unique structures with a
second series the loading will be cyclic, Peric, D.; Runesson, K.; Sture. S.: "Evalua- variety of functional groups. The use of
which will simulate earthquake loading. tion of Plastic Bifurcation for Plane nonlinear optical (NLO) organic materials
Figure 141 shows this type of loading. Strain Versus Axisymmetry." ASCE, as thin film waveguides allows full
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, exploitation of their desirable qualities by
vol.l18, no. 3, pp. 512-524, 1992. permitting long-interaction lengths and
Second Mission large susceptibilities allowing modest power
(3 of 6 Specimens; Wet Sand) Runesson, K.; Peric, D.; Sture, S.: "Effect input. Organics have many features that
of Pore Fluid Compressibility on make them desirable for use in optical
Localization in Elastic-Plastic Porous devices such as high-second and third-order
Solids under Undrained Conditions." nonlinearities, flexibility of molecular
International Journal of Solids Struc- design, and damage resistance to optical
tures, vol. 33, 1996. radiation. However, their use in devices has
been hindered by processing difficulties for
Sponsor: Office Of Life And Microgravity crystals and thin films.
SecondCycle Sciences and Applications
Here, we report research and technology
University/Industry Involvement: progress relevant to photonic applications of
University of Colorado at Boulder, Dept. of phthalocyanines (Pc) and the potential role
Civil, Architectural and Environmental of microgravity on processing these
Engineering; Laboratory for Atmospheric materials. It is of interest to note how
Space Physics (LASP); Sandia National materials with second- and third-order
Nth Cycle Laboratories, Albuquerque, N. M. nonlinear optical behavior may be improved
in a diffusion-limited environment and ways
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Nicholas Costes in which convection may be detrimental to
is a civil engineer in the Microgravity these materials. In this report, we focus our
Science and Applications Division, Space discussion on third-order materials for all-
Sciences Lab, specializing in fluid and optical switching.
geomechanics. He holds a Ph.D. in soil
mechanics from North Carolina State Materials processing techniques of general
F,GUm141 .---Cyclic specimen loading University. He is the principal investigator interest are solution-based and physical
sequence, on the Mechanics of Granular materials vapor transport (PVT), both having proven
Microgravity experiment. Costes was a co- gravitational acceleration dependence. Two
investigator on many Apollo mission lunar promising classes of organic compounds for
geology experiments and was a member of optical thin films and waveguides are
Costes, N.C.; and Sture, S.: "The Potential the Lunar Roving Vehicle design team. polydiacetylenes, which are conjugated zig-
of Soil Dynamics Research in Space." zag polymers, and phthalocyanines, which
162
__IOIOIOIOIOIOIoIO
Re.searchPrograms
preparation of thin films of copper Pc the 10- to 15-percent/month growth rate of

I
.... I (CuPc). Microgravity grown CuPc had the lnternet and the increasing demand for
several desirable features which indicate bandwidth intensive data such as digital
that the growth of organic films in low-g video.
may result in better quality films for optical
6
and electrical applications. Important Primarily, the study of this work focuses on
aspects of any study involving fluids, as in important technologies, particularly
vapor transport, are driving mechanisms for involving thin films, relevant to organic and
A5 heat transfer with natural convection and
.4 polymeric materials for improving
diffusion processes which determine flow applicability to optical circuitry and devices
profiles and temperature distributions. In and to assess the contribution of convection
E terms of processing by PVT, phthalocya- on film quality in unit and microgravity
nines are excellent nonlinear optical environments. All-optical switching using
o 3
materials with the promise of significantly nonlinear optical materials can relieve the
improved NLO properties through order and escalating problem of bandwidth limitations
film quality enhancements possible by imposed by electronics. Several important
microgravity processing. Although fibers limitations need to be overcome such as the
have dramatically increased node to node need for high- Z 3 materials with fast
network speeds, electronic switching will response and minimum absorption (both
limit network speeds to about 50 Gb/sec. linear and nonlinear), development of
I I I I I I J Already, it is apparent that terabit-rate compact laser sources, and reduction of the
speeds will soon be needed to accommodate switching energy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Input (A.U.)
A 2.5
FIGURE142.--The bistability loop of a .4 (a)
833 nm metal-free phthalo- _ 2.0
cyanine film using a chopped
CW He-Ne laser at 632.3 nm: --_ 1.5
a) the input pulse; b) the m=
transmitted pulse; _ 1.0
c) hysteresis switching _ 0.5
constructed from (b). _ 0 0I- _ I t

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
are large ring-structured porphyrins.
inorganic substrates under various process- _ ) (d) .

ing conditions have been useful for _ 6
preparing highly oriented polydiacetylene ._

(PDA) and phthalocyanine films. The __.21--- 4
degree of significance relating processing ._
conditions to uniformity in thickness,
degree of orientation, and optical properties "_ 2
for a specific processing technique is the _ 0 0

general focus of work in this area. It is a -- -
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
goal of some researchers to produce good
quality anisotropic films, therefore, an Input Intensity (A.U.) Input Intensity (A.U.)
important yet understudied requirement
should be to assess the role of gravity FIGURE143.--The bietability loop for different time spans of a metal-free phthalocyanine
during processing. This may be particularly film of thickness 232.5 nm using a CW He-Ne laser. Time spans between
true for the vapor deposition of Pc's in view successive points are: a) 3.84 sec; b) 10 sec; c) 342 sec; d) 1800 sec.
of the results of microgravity experiments (a) shows the least prominent bistability loop, while (b), (c), and (d) show
by 3M Corporation involving the a minimal effect of the time span between points.
163
__oIo I • IoIoloIo_IoIO_ _IO_IO IO_-__
Investigation of the bistability of metal-free an Ideal Gas." Journal of Crystal Growth, Polydiacetylene Thin Films
Pc films of 833-nm thickness used a in press, 1996.
chopped He-Ne 632.8-nm laser beam at
for Photonic Applications
frequencies ranging from 100 to 750 Hz. 2Abdeldayem, H.A.; Frazier, D.O.; Penn,
The film was positioned on a micrometer B.G.; Witherow, W.K.; Banks, C.; DonaldO.Frazier/ES71
stage, at the lens focus, and transversely Shields, A.; Hicks, R.: "Intrinsic Optical 205-544-7825
translated in and out of the beam alternately Bistability in Vapor Deposited Films of E-mail:don.frazier@msfc.nasa.gov
to record intensity input (fig. 142 (a)) and Metal-Free Phthalocyanines." Optics
film transmittance (fig. 142 (b)). A Communications, in press, 1996.
digitizing oscilloscope recorded the input The goal of this work is to access the role of
and the transmitted pulse. The nonsym- Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary fluid flow on the formation and properties
metrical shape of the transmitted pulses Fund (CDDF); Office of Life and Micro- of polydiacetylene thin films for photonic
indicated the presence of intrinsic bistability gravity Science and Applications (OLMSA) applications such as nonlinear waveguiding
in metal-free phthalocyanine. Figure 142 (c) and all-optical switching. Researchers at
depicts typical bistable switching, con- University/Industry Involvement: Hossin MSFC have been investigating
structed from the transmitted pulse. The A. Abdeldayem, Universities Space polydiacetylenes (PDA), as well as other
switching power of -0.33 mW per pulse in Research Association; Optron Systems, organic and polymeric nonlinear optical
combination with a pulse duration of Inc., Bedford, MA (NLO) materials, for the past several years.
1.37-ms recovery time yields a very low As a result of this research, a simple, novel
switching energy of-0.45 nJ. Observation Biographical Sketch: Donald O. Frazier is technique for the photo-deposition from
of bistability was repetitive in the same film a senior scientist for physical chemistry at solution of thin amorphous films (on the
using a CW He-Ne laser as shown in figure MSFC. Frazier earned his Ph.D at Rutgers order of a micrometer) of a polydiacetylene
143b for different time spans between University. He develops research programs (PDAMNA) derived from
successive points. Source and substrate which focus on microgravity processing for 2-methyl-4-nitroaniline has been developed
temperatures were maintained at 300 °C fundamental and applications sciences. He (U.S. Patent No. 5,451,433). During the
and 5 °C, respectively, while vapor vacuum also serves as project scientist for ground- course of this process, radiative heating by
deposition, in this case, occurred at based and flight programs, and establishes UV light produces thermal gradients in the
10_ torr onto quartz disks. educational outreach relevant to ongoing solution; also, variations in the chemical
projects. In addition, he promotes technol- composition of the solution caused by
One result of this work is the determination, ogy transfer relevant to research programs. photo-polymerization causes solutal
theoretically, that buoyancy driven gradients. These density gradients, under
convection occurs at low pressures the influence of Earth's gravity, induce
(determination at 10 2 mm) in an ideal gas natural convection in the system. This
in a thermal gradient from source to sink. convection affects heat and mass transport
Subsequent experiment supports the theory. to and from the growing film, and thereby
A further result of this work is the discovery affects the microstructure, morphology, and
of intrinsic optical bistability in metal-free properties of the film. Preliminary numeri-
phthalocyanine films which enables the cal simulations of the fluid flow indicate
possibility of the development of logic gate that convection is present in the system even
technology on the basis of these materials. under conditions often thought to be
Bistability in these films is due to changes gravitationally stable.I
in the level of absorption and refractive
index caused by thermal excitation. This One area in which experimental results have
nonlinear effect could improve dramatically established that convection plays a role is
in highly oriented microgravity processed defect formation: films grown in 1-g
films. 2 contain small (submicron) solid particles
embedded throughout. These particles can
IFrazier, D.O.; Hung, R.J.; Paley, M.S.; scatter light and thereby lower the optical
Penn, B.G.; Long, Y.T.: "Buoyancy- quality of the films. The particles consist of
Driven Heat Transfer During Application precipitated polymer which forms in the
of a Thermal Gradient for the Study of bulk solution, and get transported by
Vapor Deposition at Low Pressure Using convection to the surface of the growing
film where they become embedded. In some
164
_IOIoIOIOIOIOIOIOIOI@_@_
IOIOIOIO10IOYO1010I@_ IOIoIOIOIOYOIOI@IOIOIO10I@IOIO_ I@l@IOIoI@IoI@IOIo_
Researc_ ProOrs_I$
cases the particles may actually nucleate on Last September an experiment grown films clearly exhibited fewer defects
the film surface itself. By varying the (PTFG-CONCAP IV--03) was flown than the best ground-based films (fig. 145).
orientation of the growth chamber with aboard Endeavor (STS-69) in which films This demonstrates that reducing convection
respect to gravity to minimize convection, were grown in the reduced convection can result in higher quality polydiacetylene
the concentration of particles in the films environment of microgravity. While results films.
can be reduced but not eliminated (fig. 144). varied among samples, the best space-
Not only can convection affect the transport
of particles which are formed in the
(a) solution, it can also transport colloidal
particles which are purposely introduced
Monomer
into the system to alter the optical proper-
Solution Substrate
ties. For example, small metal nanoparticles
incorporated into a nonlinear host polymer
can be used to enhance the nonlinearity and
also reduce undesirable effects such as two-
photon absorption, which causes loss.
UV Researchers at MSFC have successfully
prepared gold colloids in organic solvents,
which, in turn, provides a means for getting
the particles into polymer hosts. 2 PDAMNA
films containing gold nanoparticles are
Thin Film -_-- readily obtained using photodepositon from
such organic gold colloids. The resulting
films, however, suffer from gradients in the
1,000 x: Side Ultraviolet Irradiation;
metal concentration which most likely
Significant Convection--Unstable result from convection. In order to achieve
the desired optical properties, uniform
concentration of the metal colloid is
UV neccessary. Processing in a diffusion-
(b)
controlled environment could thus be quite
_ _ _,F substrate beneficial.
Preliminary studies conducted at MSFC of

the rate law for polydiacetylene film
photodeposition indicate that the rate of
film growth depends linearly on UV
- _. radiation intensity and, interestingly,

square root of monomer concentration?
on the
Also, it is known that the rate increases with

higher temperature. Because convection
affects the temperature and concentration
profiles along the surface of the growing
Monomer film, the rate of film growth will likewise be
affected. Variations in the growth rate along
Solution
the surface can lead to uneven film growth;
this is manifested in the thickness and
1,000 x: Top Ultraviolet Irradiation;
surface roughness of the films.
Less Convection--Shallow
Unstable Layer on Top In addition to affecting the formation and/or

distribution of bulk particles in
polydiacetylene films photodeposited from
FIGURE
144.--PDAMNA films grown in two differenl orientations: a) films grown with the solution, convection may also affect the
chamber horizontal; b) films grown with the chamber vertical. molecular orientation. Recently, researchers
165
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
CONCAP IV-3 PTFG Cell 9 2Brust, M.; Walker, M.; Bethell, D.;
Schiffrin, D.J.; Whyman, R.: Journal of
Chemistry Society Chemical Communica-
tions, 801, 1994.
3paley, M.S.; Armstrong, S.; Witherow,

W.K.; Frazier, D.O.: Chemistry of
Materials, 8(4), 912, 1996.
4McArdle, C.B.: Ed., Side Chain Liquid

Crystal Polymers. Publication:Chapman
and Hall, NY, 1989.

Science and Applications
University/Industry Involvement: Mark S.

Paley, principal investigator, Universities
Space Research Association (USRA);
Optron Systems, Inc., Bedford, MA
Biographical Sketch: Donald O. Frazier is a

senior scientist for physical chemistry at
MSFC. Frazier earned his Ph.D at Rutgers
University. He develops research programs
which focus on microgravity processing for
fundamental and applications sciences. He
also serves as project scientist for ground-
based and flight programs, and establishes
educational outreach relevant to ongoing
projects. In addition, he promotes technol-
ogy transfer relevant to research programs.
100/_m
FIGURE145.---PDAMNA films grown in space. The best space-grown films clearly exhibit
fewer particles than the best ground-based films.
discovered that these films exhibit partial to become entangled and matted around
alignment of the polymer chains normal to each other as they grow longer. The use of
the substrate surface, This is important moieties chemically incorporated into the
because ordered films are desired for many polydiacetylene structure is being investi-
applications. Convection may be detrimen- gated to aid in inducing self-alignment of
tal to obtaining well-ordered films. It has the polymer chains. 4 At Rice University, a
been observed that in 1-g films grown for student researcher is performing synthetic
short durations of time are more highly modifications to PDAMNA which appear to
ordered than those grown for longer exhibit the desired behavior.
durations. This could be a result of
convection; the turbulent and chaotic lFrazier, D.O; Hung, R.J.; Paley, M.S.;
molecular motions that take place during Long, Y.T.: Journal of Crystal Growth, in
convection could cause the polymer chains press, 1996.
166
__ IOIOlO IoIOleIOIOIO_IO Io_ leIOIOI_e IoIololoIo_
Resoarch Programs
Protein Crystallization on the growth and quality of protein inception of the protein crystal growth
crystals. program in 1985. It should be noted that the
Apparatus for Microgravity PCAM hardware pioneered the develop-
Improvements in the quality protein crystals ment and deployment of disposable
Daniel C. Carter/ES01 can be the limiting step in the determination interface in flight hardware which has
205-544-5492 of the atomic structure. A detailed knowl- resulted in greatly reduced costs, as well as
E-mail: Dan.Carter@msfc.nasa.gov edge of the atomic three-dimensional numerous additional advantages. Highlights
structure of protein molecules is key to a of the PCAM and diffusion-controlled
fundamental understanding of biochemistry crystallization apparatus for microgravity
The major objectives of this research are and is of tremendous application in (DCAM) experiments include crystals of
aimed at the design, construction, and structure-based drug design. Further, human antithrombin IIl (Dr. Mark Wardell,
operation of an improved microgravity examination of crystals grown in micro- Washington University) which were of
protein crystal growth hardware and facility. gravity provides important scientific data greatly improved quality. These crystals
which illuminates the mechanisms involved have allowed for the completion of the
Previously, in response to the first NASA in the growth of high-quality crystals in the atomic model of this important protein.
biotechnology NRA, we proposed to microgravity environment. Improved crystals have also been grown of
develop and construct a facility based
neurophysin/vaspressin complex, liver
protein crystal growth concept. This was
During the course of this investigation augmenter, (Dr. B.C. Wang, Dr. John Rose,
undertaken largely because of the many hardware design and construction has University of Georgia) raf kinase, (Drs. J.P.
important examples of quality improve- proceeded rapidly through hand-held Wery and David Clawson, Eli Lilly) and the
ments gained from growth in the diffusion- versions to complete facility hardware. A nucleosome core particle (Dr. Gerry Bunick
limited environment in space. The concept
large flight coinvestigator group has been and Joel Harp, Oak Ridge National
was based on the adaptation for micrograv- established and the hardware has been Laboratory). Several publications describ-
ity of a commonly used disposable manifested and flown succesfully on several ing the improvements gained from
crystallization tray thereby improving Shuttle missions (table 10). Additionally, microgravity are in preparation. 1996
sample logistics and handling, as well as
special dialysis counter-diffusion hardware marked the first long-duration experiment
greatly increasing the potential has been designed, constructed and is now for DCAM. Crystals produced from DCAM
coinvestigator group and science return. The currently active on Mir. The accomplish- returned from STS-79 after a 6-month stay
proposal proceeded in two phases, in the ments from both the hardware development on Mir were recently distributed to the guest
first stage a hand-held concept was to be
and the results from the flight experiments investigator group. Notable accomplish-
developed and tested in microgravity to test
have been outstanding. Over the course of ments include numerous large, spectacular
the principal/concept. If successful, we 3 flights of the protein crystallization crystals of the nucleosome core particle
further proposed to construct a facility for apparatus for microgravity (PCAM) facility which were the largest grown to date
the mass production of protein crystals for hardware in 1995, over 1,600 individual (Dr. Gerry Bunick and Joel Harp, Oak
application in the structure determination.
vapor equilibration experiments were flown, Ridge National Laboratory) and the largest
Access to the facility is open to scientist exceeding the total number flown in under crystal ever produced of T7 RNA
from industry, academia and government
the Microgravity Science and Applications polymerase (Dr. B.C. Wang, Dr. John Rose,
laboratories. The principal aims of the Division (MSAD) program since the University of Georgia). A summary for the
research are:
• Establish a protein crystal growth facility
which would provide greatly increased TABLElO.--Flight hardware characteristics.
experiment and coinvestigator capacity in
order to increase the odds of obtaining
crystals of improved quality for applica-
tion in this atomic structure determina-
STS--62 I HH-PCAM 96 1 4
tion, consequently increasing the overall
STS-63 I 6 PCAM 378 7 (5 groups) 9
science return from each mission;
STS-67 I 6 PCAM 378 11 (8 groups) 9
• Investigate the disposable interface
STS-73 I 12 PCAM 756 13 (8 groups) 12
concept in development of microgravity
8 Short PCAM 168 1
hardware for reduced cost and improve-
81 DCAM 81 3 3
ments in logistics and handling; and
STS-76 I 162 DCAM 162 8 (7 groups) 9
• Utilize the facility to delineate factors
STS-79 I 162 DCAM 162 9 (7 groups) 11
contributing to the effect of microgravity
167
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
and he has been selected for NASA Inventor

flight experiments conducted to date are
of the Year awards. His current research
Microgravity Liquid
synoposized in table 10. Several publica-
tions describing the effects and improve- interests in structural biology include Containment Vessel
ments gained in microgravity are in important HIV proteins, improvements in
preparation. drug efficacy and delivery through rational Dale M. Kornfeld/ES76
drug design, and blood replacement 205-544-7808
Carter, D.: "PCAM and DCAM, Summary products. Carter received his Ph.D. in x-ray E-mail: dale.kornfeld@msfc.nasa.gov
of Flight Results 1994-96." Protein crystallography from the University of
Crystal Growth Workshop, Panama City, Pittsburgh in 1984. _,_
FL, May 1996. Numerous protein crystal growth experi-
ments performed in microgravity have been
Carter, D.: "PCAM and DCAM, Summary degraded due to the existence of air bubbles
of Flight Results 1995-96." Gordon within the liquid solutions. Other materials
Research Conference, New Hampshire, processing and fluid experiments flown on
June 1996. Space Shuttle missions have encountered
similar problems. The origins of most of
Carter, D.: "PCAM and DCAM Hardware these bubbles were generally unknown,
and Facility," International Microgravity except where leakage was an obvious cause.
Protein Crystal Growth Workshop,
University of California, Riverside, 1996. To study this problem, a variety of liquid-
handling experiments were developed by
Sponsor: Microgravity Science and Dale Kornfeld at MSFC and Dr. Basil Antar
Applications Division, NASA Headquarters at the University of Tennessee Space
Institute and flown aboard the NASA
University/Industry Involvement: Eli KC-135 aircraft during the last 3 years with
Lilly and Company; Monsanto/Searle; a specific purpose of understanding the
DuPont Merk; Oak Ridge National conditions that lead to incipience and
Laboratory; Washington University School growth of unwanted bubbles during liquid-
of Medicine, St. Louis; University of handling operations in microgravity. These
Louvain, Belgium; University of Georgia; procedures included the filling of various
University of Pittsburgh; Virginia Common- empty containers with liquid, liquid jet-
wealth University; University of impingement on a vessel wall, stirring of a
Saskatchewan, Canada; University of partially-filled container, geysering in a
Colorado; University of Groningen, The liquid pool, and several others, all using
Netherlands; Justus-Liebig University, liquids with different surface tensions. Each
Giessen, Germany; University of Heisinki,
Finland; Max-Delbruck-Centrum flit
Molekulare Medizin PG Kristallographie, ...- :'.._ 10 crn
Berlin, Germany; Institut de Biologie
Structurale Jean Pierre Ebel, Grenoble,
France; Rosenstiel Basic Medical Sciences
Research Center at Brandeis University,
Maryland.
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Dan Carter is the

senior scientist for biophysics at Marshall Needie " _,
and is director of the Laboratory for
Structural Biology. His accomplishments
include the crystallization and atomic
structure determination of several important
proteins including serum plasma albumin. FIGURE146.---Drawing of a typical "cage"
His research has been published in scientific tested during many parabolas
journals, featured on the cover of Science, on the NASA KC-135 aircraft.
168
Researci_
Proqram$
gas voids at the corners of the vessel, or Antar, B.N.; Kornfeld, D.M.: "Gas/Liquid
from wall defects as liquid spread along a Flows During Low-Gravity Fluid
wall. Handling Procedures." AIAA Paper no.
AIAA-96-0502, January, 1996.
Results from these flights led the investiga-
tors to invent a novel design for a low- Sponsor: Biotechnology Project Office
gravity liquid containment vessel which will
minimize bubble formation while being Biographical Sketch: Dale M. Kornfeld is
filled. The primary feature of this vessel is a chemical engineer, AST Aerospace
the absence of walls and corners; the new Polymeric Materials, in the Space Sciences
vessel consisting only of an open-weave Laboratory. Kornfeld currently is lead
mesh. Solid wails are not necessary for scientist and engineer on the low-gravity
liquid containment in microgravity, since bubble generation experiment, flown
the surface tension force becomes the most 15 times on a NASA KC-135 low-gravity
FIGURE147.--A test pholo of one of the dominant force. The air-liquid interface, aircraft. He has served as a mission scientist
cages being filled during pinned by the mesh, in effect becomes the team member on three Marshall-managed
a Iow-G parabola. wall. This type vessel, actually a three- Spacelab missions and has received
dimensional "cage," whose shape and numerous awards, including a NASA
volume are defined by a thin mesh is fully Inventor of the Year award in 1984.
liquid injection or agitation was recorded adequate for containing liquid volumes
using high-speed movie film and was while in microgravity. Both plastic and wire
performed during an aircraft parabola mesh cages of various sizes, with gaps from
providing ~ 20 sec of low-g (~ 10 3). 1/8- to 1/2-in between each mesh strand,
Approximately 40 parabolas could be have been tested during low-G parabolas
flown in one day. Posfflight analysis of the and were found to easily contain liquid
film revealed that in almost all cases the indefinitely at l0 -2 G or lower, and to even
bubbles formed were either folded into the contain liquid during transients of-10 -1 G.
liquid bulk during breakup of the gas/liquid
interface, or they originated from trapped In addition to bubble minimization,
numerous other benefits over solid-wall
containers are suggested, i.e., investigators
will have easy access to all parts of a fluid
volume while in microgravity for sample
withdrawal or injection; equilibration of
vapor pressures when the cage is inside a
larger containment box, etc. A cage-
container would be useful for solution
crystal growth experiments in general, and
protein crystal growth experiments, in
particular.
Antar, B.N.; Kornfeld, D.M.: "Bubble

Generation During Low-Gravity Fluid
Handling Procedures." AIAA Paper no.
AIAA-95-0878, January, 1995.
Kornfeld, D.M.; Antar, B.N.: "Bubble-Free

Containers for Liquids in Microgravity."
NASA Tech Briefs, vol.19, no.12, p.91,
December 1995.
FIGURE148.--A photo of lest work as flown
aboard the NASA KC-135
aircraft.
169
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
• June 1996, publication of "Ground-Based

Space Aerogel the average of the aerogel, i. e., index of
refraction 1.00 versus 1.02. Thus research Studies on Aerogel Transparency."
on aerogel preparation to improve its clarity Journal of Materials Research, 1996.
DavidNoever/ES76 currently is focused on minimizing the • September 1996, received first porosity
205-544-7783 number and size of the large pore popula- data from rocket flight; results being
E-mail:david.noever@msfc.nasa.gov tion in the aerogel. analyzed, but indicate 4 to 5 times
improved pore size control in the space-
On April 3, 1996, the first space samples of When characterized for porosity (nitrogen processed aerogel.
aerogels were produced by NASA in low- adsorption and desorption), the space
Earth orbit on the Starfire Rocket. Aerogel aerogel showed a four-fold reduction in lLeontjev, V., et al.: Micro-g Science
is the iightest solid known--only three pore sizes in the 17- to 3,000-/_ range, Symposium, Moscow, May 13-17, p.
times the density of air. A gel is an compared to otherwise identical ground 274, 1991.
amorphous solid formed from a liquid with controls. Since the light scattering varies 2Bogatyreva, et al.: Sixth ESA Conference
defined gellation conditions for temperature with pore size to the sixth power, a ESA-SP-333, vol. 1, 1992.
and concentration. As the only known calculated reduction in opacity of
transparent insulator, aerogel is a 4,000 times is derived. The difference in Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary
supercritically dried gel with all its liquid porosity may arise from lack of sedimenta- Fund
removed--sometimes garnering the name tion during the early stages of space
"frozen smoke." A block the size of a gellation, in which large gel particles entrap University/Industry Involvement:
human weighs less than a pound. An inch or occlude solvent into a mosaic rather than Lawrence Berkeley National Labs; Aerojet;
thickness can shield a hand from the heat of a more close-packed structure. The Universities Space Research Association
a blowtorch. A sugar-cube-sized portion of comparison between ground and space (USRA)
the material has the internal surface area of samples becomes more striking when pore
a basketball court. volume is considered, since more than a Biographical Sketches: Dr. David Noever
decade and a half of ground research is a research scientist in the Space Sciences
The formation of these gels has attracted typically produces pore volumes in the Laboratory at Marshall. He has held this
space research, owing to the strong range of 5 to 7 cm3/g (inverse density), but position since 1991. His association with
influence of gravity on how a gel is formed. the space aerogel has a benchmark value of Marshall began in 1988 as an USRA
"Practically all biochemical processes 1.07 to 1.6 cm3/g. For pure solid silica visiting scientist. Noever currently initiates
which occur in living beings are proceeding (0.5 cm3/g) with no pores, the space aerogel and designs microgravity experiments in
in medium with a sol-gel balance of all is remarkably close to the values expected materials processing, with particular
components. If fragments of gel phase from a 30 to 50 percent solid, compared to emphasis on aerogel production. Noever
depend on gravity, it can be an additional the typical 5 to 10 percent solid material received his B.S. degree in chemical
way for gravity to influence living beings, encountered on the ground. The next engineering from Princeton University,
including humans. "1 In fact, "gel formation generation aerogel experiment will be Princeton, N.J. in 1984. He graduated
can display very high gravitational optimized for longer, more quiescent summa cum laurie; was a Phi Beta Kappa;
dependence... The structure of gel matrices conditions in the Shuttle middeck. and a Chevron Scholar. He earned his Ph.D.
obtained on Earth and in orbital conditions in theoretical physics at Oxford University,
has been found to be different.., space According to the "Technology to Watch" Oxford, U.K., in 1988. While there he was a
processing of gels could be quite section of Fortune Magazine (1992), the Rhodes Scholar and earned a Silver Medal
advantageous.., microgravity conditions overall market for the aerogel industry at the Royal Society of Arts, London, U.K.
can allow gels with a more uniform or worldwide is projected to include more than D,'
prescribed structure. ''2 800 potential product lines ranging from
surfboards to space satellite components.
Aerogel is transparent because its micro-
structure is very small compared to the Research Milestones:
wavelength of light. However, as currently • June 1995, KC-135 Low-Gravity
processed on Earth, all but the clearest Production of Low-Density Silica Flocs
aerogels scatter some light at the blue end (results published in Microgravity
of the spectrum giving them a slightly hazy Science and Technology, 1995).
appearance. The scattering can be thought • April 1996, microgravity Starfire rocket
of as arising from the large holes or pores flight successfully forms 32 samples of
that have a lower index of refraction than aerogel.
170
_IOIO_IO IOIOlOI__ _ IDIOIOIOIOIOI_OlOIOIO IDIOI_I_IoloIoIO_
ResearchProgram.s
A Protein Crystal Growth exactly analogous to the most commonly This will constitute assembly of a working
employed temperature-control methods in system which will be totally controlled
Studies Cell (Year 3 of 3) the laboratory. The primary disadvantage is through a computer keyboard. Methods of
the reliance on a circulating fluid, which remotely positioning the growth cell, while
MarcL. Pusey/ES76 may be a safety problem for I.tg applica- the system is interfaced to a video camera
205-544-7823 tions. Regardless, this is the favored system, for data acquisition, will be patterned upon
and we have now started assembly of a those currently employed in a growth-rate
E-maihpusey@crystal.msfc.nasa.gov
prototype circulator bath of ~ 200- to apparatus in this laboratory. This work will
300-ml volume. Minimizing the bath be done concurrently with, and as a part of,
This proposal is to develop growth cells, a volume is desirable from the standpoint of the interfacing of the fluidics system to the
fluids preparation system, and practical reducing the cooling (power consumption) growth cell.
means for long-term storage of protein required. However, this also reduces the
solutions for a protein crystal growth thermal mass which serves to dampen Two sets of long-term storage stability
studies system. The project was initiated in oscillations in the temperature. measurements have been made using the
FY95, and this represents the third year of proteins lysozyme and ovostatin. Storage
this effort. The fluidics system has been reconfigured conditions were at 20, 4, and -20 °C, both
to improve its compatibility with the protein as a solution and as a lyophilized powder.
Two concerns have driven the growth cell crystal growth cell. The redesigned system The storage period was 3 months, and the
design effort. The first was recognition that has two pairs of solution delivery syringes. materials were assayed for crystallizability
higher performance interferometry systems Each pair is capable of independantly every 2 weeks over this period. As expected,
would enable us to achieve all of our preparing a solution, with the components the least stable storage conditions were
experimental goals with smaller crystals. being drawn from one of eight stock solutions at 20 °C. While lysozyme was
The second was that smaller growth cells reservoirs. By going to this type of design, expected to show exceptional stability,
would consume considerably less solution. we are able to separately prepare the buffer ovostatin was expected to be very sensitive
Small-volume cell design has now gone and protein solutions, and mix them to the storage conditions. Surprisingly,
through two iterations, with the first being a immediately prior to injection into the ovostatin showed a high degree of stability,
plain cell and the second being a cell growth cell. The second syringe in each pair as determined by crystallizability, both in
enclosed in a water jacket. Prototype small is used to allow the solution to be passed solution and lyophilized at 4 °C, and the
volume glass cells (0.3 mm by 10 mm by back and forth. Tests with a concentrated protein kept its crystallizability consider-
30 mm) have proven to be extremely polyethyleneglycol and dye solution have ably longer than expected at 20 °C. We are
suitable in use in an optical face growth rate shown that mixing can be achieved by this now defining crystallization conditions for
measuring system in this laboratory. technique in the laboratory. four new test proteins, lactate dehydroge-
nase, a-amylase, ovalbumin, and
Solution temperature control will be A working assembly of the syringe system, ovotransferrin, for use in storage (and other
developed along two lines. The first will be and current operations include debugging/ crystal growth) experiments over the next
to stick with the now-developed method of improving the hardware and controlling year. It should be pointed out that the lactate
surrounding the growth cell with a heater software. Specifically, this means optimiz- dehydrogenase being was obtained over
working against a surrounding cooling ing the solution withdrawal routines, 3 years ago, and stored as a suspension in
system. Growth cell temperature control to standardizing the lengths of the solution 3.2 Molar ammonium sulfate solution at
within +0.025 °C has been demonstrated lines, improving the control wiring layouts, 4 °C. This material is still pure by electro-
with this system. However, this method is and improving the software user interface phoretic measurements and still crystallizes.
bulky, and adequate optical access to the and modularity to make it easier to add
growth cell may introduce thermal gradients additional features as needed. Concurrent This system will provide the basis for a
across the growth cell at the optical access with this, assembly is underway of a phase dedicated protein crystal growth studies
ports, the regions of least thermal control, shift interferometer and face growth rate system suitable for use in both microgravity
and uncertainties about the actual tempera- systems (to which the fluidics system will and on Earth. Through use of such a system,
ture. These difficulties have led us to be connected) in order to: it is anticipated that the factors which
investigate a growth cell with a surrounding • Conduct data collection runs which can govern protein crystal growth, and the
water jacket, with temperature control be compared to existing data; and resultant x-ray diffraction quality of the
supplied by a remotely located circulating • Begin collection of reference ground- crystals will be obtained. Higher diffraction
bath. This reduces the overall bulk of the based interferometry results for compari- resolution crystals means a better under-
growth cell, while enabling us to "dump" son with planned glovebox interferometer standing of the structure-function relation-
the waste heat elsewhere. This system is experiments. ship in the proteins being studied, which, in
171
_-I_oIoI_I@I_IoIeI_I_DI_I_I_IoI_I_IoIoI@I_I_I@IoIoI_IoIeI_Io_o_oIoI_IoI__I_IoI_IoIoIDIoI_I@I_I_IUI_
turn will lead to faster/more facile design of

drugs, for example, targeted to that specific
protein.
A versatile, real-time, and user-friendly

system for studying protein crystal growth
is now under final assembly in this
laboratory. This system will enable
researchers to collect growth data by a
variety of methods, with the parameters for
each experiment being determinable
immediately prior to execution, based upon
the previous data. A design philosophy of
this system is that it should be of practical
utility for corresponding ground-based PCG
studies. The overall design analysis goals
are the ability to measure face growth rates,
solution concentration gradients, and
interfacial growth features in either
quiescent or defined flow velocity solutions.
Sponsor" Office of Life and Microgravity

Science and Applications
Biographical Sketch: Marc Pusey

currently holds the position of AST
materials specialist in the Biophysics
Branch of NASA/MSFC. He obtained his
Ph.D in biochemistry at the University of
Miami, Florida, and did his postdoctoral
research at the University of Minnesota.
Dr. Pusey currently conducts experiments
into all aspects of the protein crystal growth
process, including the interaction of the
protein with the surrounding solvent, how
the monomeric materials aggregate to form
nuclei, the measurement of crystal growth
rates, and the effects of aggregation on the
crystal growth process. IIE
172
_IOIIOOIOIOIOIOIOIO
ResearchPrograms
Earth System Science
Interannual Variability value, it is important to understand the increase during the onset of El Nifio in
effects of biases and random errors. 1987. A decrease in LWCS is seen in 1988/
in Tropical Radiation lntercomparing these three data bases has 1989 as SST's decrease during La Nina.
and Water Vapor enabled us to greatly

dence in our result.
enhance our confi- However, the amplitudes of this response
are seen to differ. Through our analysis of
the measurement strategies we have found
Franklin R. Robertson/ES42
Figure 149 shows a time series for each of that the ERBS sensor has too little dynamic
205-922-5836 three LWCS data sets: the Earth Radiation range, due mostly to difficulties in properly
E-mail: pete.robertson@msfc.nasa.gov Budget Satellite (ERBS); University of distinguishing partly cloudy scenes from
Maryland's high-resolution infrared sounder those that are clear but have abundant water
More than any other factor, the presence of (UMD HIRS); and TIROS operational vapor present. We also suspect that each of
water defines the unique characteristics of vertical sounder (TOVS Path A). Also the three methods is subject to some error
climate on planet Earth. Evaporation from shown is the tropical average SST from arising from the inability to screen very thin
the ocean/land surface and trapping of National Oceanic and Atmospheric high ice clouds when looking almost
upwelling longwave radiation by atmo- Association's (NOAA) Climate Analysis vertically. Sensitivity studies indicate that
spheric water vapor are processes that Center. These time series are composed of biases arising from this effect are only
moderate climate at the surface. At present monthly mean departures, or anomalies, several tenths Wm -2.
it is uncertain how variability in the global from their respective 3-year monthly
hydrologic cycle, whether natural or climatology. Also shown is a calculation of If we calculate the slope of the quantity
anthropogenic, will modify climate in the LWCS anomalies we would expect if there (LWCS anomaly/SST anomaly), or
future. As part of NASA's Mission To were no variability in atmospheric water ALWCS/ASST from the data in figure 149,
Planet Earth (MTPE) research program, we vapor. Each data set shows a general we obtain: ERBS (1.67 Wm-2K-I), UMD
are using a combination of infrared satellite tendency for the Earth/atmosphere system (2.93 Wm 2K-1 ), and TOVS Path A
measurements and numerical models to to emit more LWCS as tropical ocean SST's (2.77 Wm-2K-I). These slopes are
study short-term climate variations and the
role that water plays in these. In particular
the phenomena known as El Nifio is a LWCS Anomalies (W]m2) (30S to 30N Ocean Only)
frequent but aperiodic readjustment of 2.5
tropical climate that provides us a natural 1-2-1 Smoothing
"laboratory" in which to study the dynamics 2.0 calc
of water in climate. An El Nifio event
together with a subsequent readjustment 1.5
phase known as La Nina, may take two to
three years to complete. This time span is 1.0 tovs path a
short enough to be monitored by individual

satellite sensors measuring temperature, 0.5 umd
moisture, and upwelling radiation from the
planet. 0
The key issue that we have focused on in -0.5

the past year is the impact of El Nifio-
related water vapor changes on outgoing -1.0
longwave clear-sky radiation (LWCS)
during the period 1987 through 1989. The -1.5
fundamental statistic of interest is the
change in LWCS with change in sea-surface -2.0
temperature (SST) averaged over the
tropical oceans (30 degrees north to south). -2.5
Fortunately, three independent data bases of JAN APR JUL OCT JAN APR JUL OCT JAN APR JUL OCT
LWCS were available during this period. 1987 1988 1989
Because maximum excursions in area-mean
LWCS are of the order 3.0 Wm 2, or about FIGURE149.--L2WCS estimates from three satellite-based algorithms (ERBS, TOVS,
1 percent of the climatological LWCS Path A, UMD HIRS) and a radiative model calculation (calc).
173
important because of what they tell us about this study to phase well with the Tropical Marine Boundary-Layer
changes in greenhouse trapping of LWCS Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM).
by changes in atmospheric water vapor and Since tropical precipitation releases energy
Clouds and Their
temperature induced by El Nifio/La Nina. If to heat the tropics and drive planetary wind
Representation in a
the greenhouse trapping, or ratio of LWCS fields, our studies will provide some insight
measured by satellite at the top-of- as to how this heat is rejected back to space Climate Model
atmosphere to the LWCS emitted by the and exported to higher latitudes to maintain
ocean surface were constant during this the global heat balance. FranklinR.Robertson/ES41
period, we would expect the slope ALWCS/ 205-922-5836
ASST to be about 3.9 Wm-2K -1. Each of Robertson, ER.; Fitzjarrald, D.; Braswell,
E-mail:pete.robertson@msfc.nasa.gov
our estimates of the actual ALWCS/ASST is W.D.: "Anomalies in Radiation, Heat and
substantially smaller. This suggests that Water Budgets as Diagnosed from Pre-
during warm SST periods, more LWCS EOS Data Sets: Insights on Tropical The marine boundary layer is the bottom
radiation is being trapped by increased Climate Sensitivity." 1996 NOAA 500 to 2,000 m of the atmosphere over
water vapor. Sensitivity analyses indicate Climate Diagnostics Workshop, Hunts- oceans. Because of the availability of heat
that ERBS is about 1.5 Wm-2K -1 too small, ville, AL, October 27-November 1, 1996. and moisture, clouds often form in this
while UMD and TOVS Path A are of the shallow and turbulent layer for a long
order 10 percent too small. Even with these Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth lasting period, and cover extensive areas.
adjustments our conclusion still holds: Their existence has important influences on
During El Nino, changes in atmospheric University Involvement: University of Earth's climate for the following reasons.
water vapor and thermal structure act to Maryland First, these clouds are highly reflective for
retard LWCS cooling of the tropical oceanic solar radiation compared to their underly-
regions. Biographical Sketch: Dr. Franklin ing ocean surfaces, so they drastically
Robertson (Ph.D. Purdue University, 1981) reduce the amount of solar radiation
Our current efforts are directed to two areas. leads the Climate Diagnostics and Modeling absorbed by the Earth. In the meantime, the
First, we are conducting radiative modeling Group in studying water and its influence emitted infrared radiation from these
studies to separate atmospheric temperature on the atmosphere and climate dynamics. clouds to space are not much different from
effects from water vapor effects. Our initial He serves as the lead MSFC investigator on that from the ocean surfaces, since the
results suggest that temperature changes a joint EOS interdisciplinary investigation cloud-top absolute temperatures are not
enhance radiative losses to space during "The Global Water Cycle: Extension Across significantly lower than those of the
El Nifio, while water vapor is the agent that the Earth Sciences," conducted jointly with surfaces due to the low altitude of the
retards radiative loss. Our other area of Pennsylvania State University. Robertson clouds. As a result, these clouds reduce the
focus is to determine the extent to which has also contributed to the formulation of total radiation energy received by the
water vapor changes during E1 Nifio and science strategies for a NASA space-borne surfaces, which suggests that they tend to
La Nina, when averaged over the tropical lidar to measure atmospheric wind provide an overall cooling effect to the
oceans, are the result of moisture transport measurements critical to studies of the planet. In addition, these clouds are
by winds from the tropical land areas. This global energy and water cycle. ___ intimately involved in regulating moisture
other mechanism for moisture supply would fluxes from the oceans, which are the
be in-situ ocean surface evaporation. major moisture source for the atmosphere.
Thus, marine boundary layer clouds are
This ongoing research is supported under important components of the climate and
the office of MTPE and constitutes an should be realistically represented in a
important inquiry into how the hydrologic climate model. However, this representa-
cycle is involved in climate variability. The tion remains one of most difficult and
three data sets used are forerunners of more unsolved problems, since the computer
precise measurements to be undertaken by models cannot explicitly resolve the
the Earth-observing component of MTPE. phenomena with the scales less than their
We anticipate that in the near term these grid length (several hundred kilometers)
results will be of use in validating climate due to the limited computer power. More
models which use the 1987/1989 period as a importantly, our knowledge of the physical
test case. We have performed some of these processes operating in the clouds are far
type studies in house with the GENESIS from complete, which makes impossible a
climate model. We also expect the results of realistic representation of the clouds in the
174
_IOIOIOIO
Research Programs
current climate models. In this research, we used the same two-dimensional model to influence on the atmosphere and climate
have focused on the following issues. simulate diurnal variation of marine dynamics. He is involved in validating
boundary layer clouds with two different clouds and their representation in climate
cloud droplet numbers, 50/cm 3 and models. Robertson serves as the lead MSFC
Understanding the Interaction Between
150/cm 3. The model calculation reveals that investigator on a joint EOS interdisciplinary
Shallow Cumulus and Stratiform Clouds
when CCN number increases, the simulated investigation "The Global Water Cycle:
Observations from the recent field experi- albedo increases. However, since liquid Extension Across the Earth Sciences,"
ment, Atlantic stratocumulus transition water content decreases resulting from the conducted jointly with Pennsylvania State
experiment (ASTEX) showed that cumulus increase of the solar absorption, the cloud University.
and stratocumulus clouds often coexist over albedo does not increase as much as it
large areas of the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, it is would if no interaction between CCN and
important to understand how the cloud the cloud dynamics is allowed. The relative
system maintains. We used a two-dimen- decrease due to the absorption feedback is
sional numerical model that can explicitly between 0 and 20 percent, with the
resolve turbulent eddies in the boundary maximum decrease just after noon local
layer for this study. The model results time. The daily average decrease is about
indicate a strong mass detrainment from the 5 percent. Current research is focusing on
cumulus to stratiform clouds, suggesting the the following questions:
importance of cumulus clouds in maintain- • Is it likely that a realistic increase in CCN
ing the stratiform clouds. It has been found number eliminates all the clouds?
from budget analysis that although the • Is the decrease in the cloud albedo due to
cumulus updrafts occupy only 1 percent of the cloud absorption important to the
the domain, it contributes significantly to climate change problem?
the turbulent fluxes. In addition, the These questions will be addressed using
horizontal transport of liquid water from detailed models of atmospheric processes,
cumulus updrafts to stratiform clouds is and comparing results with observations
significant compared with the vertical and theory. Results will be used to improve
turbulent transport in the stratiform clouds the parameterization of these processes in
region. These results suggest that one needs global climate models.
to explicitly include the contribution from
cumulus convection in the representation of Wang, S.: "Defining Marine Boundary-
large area of marine boundary-layer clouds. Layer Clouds With a Prognostic
Scheme." Monthly Weather Review, vol.
124, pp. 1617-1833, 1996.
Effects of the Microphysics on the Cloud
Optical Properties
Wang, S.: "A Prognostic Approach of
It has long been recognized that an increase Parameterizing Marine Boundary-Layer
in cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Clouds." Abstracts in AGU fall meeting,
concentration number leads to an increase December 15-20, San Francisco, CA
in the cloud albedo provided the liquid 1996.
water content does not change, which is so-
called Twomey effect. The assumption for Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth;
this hypothesis is that there is no interaction Atmospheric Radiation and Dynamics
between CCN change and cloud dynamics, Program
which may be termed as noninteractive
condition. However, when CCN number University/Industry Involvement:
increases, the absorption of thin clouds Dr. Shouping Wang, Universities Space
increases, which will tend to reduce cloud Research Association
liquid water by cutting off the moisture
supply from below. This results in negative Biographical Sketch: Dr. Franklin
feedback from the cloud absorption to the Robertson, (Ph.D., Purdue University,
aibedo, which may be termed an interactive 1981), leads the Climate Diagnostics and
condition. To evaluate the feedback, we Modeling Group in studying water and its
175
Progress during the past year has focused

Remote Sensing of Urban examining high-resolution airborne remote
sensing data obtained over the Huntsville, on deriving a visualization model of heating
Land Use and Effects AL metropolitan area. and cooling patterns for the Huntsville area.
Figure 150 represents ATLAS 10-m pixel
on Climate
Day and night airborne thermal infrared spatial resolution data for daytime that have
image data were collected at 5- and 10-m been draped on top of digital elevation
Dale A. Quattrochi/ES41 spatial resolutions over Huntsville on model (DEM) data for a portion of the study
205-922-5887 September 7, 1994, using the NASA area. Prominent features are Huntsville and
E-maih dale.quattrochi@msfc,nasa.gov Advanced Thermal and Land Applications Green Mountains on the right side of the
Sensor (ATLAS). The ATLAS is a image, Jones Valley located in the center of
15-channel scanner with 9 visible and the image which is comprised of pasture
Jeffrey C. Luvall/ES41
middle and near-reflective infrared bands land for grazing cattle, the low hills
205-922-5886
between 0.45 to 4.20 _m, and 6 thermal bordering Jones Valley on the left, and an
E-maih jeff.luvall@msfc.nasa.gov urbanized area on the far left side of the
infrared bands in the 8.20 to 12.2 ktm range.
ATLAS data were acquired during the image. This three-dimensional perspective
The urban heat island effect exists as a daytime between approximately 1! A.M. to is useful for developing a better perspective
"dome" of elevated temperatures that 2 P.M. local time to capture the time of of daytime thermal energy (i.e., heating and
presides over cities, primarily in summer- greatest solar incidence upon the urban cooling) patterns across the urban landscape
time, in contrast to their rural surroundings. surface around solar noon, and then again and also for modeling the effects of slope
The occurrence of urban heat islands between about 9 p.m. to midnight to capture and aspect on thermal energy responses.
reflects the human-induced contrasts the time when the urban heat island High thermal responses (or areas exhibiting
between rural and urban areas caused by phenomenon is most pronounced. These higher temperatures) are represented in
alteration or replacement of the "natural" data were used to measure and model the white with decreasing thermal responses
environment (e.g., trees) surrounding the state and changes in thermal responses from shown in gray to black tones. Mountainous
city with generally nonevaporating and specific urban land cover types typical of areas on the fight side of the image exhibit
nonporous materials, such as pavements and the Huntsville metropolitan area to better relatively low thermal responses because of
buildings. This results in reduced evapo- measure and model how dynamics of city the extensive vegetation cover present (i.e.,
transpiration and more rapid runoff of rain surface drive or force development of the trees). Pasture land in Jones Valley
water, as well as a general increase in urban heat island. Additionally, these data expresses higher thermal energy responses
temperatures over urban areas as opposed to have been used to spatially model heating because of factors related to the type of
their rural counterparts. Urban heat islands and cooling patterns as a means for vegetation present (i.e., grass), the amount
have caused changes in precipitation and visualizing how thermal responses are of area open to the sky for solar heating,
temperatures over cities that are at least distributed across the Huntsville urban and other factors. Considerably higher
similar to, if not greater than, those landscape. thermal energy responses are exhibited by
predicted to develop over the next 100 years

by global change models. Although the
urban heat island has been well established
for very large cities, such as New York City 10 m Day Thermal (Band 13)
or Mexico City, there are little data to
support the development of this phenom-
enon over small- to medium-sized cities of
between 100,000 to 300,000 population and
located in humid, temperate climatic
regimes. Additionally, low-resolution
satellite data used in past studies have not
adequately captured the extreme heteroge-
neity of the urban landscape, which in part
drives the development of the urban heat
island. This research project, therefore, has
sought to obtain a better understanding of
the causes of the urban heat island across FIGURE150.--Three-dimensional model of daytime ATLAS 10 m thermal remote sensing
the heterogeneous urban landscape, and for data draped on top of digital elevation model (DEM) data for a portion
a city of medium population size, through of the Huntsville metropolitan area.
176
ResearchPrograms
the residential and urbanized areas Land Use Change Impacts on Climate and Exposition, April 22-25, Baltimore, MD,
bordering Jones Valley on the far left and Air Quality of the Atlanta, Georgia pp. 138-147, 1996.
center-facing side of the image. Figure 151 Metropolitan Region." This new research
represents the same area as observed using effort seeks to provide scientific under- Sponsor: MSFC Center Director's
nighttime ATLAS 10-m data. The moun- standing of the importance of urbanization Discretionary Fund
tains on the far right side of Jones Valley as a forcing-function in local and regional
have relatively high thermal energy climatic processed by analyzing how the University/Industry Involvement:
responses due to the effects of late after- rapid growth in the Atlanta metropolitan Dr. Chor-Pang Lo from the Department of
noon solar incidence on the west-facing area over the last 25 years has impacted the Geography at the University of Georgia has
slopes. Some ground fog is evident as a climate and air quality of the region. been a direct collaborator in this research as
haze creeping into the coves in Jones Valley Additionally, using information from the a NASA summer faculty fellow at MSFC
adjacent to the mountains on the right side Atlanta Regional Commission on proposed during 1994 and 1995.
of the image. Pasture land in Jones Valley growth of Atlanta in the next 20 years, this
exhibits relatively low thermal responses research will model how the proposed Biographical Sketches: Dr. Dale
because of the effects of the high availabil- growth of the Atlanta metropolitan area will Quattrochi is a geographer/research scientist
ity of moisture in the form of dew and potentially affect the climate and air quality within the Earth System Science Division,
because of cold air drainage coming into the of the region. Global Hydrology and Climate Center of
valley from the mountains, as well as other the MSFC Space Sciences Laboratory. His
factors. The residential and urbanized area Lo, C.P.; Quattrochi, D.A.; and Luvall, J.C.: research focuses on analysis of land surface
on the left and center-facing sides of the "Application of High-Resolution Thermal energy exchanges and their effect on
image are high in thermal energy responses Infrared Remote Sensing and GIS to climate and hydrologic processes using
at night because pavement, buildings and Assess the Urban Heat Island Effect." remote sensing data.
other impervious surfaces store heat during International Journal of Remote Sensing.
the day and begin to release this stored In press, 1996. Dr. Jeffrey Luvall is a forest ecologist/
thermal energy after sunset. research scientist within the MSFC's Space
Lo, C.P.; Quattrochi, D.A.; Luvall, J.C.: Sciences Laboratory's, Earth System
As a result of the findings from this project, "Detection Of Urban Heat Island Science Division, Global Hydrology and
a research proposal submitted in response to Development Using High-Spatial Climate Center. His research focus is also
NRA-95-MTPE--03, "Opportunities to Resolution Thermal Infrared Remote directed toward examining land surface
Participate in NASA Mission to Planet Sensing." Proceedings, vol. 1, Remote energy fluxes and their effects on local and
Earth and Earth Observing System Science Sensing and Photogrammetry. American regional climate, and hydrology using
and Education Programs," has been funded Society for Photogrammetry and Remote remote sensing.
to support a project entitled "A Remote Sensing/American Congress on Survey-
Sensing-B ased Study of Past and Future ing and Mapping Annual Convention and
10 m Night Thermal (Band 13)
FIGURE
151.mThree-dimensional model of nighttime ATLAS 10 m thermal remote sensing
data draped on top of digital elevation model (DEM) data for a portion
of the Huntsville metropolitan area.
177
is handled by the numerical model and the

The Use of the Thermal One approach to characterizing the
effect of landcover on surface evapotranspi-
landscape is to take the U.S. Geological
Response Number Survey landcover data and incorporate it ration.
into the Regional Atmospheric Modeling
to Characterize Land The first year's efforts have been focused on
System (RAMS.) 4 This approach uses a
Surface Energy Flux structural classification based on landcover obtaining the tools and data needed for the
type instead of a functional classification to project.
assess the impact of landcover in the RAMS • Land use/land cover maps have been
JeffreyC. Luvall/ES41 obtained for the TVA region and have
output. The major problem with this
205-922-5886
approach is that the partitioning of the been added as a GIS layer as the
E-mail:Jluvall@msfc.nasa.gov surface energy fluxes is spatially variable structural classification of surface types.
within and between each landcover class • USGS (U.S. Geological Survey)
On a global scale, initial research by climate due to changes in soil moisture and digital elevation models (DEM) at
modelers identified the importance of vegetation canopy differences. 3 A method is 1:250,000 scale have been obtained for
including the linkages between different needed that can classify land surfaces by the TVA region. Integration into the GIS
kinds of land surfaces and the atmosphere their functional characteristics which are has begun.
as factors influencing global patterns of • Switched from RAMS to PSU/NCAR
important in the linkages between the
rainfall, temperature, and atmospheric atmosphere and land surfaces. An example Penn State University/National Center for
circulation. 5 Yet, these linkages have not Atmospheric Research) MM5 for
is the surface energy budget which can be
been fully characterized in global models of quantified over space and time. One such mesoscale modeling. MM5 source code
atmospheric processes and climate change.1 classifier has been developed by Luvall and has been obtained and is compiled and
General circulation models (GCM's) suffer running on MSFC's Crays.
Holbo 3 and is called the thermal response
from a lack of detail about how different • MM5 source code has been modified to
number (TRN).
surfaces respond thermally, and hence, assimilate GOES-8 data and is now
affect local climatic processes. Hewitson 2 being tested.
A change in surface temperature can be
states "GCM's are currently unable to used as an aggregate expression of both
reliably predict the regional climate change surface properties (canopy structure and lCotton, W.R.; Pielke, R.A.: "Human
resulting from global warming, and it is at biomass, age, and physiological condition) Impacts on Weather and Climate."
the regional scale that predictions are Geophysical Science Series, vol. 2,
and environmental energy fluxes. A change
required for understanding human and in surface temperature will be measured by Cambridge University Press, New York,
environmental responses." These models the GOES-8 over a 30- to 60-min time pp. 288, 1995.
could be improved by using thermal
period during cloud-free conditions.
infrared measurements to quantify the 2Hewitson, B.: "Regional Climates in the
Usually a separation of about 30 min results
biophysical response of the surface in in a measurable change in surface tempera- GISS General Circulation Model: Surface
relation to environmental energy fluxes Air Temperature." Journal of Climate,
ture caused by the change in incoming solar
(radiative, latent, conductive, and convec- radiation. Surface net radiation is used as vol. 7, pp. 283-303, 1994.
tive). Information at larger spatial resolution the value that integrates the effects of the
is also needed by the global modelers for non-radiative fluxes and the rate of change 3Luvall, J.C.; Holbo, H.R.: "Measurements
improving their predictive capabilities, in surface temperature as the value that of Short-Term Thermal Responses of
since the heterogeneity in surface types reveals how those nonradiative fluxes are Coniferous Forest Canopies Using
makes it difficult to characterize averages Thermal Scanner Data." Remote Sensing
reacting to radiant energy inputs. Their ratio
over the smaller spatial resolution used in can be used to define a surface property of Environment, vol. 27, pp. 1-10, 1989.
global climate models. defined by Luvall and Holbo 3 as a TRN.
4pielke, R.A.; Cotton, W.R.; Walko, R.L.;
The purpose of this study is to characterize The thermal response number is readily Tremback, C.J.; Nicholls, M.E.; Moran,
the landscape in terms of a functional calculable as a diagnostic from MM5/ M.D.; Wesley, D.A.; Lee, T.J.; Copeland,
classification using the thermal response RAMS model output and will be compared J.H.: "A Comprehensive Meteorolgical
numbers (TRN) for the incorporation into Modeling System--RAMS." Meteoro-
to the observed values generated from
the PSU/NCAR Penn State University/ logical Atmospheric Physics, vol. 49, pp.
GOES. Analysis of the TRN spatial patterns
National Center for Atmospheric Research 69-91, 1992.
and temporal evolution during periods that
MM5 model for mesoscale water vapor are dominated by nonprecipitating convec-
transport and convective activity. tive clouds will show how the draw down of
soil moisture by surface evapotranspiration
178
_OIOIOlO101OlOIOIOleIOIOlOlO_IOIOIOIOlOIOIOlOlOleIOlO_OI_IOlOlolOleIOIOlelOIO
Research Programs
5Shukla, J.; Mintz, Y.: "Influence of Land- Assessment of Biomass Amazon and surrounding areas. The
Surface Evapotranspiration on the Earth's technique was developed by MSFC's
Climate." Science, vol. 215, pp. Burningon the Hydrologic Dr. Gary Jedlovec.
1498-1501, 1982.
Cycle of the Amazon
The focus of this research is to examine the
Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary moisture budget in the Amazon using data
Fund AnthonyR.Guillory/ES41 from a variety of sources (e.g., satellite,
205-922-5894 model, and conventional surface and upper-
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Jeffrey Luvall E-mail:Anthony.Guillory@msfc.nasa.gov air data), to determine the time-space
has been with NASA since 1985 and is variability of components of the hydrologic
currently at NASA's Global Hydrology and Research into estimating total column cycle, and to examine regional implications
Climate Center. He has worked extensively atmospheric water vapor from infrared versus localized differences in forested
with surface energy budget modeling using sensors onboard satellites has been a focus versus deforested areas. Recent modeling
remotely sensed data. He is using the of research at MSFC for a number of years. and site-specific observational efforts have
thermal response number (TRN) to quantify Water vapor plays an important role in suggested that the effects of land cover
surface energy flux characteristics from climate processes. It is a major element of change from biomass burning and defores-
urban areas. The use of the TRN allows the the hydrologic cycle and provides the tation may play a major role in the climate
functional classification of land surfaces in mechanism for energy exchange among and hydrologic cycle. One of the most
modeling surface/atmospheric interaction many of the Earth system components. active regions of biomass burning and
and feedback mechanisms for use in global Recently, the Global Hydrology and deforestation is located in South America,
climate models using remotely sensed data Climate Center (GHCC) was contacted by yet very little is known concerning the
from aircraft and satellite platforms. He has researchers, Dr. Tracy DeLiberty and John environmental implications of these
developed a portable ground-based Callahan, from the University of Delaware activities in the Amazon Basin.
atmospheric monitoring system (PGAMS) about joint research into quantifying the
in conjunction with Dr. Steve Schiller, role that biomass burning is playing on the Two particular months, June and October
South Dakota State University, for the hydrologic cycle of the Amazon. The (months prior to and following the peak
correction of atmospheric radiance effects physical split window (PSW) technique will biomass burning and deforestation activities
on remotely sensed data. The PGAMS is be used to estimate total precipitable water in the Amazon) are under current investiga-
currently being used in developing (i.e., total column water vapor) in the tion during 1988 and 1995. Rainfall rates,
atmospheric radiance corrections algorithms
for the future Landsat-7 data.
June October
;-1"
FIGURE
152.--Five-year climatology of Normalized Vegetation Index (NDVI)
from AVHRR.
179
total precipitable water, and land surface DeLiberty, T.L.: "Spatial and Temporal Biographical Sketch: Anthony Guillory is
temperature changes are being calculated Variability of Soil Moisture in Okla- an atmospheric scientist in the Earth System
from Geostationary Operational Environ- homa." Publications in Climatology, Science Division at MSFC's Global
mental Satellite (GOES-7), Visible Infrared 447 (2), 77 pp., 1995. Hydrology and Climate Center. He conducts
Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR), Atmo- scientific research using measurements
spheric Sounder (VAS), and GOES-8 DeLiberty, T.L. and Legates, D.R.: "A from satellites, aircraft, and ground-based
Imager, while the vegetation state is Regional-Scale Investigation of Soil systems to study the Earth's hydrologic
characterized from the National Oceanic Moisture Variability." Preprints, 12th cycle. Guillory earned his M.S. degree in
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Conference on Hydrology, 75th Ameri- meteorology from the Florida State
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiom- can Meteorological Society Annual University in 1991 and has worked for
eter (AVHRR) vegetation index. Conven- Meeting, January 15-20, 1995, Dallas, NASA for 5 years.
tional data (e.g., raingage and hydrologic TX. pp. 115-120.
data) is being used to verify and supplement
satellite-derived parameters of the hydro- Guillory, A.R.; Jedlovec, G.J.; and Fuelberg,
logic cycle. The study will provide a H.E.: "A Technique for Deriving
regional view of the moisture cycle, Column-Integrated Water Content Using
document the variability across the region, VAS Split-Window Data." Journal of
investigate the enhanced capabilities of Applied Meteorology, vol. 32, pp.
GOES-8 versus GOES-7, and evaluate the 1226--1241, 1993.
possible hydrological signatures associated
with deforestation activities. This research Legates, D.R., and DeLiberty, T. L.:
began as part of Dr. DeLiberty's National "Precipitation in the Southern Great
Research Council Associate Programs at the Plains: Observations and Model
University of Wisconsin, and she continues Simulations of Present-day and Doubled
collaboration with researchers at the Center Atmospheric CO 2 Concentrations."
for Meteorological Satellite Studies. The Global Climate Change Response
aim is to extend the period of study to Program, U.S. Department of the Interior,
include several years to perform a trend Bureau of Reclamation. Denver, CO,
analysis of the hydrologic cycle of the 97 pp., 1996.
Amazon spanning a decade.
Legates, D.R.; DeLiberty, T.L.; and
Specifically relating to the hydrologic Salisbury, J.M.: "The Implications of
component total precipitable water, Doubled Trace Gas Concentrations on
researchers at the University of Delaware Summer Precipitation Variability in the
hope to enhance the PSW by improving the Southern Great Plains." Symposium on
cloud filtering algorithm and incorporating the Effect of Human-Induced Changes on
the vegetation index which would vary Hydrologic Systems, Jackson Hole, WY,
spatially and temporally to provide a better pp. 755-762, 1994.
estimate of surface emissivity.
Suggs, R.J. and Jediovec, G.J.: "Evaluation
Initial results from the examination of 1988 of a Split Window Technique for the
and 1995 will hopefully be submitted for Retrieval of Geophysical Parameters
publication early this winter. From GOES." Journal of Applied
Meteorology, 1996, In preparation.
Previous work of Dr. DeLiberty has entailed
examination of the moisture budget, Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth
specifically with precipitation and soil
moisture, in the Southern Great Plains. The University/Industry Involvement:
GHCC scientists involved have focused on University of Delaware, Geography
the evaluation of precipitable water Department
algorithms and of infrared sensor
capabilities.
180
Researoi_Proqrams
High-Resolution Infrared surface temperature is retrieved quite calibration degrades at cold temperatures
accurately and not subject to the tempera- and therefore cloud top information is the
Atmospheric Remote ture inversion problem. Varying surface least accurate for the tallest (coldest)
Sensing and Applications emissivity over land influences the quality clouds.
of the land surface temperature retrieval.
The Normalized Difference Vegetation IGuillory, A.R.; Jedlovec, G.J.; Fuelberg,
Gary J. Jedlovec/ES41
Index (NDVI) is calculated from the ratio of H.E.: "A Technique for Deriving
205-922-5966 visible to near-infrared channels as with Column-Integrated Water Content Using
E-mail: gary.jedlovec@msfc.nasa.gov LANDSAT and SPOT satellites. The VAS Split-Window Data." Journal of
absolute accuracy of NDVI depends on the Applied Meteorology, 32, 1226-1241,
Unique high-spatial resolution measure- channel gains and the pre-/post-flight 1993.
ments of the Earth are made with the calibration of the visible channels. 2 Upper-
airborne Multispectral Atmospheric level humidity is retrieved with an empirical 2jedlovec, G.J.; Atkinson, R.J.: "Variability
Mapping Sensor (MAMS) in support of method. 4 Accuracy of the humidity field of Geophysical Parameters From Aircraft
NASA's Mission to Planet Earth Program. varies with MAMS calibration and the Radiance Measurements for FIFE."
The MAMS is a multispectral scanner that quality of locally generated retrieval Journal of Geophyscal Research, 97,
flies on board an ER2 high-altitude aircraft coefficients. Clouds can be detected quite 18913-18924, 1992.
and measures reflected radiation from the well with the multispectral channels of
Earth's surface and clouds in eight visible- MAMS (even thin cirrus). The accuracy of 3Jedlovec, G.J.: "Determination of
near-infrared channels and thermal emission cloud-top temperature and height assign- Atmospheric Moisture Structure From
from the surface, clouds, and atmospheric ment varies with MAMS absolute calibra- High Resolution MAMS Radiance Data,"
constituents (primarily water vapor) in four tion and cloud emissivity. Absolute Ph.D. Dissertation, Ph.D. Degree, The
infrared bands. The airborne scanner is used
to make unique measurements of the
atmospheric hydrologic cycle. The scanner
views a 37-kin-wide scene of the Earth TABLE11 .--MAMS-derived parameters and their accuracy.
from the ER2 altitude of about 20 km. Each
MAMS footprint (individual field-of-view)
has a horizontal resolution of 100 m at
nadir. Since the ER2 travels at about
Total Precipitable Water 250-1,000 m Over Entire Image 2-5 mm rms
208-rrdsec, a swath of MAMS data 37 by
740 km is collected every hour. The Land Surface Temperature 100-300 m Over Entire Image 0.1-1.0 K (Relative)
nominal duration of an ER2 flight is 6 hr
0.5-6.0 K (Absolute)
(maximum of about 7 hr). The instrument is
managed by MSFC and maintained by Sea Surface Temperature 100-300 m Over Entire Image 0.1 K (Relative)
NASA's Ames Research Center.
0.1-1.0 K (Absolute)
A number of geophysical parameters

Normalize Difference 100-300 m Over Entire Image 5% (Relative)
important in studying the Earth's hydro-
Vegetation Index (NDVI) 5-30% (Absolute)
logic cycle can be derived from the MAMS
data. The resolution of each product varies
Upper-level Humidity 100-300 m Over Entire Image 1-2% (Relative)
with the desired parameter. Table 11 lists
(In Weighting Function Layer) 5-10% (Absolute)
the parameters that can be derived from
MAMS. Precipitable water and skin
Clouds
temperatures (land or sea surface) are
derived with a physical split window
- Detection 100--200 m Over Entire Image 99% Efficiency
algorithm.l, 3, 5 The accuracy of precipi-
table water ranges between 2 to 5 mm (root
- Mean Top Temperature 100-200 m Where Cloud Present 0.5 K (Relative)
mean square error) based on the MAMS
calibration, quality of the first guess, the 0.5-6.0 K (Absolute)
desired spatial resolution, and the sounding
- Mean Height (Pressure) 100-200 m Where Cloud Present 50 mb (Relative)
environment (poor performance occurs
where temperature inversions exist). Sea 50-200 mb (Absolute
181
D_OI@_DIOI@_D D IOI@IO_IOlOI@IOIO10_O _IO_ DIO_I@I_IO_T_O_O_;
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Testing Global Warming depletion. The development

first published
of the method,
by R. Spencer of NASA and
University Microfilm International,
Ann Arbor, MI., 187, 1987. Theory With Satellite J.R. Christy of the University of Alabama in
Passive Microwave Huntsville in 1979, was recognized in

4Soden, B.J.; Bretherton, EP.: "Upper January 1996 with the American Meteoro-
Tropospheric Relative Humidity From Observations logical Society's (AMS) Special Award.
the GOES 6.7um Channel: Method and This award was the first given by the AMS
Climatology for July 1987." Journal of for the development of a satellite method
RoyW.Spencer/ES41
Geophyscal Research, 98, 16669-16688, 205-922-5960 for monitoring climate fluctuations.
1993.
E-mail:roy.spencer@msfc.nasa.gov
The global temperature record is often cited
5Suggs, R.J.; Jedlovec, G.J.: "Evaluation of by skeptics of global warming because it
a Split Window Technique for the Satellite passive microwave data contain has not yet indicated a warming trend since
Retrieval of Geophysical Parameters valuable information on the workings of 1979. Because the surface thermometer data
From GOES." In preparation for Journal Earth's climate system. Specifically, have indicated a small global warming trend
of Applied Meteorology, 1996. temperature and water vapor data are being for the same period, several groups are now
utilized to better understand how the actively involved in understanding why the
Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth climate system responds to natural forcings two data sets do not agree. Based upon our
so that better estimates of global warming recent research, it appears that the satellite
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Gary Jedlovec is can be made. These satellite data are having measurements, which represent a deep layer
an atmospheric scientist in the Earth System increasing impacts in the science and of the atmosphere, are indicating that
Science Division at MSFC's Global policymaking communities through new temperature fluctuations can change with
Hydrology and Climate Center. He conducts climate diagnostic studies and an 18-year height in the atmosphere. As a result,
scientific research using measurements record of global temperatures. decadal trends of surface thermometer data
from satellites, aircraft, and ground-based probably can not be expected to agree with
systems in order to study the Earth's The microwave sounding units (MSU) on the satellite trends to better than about 0.1
hydrologic cycle. Dr. Jedlovec earned his the National Oceanic and Atmospheric to 0.2 °C per decade. This is contrary to
Ph.D. degree in meteorology from the Administration's TIROS-N series of polar- expectations of many climate researchers,
University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1987 orbiting satellites are supporting the only though there has not been any observational
and has worked for NASA for 11 years. global temperature monitoring effort in basis for that expectation, only theoretical.
existence. An 18-year record (1979 to Because computerized general circulation
present) of global lower tropospheric and models (GCM's) suggest that any warming
lower stratospheric temperatures continues will increase in magnitude with height,
to be updated on a monthly basis (fig. 153). combined with the known tendency for
Careful intercalibration of a total of eight surface temperature data to be susceptible to
separate satellites' instruments was localized effects, we believe the satellite
necessary to achieve a data record having data will be increasingly relied upon for
sufficient precision to calculate long-term f'trst signs of global warming due to its
trends in global temperatures. This record larger signal-to-noise ratio. Indeed, new
has been independently validated with analytical techniques we are utilizing to
radiosonde (weather balloon) data which retrieve temperature trends as a function of
has revealed excellent agreement. This height are suggesting that the global upper
validation has now been extended through troposphere has warmed substantially in the
1994. Several types of temperature data sets last 18 years. But, combined with the lower
have been developed and made available to tropospheric cooling trend indicated in the
the global research community, and have same data, it now appears that the climate
formed the basis for numerous published system is more complex in its behavior than
research studies. For example, the seasonal was previously appreciated. This should not
and geographical distribution of lower be too surprising, though, since moist
stratospheric cooling has been linked to convective processes (clouds and rainfall)
total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) that transport excess surface heat to high in
trends in total column ozone, thus providing the troposphere, are not well represented in
independent validation of global ozone GCM's.
182
0.5
°At
0.3 1
0.2
0.1
= 0
-o.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
I
79
I
80 81
1
82
I
83
I I
84
I
85 86
I
87
I I
88 89
I
90
F I
91 92 93 94 95 96 97
Year
Fmuae 153.--Global lower tropospheric temperatures (1979 through 1996).
With the approaching implementation of the and free tropospheric humidity in the Spencer, R.W.; Christy, J.R.; Grody, N.C.:
United Nations framework convention on tropics. During the 1993 to 95 period, a Analysis of "Examination of 'Global
climate change (FCCC), the satellite warming occurred as the Earth emerged Atmospheric Temperature Monitoring
temperatures will likely be central in the from the cooling effects of the 1991 with Satellite Microwave Measure-
argument against hasty action to curb eruption of the Mt. Pinatubo volcano. ments.'" Climatic Change, vol. 33, pp.
emissions of carbon dioxide, the leading During this warming we found no evidence 477--489, 1996.
contributor to the enhanced greenhouse of positive water vapor feedback in the
effect. Because protocols implemented tropical free troposphere. However, this Spencer, R.W.; Braswell, W.D.: "How Dry
under the FCCC treaty could have huge might not necessarily represent the climate is the Tropical Free Troposphere?
economic consequences, the satellite system's response to increasing levels of Implications for Global warming
temperature monitoring effort is having a man-made greenhouse gases, and so Theory." Bulletin of the American
direct impact on the economies of the additional years of data will be required to Meteorological Society, submitted, 1996.
United States and the world. determine whether water vapor feedback
varies between different types of climate Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth
Central to global wanning theory is the fluctuations. An interesting spinoff of the
existence of "positive water vapor feed- water vapor work has been the discovery University/Industry Involvement: The
back." This is a process wherein the small that the tropical free troposphere is, for the University of Alabama in Huntsville;
amount of warming initiated by increasing most part, extremely dry (Spencer and Nichols Research Corporation
levels of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere Braswell, 1996). We find peaks in the daily
is amplified by increasing levels of water frequency distribution of tropical gridpoint Biographical Sketch: Dr. Roy W. Spencer
vapor (the Earth's main greenhouse gas) relative humidity between 5 and 10 percent. (AST, Atmospheric Measurements) has
that is expected to occur in response to the This new finding will have important been employed by MSFC for 10 years, and
initial warming. This sets up a positive implications for how GCM's control leads a passive microwave research group
feedback loop which results in water vapor humidity, since small fluctuations in that performs research and provides data
feedback being responsible for most of the humidity at such dry levels can have huge sets to the climate research community. He
warming in future projections of global impacts on outgoing longwave radiation, received his Ph.D in atmospheric science
warming. While this feedback is likely to be the type of radiation central to global from the University of Wisconsin in 1981.
positive in the turbulent boundary layer, it is warming theory.
much less certain whether it exists at all in
the free troposphere above the boundary The satellite passive microwave observa-
layer. We are utilizing new observations tions of deep-layer atmospheric temperature
from the water vapor sounder (SSM/T-2) and water vapor will continue to have a
instruments that flew on the defense large impact on our understanding of how
meteorological satellite program's (DMSP) the Earth's climate system operates. This
Fll and F12 satellites. We have assembled understanding will lead to improvements in
the only complete record of SSM,'T-2 data GCM's and in their predictions of future
since 1993, and have focused on the global warming.
relationship between sea surface warming
183
D_IOIO_I_ _IOIOIO D_IOIOI_IOI_IOIOIOI_ _ IOIOIOI_DIeIOIOIOIO1D __IOIOIO_ IOIOIOIOIOI$;

Sensing Sea Surface Winds governmental budgets have, in turn, made
this goal a necessity for future satellite Fund; Office of Mission to Planet Earth;
With Passive Microwave programs because radiometers can be built National Polar-orbiting Operational
with significantly less expense than can Environmental Satellite System
Techniques scatterometers.
Industry Involvement: Hughes STX
RobbieE.Hood/ES41 To help determine the feasibility of this Corporation; Mevatec Corporation
205-922-5959 goal, a prototype satellite instrument is
E-maihrobbie.hood@msfc.nasa.gov currently being developed by Marshall to Biographical Sketch: Robbie Hood is an
passively sense both sea surface wind speed atmospheric scientist within the Earth
The turbulent interactions of the two fluid and direction. The instrument is called the System Science Division of the MSFC's
bodies representing the Earth's atmosphere conically-scanning two look airborne Space Sciences Laboratory. She manages
and its oceans are key parameters affecting radiometer (C-STAR). It has been designed high-altitude aircraft field experiments
regional weather, ocean circulation, and to test spaceborne measurement techniques supporting the passive microwave measure-
from a NASA high-altitude aircraft flying at ment research activities of the Earth System
global climate. One agent of this interplay
is the atmospheric wind blowing across an a nominal altitude of 20 km. C-STAR will Science Division. Hood earned her B.S. in
ocean surface which transports energy, scan beneath the aircraft in a circular atmospheric science from the University of
moisture, and gases between the two fluids. pattern subtended by an angle of 53 degrees Missouri and an M.S. in physical meteorol-
Thus, a true understanding of the air-sea from the aircraft nadir. Microwave radiation ogy from the Florida State University. She
interface relies upon being able to quantify naturally emitted by the Earth and its has been with MSFC for 9 years.
the strength and direction of sea surface atmosphere at a 37.1 GHz frequency will be
winds blowing over the entire globe. Real- detected by four receivers aligned to
time mapping of near-surface ocean winds intercept energy at four different polariza-
also provides crucial information for the tions (i.e., horizontal, vertical, +45 degrees
commercial and military seafaring vessels from vertical, and -45 degrees from
navigating the world's open seas. vertical). By comparing data imagery
collected at different segments of the
Historically, ocean buoy and ship measure- circular scan as well as at different
ments have been the primary source of polarizations, the anisotropic nature of the
marine wind speed and direction. These radiometric signature of the sea surface
discrete point sources, however, do not wind should be revealed.
provide the uniform global coverage
required for near-surface ocean wind The first test flights of the C-STAR will
mapping. In recent years, active and passive take place in early 1997 off the western
microwave radiation detection methods have coast of the United States. The aircraft
shown great promise in providing this global missions will be flown over ocean buoy
coverage from spaceborue platforms. Both sites providing ground truth wind vector
techniques rely on detecting wind-generated (i.e., speed and direction) measurements.
changes to ocean wave structures. Active These ground truth data will validate and
microwave sensors called scatterometers are quantify the magnitude of the sea surface
currently flying on satellites which can wind signals mapped by the C-STAR
remotely sense both ocean wind speed and imagery. This investigation will highlight
direction while passive microwave instru- the capabilities and limitations of near
ments called radiometers are measuring only surface ocean wind vector retrievals which
wind speed from present day satellites. could be derived from satellite passive
microwave imagery. This type of knowledge
The next evolutionary step to sea surface is important to the planners and designers of
wind measurement from space is the future spaceborne instrumentation who have
development of passive microwave radiom- the dual challenge of seeking to increase
eters which could retrieve both wind speed our understanding of the Earth's weather
and direction. As technology improves, this and climate while being mindful of cost-
goal appears to be more attainable than had efficient measures.
been previously envisioned. Shrinking
184
Research Programs
Remote Sensing of Winds processes, and in particular their interaction such that the LOS velocity vectors fall
with large-scale processes, has grown over within a common plane, two-dimensional
Using Airborne Doppler the past 10 to 15 years. In parallel, wind velocities may be calculated at points
Lidar technological advances in high-energy of intersection between the forward and aft-
lasers have expanded the potential of pointing beams (fig. 154). The contribution
Doppler lidar remote wind sensing for to the Doppler shift along the line of sight
Jeffry Rothermel/ES41
atmospheric research. The lidar remote due to scan angle and aircraft attitude and
205-922-5965
sensing groups of MSFC, NOAA Environ- speed are removed by using measurements
E-mail: jeffry.rothermel@msfc.nasa.gov mental Technology Laboratory (ETL), and from a dedicated inertial navigation system
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) developed located near the scanner. The net results are
The wind occupies a central role in weather an airborne scanning Doppler lidar termed measurements of ground-relative wind
and climate, and its effects can be observed the multi-center airborne coherent atmo- velocity. The vertical distribution of wind
over a wide range of spatial and temporal spheric wind sensor (MACAWS). The and aerosols over a three-dimensional
scales. The wind transports heat, moisture, centerpiece of MACAWS is a high-energy volume may be obtained by scanning at
momentum, radiatively-active trace gases, CO 2 gas laser, making this perhaps the most multiple levels with arbitrary angular
biogeochemicals, and microscopic particles powerful Doppler lidar developed for separation (fig. 155).
(aerosols). This redistribution and the airborne atmospheric research. MACAWS
interaction with latent heat and radiation has the key capability to measure winds MACAWS was flown on a short series of
produce weather and climate. On a daily remotely over a three-dimensional volume. science demonstration flights for the first
basis these interactions can take the form of During operation, pulses of eye-safe laser time in September 1995 aboard the NASA
processes and features that are easily radiation (or "beams") are directed into the DC-8 research aircraft. Missions were
recognizable, such as convection and atmosphere through the left side of the conducted over the western United States
clouds, precipitation, jet streams, extratropi- aircraft using a pair of internally mounted, and eastern Pacific Ocean. Highlights
cal cyclones, and hurricanes. counter-rotating germanium prisms. By included the first airborne simulation of a
refracting the lidar beam forward and aft of satellite Doppler wind lidar, and the first
For nearly 30 years, coherent Doppler lidar the aircraft heading in an alternating manner Doppler velocity measurement within a
(or laser radar) has been used to remotely
sense the atmospheric wind. Lidar is an
acronym for light detection and ranging.
The term "coherent" refers to the use of the
phase information in the outgoing and
, , /
l
Forward Scan
incoming radiation. During lidar operation a
Component
pulse of light is emitted from the laser,
scattered backward along the line of sight
by clouds, dust, or other aerosols, and a
Doppler frequency shift imparted by the
relative motion of the scatterers. The lidar
receiver converts the signals to line-of-sight Aft Scan
(LOS) velocity as a function of range. gg
Component ,_
m
Doppler lidar measures signals primarily
from optically clear air, however velocities
can be measured within or through thin
clouds. Doppler lidar has a demonstrated
capability to measure atmospheric dynami-
cal processes and features over locations ,4m,.,--
and scales of motion that are frequently

beyond the measurement capabilities of Aircraft Heading
conventional sensors. When placed on an
aircraft, the measurement capability of
Doppler lidar is enhanced considerably. F,GURE154._o-planar scanning method for obtaining two-dimensional wind field
measurements. Scanner alternately directs lidar beam forward and aft
Scientific recognition of the relative of aircraft heading; two-dimensional wind vectors are calculated using
contribution of small-scale atmospheric trigonometry.
185
..-:
_---:..._ _. _. _._:-_-_-:
-'- _.i._-_'_=_._--_.
_-'.
-1.12 de_
lanes
! -'_. _ :::-:! -_:": ,. './:'. ,10 ms -1
NASA
DC-8
F_GURr155.--Method for obtaining volumetric coverage of wind measurements by -1.86 deg

generating multiple two-dimensional scan planes. Depending on slant
range, intervening atmosphere, and other factors, scan planes
inclined below horizon may terminate with surface returns. -- N .,,q,--
hurricane. An example of multilevel wind :.'-\._.::>----

.:._ ._.,
_:3_ _'- =- ,.- -_. --::.-_&
satellite power, mass, volume, and heat
measurements in the Pacific marine rejection must be carefully evaluated
boundary layer is shown in figure 156. against performance. Through appropriate
Additional flights were made in June 1996 aircraft maneuvers, MACAWS can
over the Pacific northwest and central simulate the Doppler wind lidar perspec-
United States. Highlights included the first tive from space in order to address a
Doppler lidar intercomparison with near- variety of issues, including optimum -2,50 deg
sea wind surface measurements by a space- scanning strategies, verification and
borne scatterometer, ERS-2. improvement of Doppler signal processing
algorithms, velocity retrievals at marginal • /
N -_1,--
Observing system simulation experiments signal levels, impact of spatial wind
(OSSE's) indicate that global wind variability, effect of aerosol vertical
measurements from space with Doppler gradients, velocity distribution in and .--- "-- -'_......_._.._ ..___:_S_'_'- " , .
lidar will significantly improve the around clouds, and Doppler velocity
understanding of the atmosphere while correction using land and ocean surface
simultaneously improving the capability to returns. Clouds will constitute a frequent
make better forecasts. In the absence of a scattering target for spaceborne lidar;
heritage of satellite Doppler lidar wind annually over 60 percent of the globe is
-3.52 deg
measurements, performance simulations covered by cloud of some type at some 22 km re,-
with measured--rather than simulated-- level. MACAWS can be used to assess
data are highly desirable to reduce cloud porosity, cloud-free line-of-sight, FIGURE156.--Wind measurements in the
modeling uncertainties and to begin to cloud dimensions, and optical properties. marine boundary layer over
develop the necessary interpretive skilts. All of these factors must be taken into the Pacific Ocean near the
Ground-based lidar measurements alone do account when assessing the representative- northern coast of Oregon; wind
not address all design and performance- ness of satellite Doppler iidar wind vectors point into the wind.
related issues. Measured data are invaluable measurements, and ultimately the impact Figure shows vertical
for evaluating and improving OSSE's, of these measurements on climate and distribution of winds measured
which are used to quantify the benefit of global change studies and numerical within four scan planes.
lidar compared to existing measurement weather prediction. Aircraft altitude was -900 m
systems. The results of such simulations (3,000 ft) above sea surface,
critically depend on instrument design, Long-term applications of MACAWS and approximately 100 m
which is currently focused on instruments measurements will address a broad range (330 ft) above the top of
in the small-sateUite class. Constraints on of issues in atmospheric dynamics, climate, the boundary layer.
186
Research Programs
and hydrology, including the role of

unresolved processes in hydrological and
Remote Sensing of Aerosol for understanding and modeling of cloud
microphysics, precipitation and hydrologi-
climate numerical models, improvement in CompositionFrom CO2 cal cycle. This new application of a single
mesoscale modeling and predictive
Lidar Backscatter lidar as a "spectrometer" for remotely
capabilities, and more realistic simulations inferring aerosol compositions offers many
of prospective satellite Doppler wind lidar. important advantages over existing aerosol
MACAWS will be used as part of the Maurice A. Jarzembski/ES41
chemistry sensors:
validation effort for the NASA 205-922-5964
• It samples aerosols remotely, thereby,
scatterometer (NSCAT) which measures E-mail: maurice.jarzembski@msfc.nasagov avoiding any physical and chemical
global sea surface winds. Moreover, plans contamination that are associated with
include studies of extreme weather A high resolution technique for remote aspirated samples;
phenomena which can affect sustainable sensing atmospheric aerosol composition • It provides much larger sample volumes
growth. from aerosol backscatter measurements is with fewer particle count statistics
being developed using a new infrared, problems than particle counters; and
Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth wavelength-tunable, coherent, continuous- • It offers large-scale atmospheric
wave, focused, CO 2 Doppler lidar to be sampling with unprecedented high-
University/Industry Involvement: used as a "spectrometer." Such an instru- spatial/temporal resolution (~ 5 sec
Dr. Dean R. Cutten, University of Alabama ment, applicable both for airborne as well as - 1 kin) even in quite low-aerosol
in Huntsville; Dr. R. Michael Hardesty, ground-based operations, has not been concentrations, and could give even finer
National Oceanic and Atmospheric developed before. resolution in higher concentrations.
Administration; Dr. Robert T. Menzies, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory The basis of this new instrument rests on The proof of concept has been recently
the spectral response of backscatter in the demonstrated with the comparison of dual-
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Jeffry Rothermel middle infrared (9 to 11 _tm) regime which wavelength lidar backscatter data obtained
is an atmospheric measurement specialist is extremely sensitive to aerosol composi- by two NASA/MSFC CO 2 Doppler lidars
within the Earth System Science Division of tion. This is due to material resonance operating at wavelengths 9.1 and 10.6 I.tm to
MSFC's Space Sciences Laboratory. He anomalies in absorption which causes peaks identify sulfate aerosols.1 The validity of
leads an intergovernmental agency team in backscatter spectrum at specific infrared inferring aerosol composition from the
which conducts airborne atmospheric wavelengths, characteristic of complex relative backscatter at several wavelengths
research, and satellite validation and refractive indices of aerosol composition. is shown in figure 157. Figure 157 shows
simulation using a jointly developed As an example, ammonium sulfate has a atmospheric measurements during the
coherent Doppler laser radar. Rothermel peak at the 9.1-I.tm wavelength but not at global backscatter experiment (GLOBE II)
also leads a team within ESSD which the 10.6-I.tm wavelength which gives rise to in 1990 taken at an 8-km altitude in transit
conducts observations and modeling of a difference in backscatter of a factor of from Tokyo, Japan to Honoulu, Hawaii. The
aerosol properties with the goal of better 9 for typical atmospheric particle diameter backscatter ratio 13Ris defined as the ratio of
quantifying direct and indirect aerosol <0.8 ktm found in the middle and upper backscatter 13at the lidar wavelengths 9.1
effects on climate and global hydrology. troposphere. Using this fact, a new method and 10.6 _tm, given by 13R=13(9.1)/13 (10.6).
Rothermel earned a Ph.D. (atmospheric is being developed to infer aerosol composi- For 13R> 2 indicates presence of sulfate
science) from Purdue University, and has tion from the measured wavelength- composition. The direct lidar measured [_R
been with MSFC for 7 years. _,_ dependent backscattered signal using a is compared with modeled 13Rusing
rapid-tunable, multiwavelength continuous simultaneously measured aerosol micro-
wave (CW) CO 2 lidar. This would allow physics data by a laser optical particle
identification of climatically significant counter (LOPC). The state-of-the-art LOPC
atmospheric aerosols such as sulfates, aerosol counter measures real-time aerosol
sulfuric acid, dust, sea salt, water, and ice distribution and composition from which ]_R
which have a specific signature in the 9 to Can be modeled using Mie theory, the
11 lam from their absorption spectra and electromagnetic scattering from a dielecWic
hence backscatter spectra. Multiple sphere. The modeled LOPC _R and
wavelength tunability will also enable measured lidar I_R agree very well, showing
distinction between hygroscopic and overall similar trends. In view of the major
nonhygroscopic aerosols, enabling differences in the lidar versus aerosol
identification of cloud condensation nuclei counter instrumentation and sampling, this
(CCN). This characterization is important reasonably good agreement indicates that
187
GLOBE II Flight 14 A Convective-Stratiform

Japan to Hawaii LOPC data
10 Rainfall Classifier
T ,
• Aerosol Model
for Composite Radar
8
¢,0
I Lidar Data Reflectivity Maps
6
Steven J. Goodman/ES41
4
2 205-922-5891
II E-mail:steven.goodman@msfc.nasa.gov
2
The objective of this study is to develop an
0 algorithm to characterize rainfall fields from

0 1 2 3 4 a multiyear data base of high spatial and
Time (UTC) temporal resolution radar reflectivity
measurements. The radar reflectivity data
F,nunt 157.--Time series of backscatler ratio p,=_, (9.1)/I], (10.6) from lidar data product, referred to as NOWRAD, is
in comparison with that obtained from the modeled results from the laser composited in real-time from the U.S.
National Weather Service network of
optical particle counter (LOPC).
WSR-57, WSR-74 and WSRg8-D radars
and provided to us by Weather Services,
measurements of composition from LOPC Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary Inc. The spatial resolution of each pixel is
Fund 2 km across the United States with a
can be used to predict 13R;thus inversely
measured lidar [_R can lead to good temporal resolution of 15 min.
inference of aerosol composition.1 Biographical Sketch: Dr. Maurice
Jarzembski earned a Ph.D. in physics from The individual images are classified into
There is a critical need to determine aerosol New Mexico State University and has been convective and stratiform rainfall compo-
composition variability on a regional as with MSFC for almost 8 years. He is a nents. The integration of the 96 images
well as global scale as it can have major physicist within the Earth System Science received each day yields a daily rainfall
impact on the Earth's radiative balance, Division of MSFC Science and Engineering estimate. Daily rainfall estimates are next
affecting climate. The emphasis within Directorate and is in the field of remote integrated into monthly and seasonal
NASA on remote sensing of various sensing using lidars. ___ estimates. These data sets are then to be
atmospheric constituents motivates a deeper used to examine the natural variability of
understanding of composition of atmo- rainfall in the United States from year to

spheric aerosols for better inputs to year during the period 1994 through 1996.
circulation models. This wavelength-tunable Convective and stratiform rainfall regions
lidar provides an innovative technology for are identified and then partitioned into
application of a lidar in remotely inferring convective and stratiform rainfall using
atmospheric aerosol composition on a large two Z-R relationships.

scale with very high spatial and temporal
resolution. This will thus strengthen A training data set using 10 days in April
NASA's role on characterization of 1994 was used to develop and test the
climatically significant aerosols. methodology. Two case studies were then
examined from rainfall episodes on
1Srivastava, V.; Bowdle, D.A.; Jarzembski, April 11, 1994, and April 21 and 22, 1994,
M.A.; Rothermel, J.; Chambers, D.M.; within the Arkansas-Red River Basin to
and Cutten, D.R.: "High Resolution assess the algorithm performance. The first
Remote Sensing of Sulfate Aerosols objective was to establish a threshold
function to select convective centers. Next,
From CO 2 Lidar Backscatter." Geophysi-
cal Research Letter, 22, pp. 2373-2376, the gradient between each pixel and its
1995. neighbors was computed to isolate these
centers. The neighborhood reflectivity was
188
ResearchPrograms
15 Minute ReflectivityMap (dBZ)

Rain Discriminator
75•
70 •
65 •
60•
55 []
5O []
45 []
4O•
35•
3O•
25•
2O•
15•
I0•
5m
oD
FIGURE
158.mNOWRAD compositereflectivity for the Red River Basin domainat 2,300 UTCon August21, 1994. The area enclosed
bythe dottedline representsthe basin.
specified to be the linear average of nonzero

reflectivities, Z, in a 100 km 2 region
ArkansasRiver Basin
centered at any pixel. Finally, the rainrate,
5
R, in convective and stratiform rain areas is RFC
performed with Z =3(/0R TM applied to the
...... NRD
convective areas and Z=200R 16 applied to
the remaining rain areas. CON .1•%
4 / "
STR i _'
Figure 158 shows the basin domain and
reflecdvity observed at 2,330 UTC on )" ,. :^
April 21, 1994. Figure 159 shows the area- -- t I " ;
averaged hourly rainfall estimates derived
from the NOWRAD (NRD) data for the
entire month, and separated into convective
. . //
° _°
(CNV) and stratiform (STR) components.

These estimtes are compared with the NWS
Stage-III River Forecast Center (RFC)
rainfall estimates during the same time I 2 .s._
period. The hourly RFC estimates are

derived from raingage-adjusted WSR88-D
reflectivity fields. The trends in both "'"/
estimates are similar and the differences
over the basin are a few millimeters per day
(fig. 160).
o I I I I
00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 UTC
Our initial attempt at classifying rainfall
over one large river basin on a monthly time Time (UTC)in April 1994 [Data EveryHouri
period is promising. Our 28-day sample
data set for April shows low RMSE values
of 0.12 mm (or 45 percent of the Stage-IIl FIGURE
159.mArea-averaged hourly rainfall for April 1994 over the Red River Basin.
189
_Io_$1olo_IO Is _ _ _ Io_ Io_ _ IO_IO _ _IoD_o_olo_ _ _,
Arkansas River Basin The Lightning Imaging

20n _ RFC Sensor on the Tropical
is ..... NRO Rainfall Measuring Mission
5 E-mail: hugh.christian@msfc.nasa.gov
,'_,
• _ _. / The lightning imaging sensor (LIS) is a
small, calibrated optical instrument
5 of lightning, its correlation with ice and

== 1 L A -] designed to investigate the global incidence
_- _ 0 A _ __ precipitation, and the global electric circuit.
m _
w -5
L _ •
V
I "%1
"_
Conceptually,
detect
LIS is a simple device,
and locate
consisting intracloud
of a staring imager andoptimized
cloud-to- to
-lo / I I I I I
ground lightning with storm scale resolution
5 10 15 20 25 30
over a large region of the Earth's surface, to
Days of April 1994 mark the time of occurrence, and to
measure the radiant energy. From the
FIGURE160._aily area-averaged rainfall over the Red River Basin for April 1994. tropical rainfall measuring mission
The difference between the Stage-Ill (RFC) and the NOWRAD (NRD) (TRMM) orbit, it will monitor individual
estimates is also shown.
storms within its field of view (FOV) for
over 60 sec, long enough to estimate the
lightning flash rate. Location of lightning
area-averaged hourly mean rainfall) with a of Applied Meteorology, 35, pp. flashes will be determined to within 5 km
bias of 0.01 mm. It appears that the 1203-1219, 1996. over a 600- by 600-km FOV.
methodology should produce sufficiently
accurate estimates of rainfall over large Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth The LIS design uses an expanded optics
spatial domains and over multiyear time wide-FOV lens, combined with a narrow-
periods to characterize the year-to-year University/Industry Involvement: Ravi band interference filter that focuses the
differences in rainfall. These rainfall Raghavan, Universities Space Research image on a small high-speed, charge-
distributions and characterizations can be Association (USRA) coupled-device focal plane. The signal is
used by MTPE scientists as input or read out from the focal plane into a real-
validations to regional modeling experi- Biographical Sketch: Dr. Steven Goodman time event processor for event detection and
ments to learn more about the seasonal-to- is an atmospheric physicist within the Space data compression. The sensor design results
interannual behavior of rainfall and its Sciences Laboratory of the MSFC Science from the requirement to detect weak
response to larger scale atmospheric and Engineering Directorate and the Global lightning signals during the day when the
forcing. This data base may also be of use Hydrology and Climate Center. His research background illumination, produced by
in recomputing extreme rainfall statistics for interests are in cloud precipitation and sunlight reflecting from cloud tops is much
improved water management models and electrification processes and their regional, brighter than the illumination produced by
decision aids. global, and interannual variability. He lightning.
serves as a member of the EOS lightning
Crosson, W.L.; Duchon, C.E.; Raghavan, imaging sensor instrument team and as the A combination of four methods is used to
R.; Goodman, S.J.: "Assessment of project scientist for the LIS science take advantage of the significant differences
Rainfall Estimates Using a Standard Z-R computing facility. Dr. Goodman has a B.A. in the temporal, spatial, and spectral
Relationship and the Probability in atmospheric and oceanic science, an M.S. characteristics between the lightning signal
Matching Method Applied to Composite in atmospheric science, and a Ph.D. in and the background noise. First, spatial
Radar Data in Central Florida." Journal systems engineering. He has been with filtering is used to match the instantaneous
MSFC since 1981. _,] FOV of each detector element in the LIS
190
_ • IOlOlO_IO _ IOlOlOlOIO lOlOlOlOlOlO_IOlOlO_IolOIOlOIOlOlO lOlOlOIO!_
Researci" Programs
focal plane to the typical cloud top providing unique lightning data to the
illuminated area by a lightning event. scientific community. For the first time,
Solid-State Lightning
Second, spectral filtering is applied, using a global lightning is available with high- Field Sensor
narrow band interference filter centered detection efficiency and spatial resolution.
about the strong O1 (1) emission multiplet WilliamJ. Koshak/ES41
in the lightning spectrum at 777.4 nm. Sponsor: Office of Mission to Planet Earth 205-922-5963
Third, temporal filtering is applied. The
E-mail:william.koshak@msfc.nasa.gov
lightning pulse duration is on the order of Biographical Sketch: Dr. Hugh Christian is
400 lasec, whereas the background illumina- a senior research scientist with the Earth
tion tends to be constant on a time scale of System Science Division. He obtained his The primary goal of this project is to
seconds. The lightning signal-to-noise ratio Ph.D. in physics from Rice University in develop a new, ground-based, solid-state
improves as the integration time approaches 1977 and began his career with Marshall in instrument for detecting thunderstorm
the pulse duration. Accordingly, an 1980. _" electrostatic fields. An attempt will be made
integration time of 2 msec is chosen to to extend detection into radio frequencies.
minimize pulse splitting between successive
frames and to maximize lightning delecta- Electric field measurements are fundamen-
bility. Finally, a modified frame-to-frame tal in diagnosing the electrical state of the
background subtraction is used to remove atmosphere and the potential for lightning.
the slowly varying background signal from Some adverse effects of lightning include:
the raw data coming off the LIS focal plane. human fatality, electric power outages,
If after background removal, the signal for a forest f'tres, and hazards to aircraft and
given pixel exceeds a specified threshold, space vehicle operations. The NASA
that pixel is considered to contain a Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and the
lightning event. USAF Eastern Space and Missile Center
(ESMC) currently operate and maintain a
LIS investigations will further our under- ground-based electric field mill network as
standing of processes related to, and a lightning warning system for space
underlying, lightning phenomena in the vehicle operations, including launch
Earth/atmosphere system. These processes protection. Field mills and antenna systems
include the amount, distribution, and that detect electric field changes represent
structure of deep convection on a global the primary means for detecting lightning
scale, and the coupling between atmo- and other electrical phenomena in the
spheric dynamics and energetics. Lightning atmosphere.
activity is closely coupled to storm
convection, dynamics, and microphysics, Generally speaking, these devices employ a
and can be correlated to the global rates, flat plate antenna which, when exposed to
amounts, and distribution of precipitation, the ambient field, becomes polarized. The
to the release and transport of latent heat, amount of polarization charge induced on
and to the chemical cycles of carbon, sulfur, the plate is related to the ambient field
and nitrogen. Lightning is an unique strength. The induced charge (or current)
indicator of deep convection and is the only can be amplified and recorded.
means presently available to detect deep
convection from space without a land-ocean Anisotropic electro-optic crystals offer a
bias. In this way, LIS will strongly support different approach to sensing small electric
TRMM studies of the hydrologic cycle. It fields. When a voltage is placed across a
will continue the development of a crystal (e.g., potassium di-hydrogen
thunderstorm and lightning climatological phosphate (KH2PO4, also known as KDP),
data base that has been started by the barium titanate (BaTiO3)) the refractive
Optical Transient Detector (OTD). indices of the crystal change in a particular
way. This change alters the polarization
The OTD, a predecessor of LIS, was state of a laser light beam propagating down
launched on April 3, 1995. It has com- the crystal optic axis. Hence, with suitable
pletely validated the LIS design concept, application of vertical and horizontal
191
100 crystal will be obtained. Sensitivity shall be

optimizated by adjusting the orientation of
the polarizers and a quarter wave retarder
plate. In addition, dc optical offsets will be
removed to eliminate overranging when
photodetector amplifier gain is increased.
An attempt to reduce the dc components by
50
simple electronic means will also be
investigated.
Pending further sensitivity improvements,

the prototype electro-optic field sensor shall
be deployed to collect thunderstorm data at
NASA/MSFC. Because solid-state
technology is used, future designs of the
sensor can be largely scaled down in
physical dimension, making them an
attractive alternative to standard measure-
ment techniques. In addition, sensor gain
can be controlled by adjusting laser power,
-5O laser wavelength, or crystal properties and
therefore is not limited to purely electronic
means of amplification.
Koshak, W.J.; and Krider, E.E: "Analysis

of Lightning Field Changes During
Active Florida Thunderstorms." Journal
-100 I of Geophysical Research, vol. 94, pp.
-1 O0 -50 0 50 1O0 1165-1186, 1989.
Koshak, W.J.; Solakiewicz, R.J.; Phanord,

FIGURE161.mDiffuse crystal output showing the isogyre pattern for a perfectly aligned
D.D.; and Blakeslee, R.J.: "Diffusion
optical system.
Model for Lightning Radiative Transfer."
Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.
polarizers, a light transmission measure- the laboratory and was used to help align 99, pp. 14,361-14,371, 1994.
ment can be related to applied crystal the optical system. Based on these tests,
voltage (or electric field across the crystal). recommendations for final crystal holder Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary
This is the basis of the solid-state lightning requirements were completed and procured. Fund
electric field sensor.
Preliminary sensitivity tests were conducted University Involvement: Co-investigator
During the past year, all critical optics (i.e., using the optical breadboard system, a Dr. Richard Solakiewicz, Chicago State
KDP, polarizers, retarders, laser, filters, 12-bit DT2833 analog-to-digital board, and University
detectors) were procured and assembled, Microcal Origin data acquisition software.
and a data acquisition system was integrated The investigators completed the first vital Biographical Sketch: Dr. William Koshak
for breadboard testing of the crystal. In step in verifying the presence of the electro- is an atmospheric physicist within the Earth
addition, fabrication of a three-axis crystal optic effect in the test crystal. System Science Division of MSFC's
holder was completed for preliminary Science and Engineering Directorate. He
alignment tests. These tests were conducted In future months, the investigators plan to supports lightning research activities as part
by illuminating the crystal with a diffuse continue upgrading the crystal performance. of the Global Hydrology and Climate
beam and inspecting the diffuse crystal The parameters associated with crystal Center (GHCC) cooperative agreement. He
output with a screen. The output of an alignment shall be optimized. A crystal received a Ph.D. from the University of
aligned optical system is that of an isogyre holder with micrometer adjusts and a new Arizona, Institute of Atmospheric Physics,
pattern. Such a pattern was reproduced in vendor-sealed/electrode-installed KDP in 1990.
192
Research
Programs
Geophysical Fluid Flow The following are the preliminary results analysis of the data films and tapes, will
based on video downlink recorded during the permit testing of simple scaling arguments for
Cell Experiment USML-2 mission (analysis of the 16-mm this transition. Once verified, these scalings
film data has recently commenced at the can be used to classify the expected global
Fred W. Leslie/ES71 University of Colorado). The experiments fell convection regimes of planets and stars.
205-544-1633 into several classes depending on the rotation
rate (rapid or slow: e.g., solar-like or mantle- Experiments with latitudinal heating gradients
E-maih fred.leslie@msfc.nasa.gov
like). In each case new states were observed showed evidence for baroclinic waves. This
and are summarized here. instability is interesting because it has
The Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC) combined attributes of both ordinary thermal
experiment simulates a wide variety of Studies of rotating convection with spheri- convection and rotating slantwise convection.
thermal convection phenomena in spherical cally symmetric heating revealed possible The latter instability is central to the circula-
geometry. By applying an electric field multiple jets in latitude, with prograde (same tion of the Earth's atmosphere, but its
across a spherical capacitor filled with a sense as the basic rotation) motion of thermal occurrence as a combined instability supports
dielectric liquid, a body force analogous to waves at low and high latitudes and retro- recent computational modeling of such
gravity is generated around the fluid. The grade pattern rotation at mid-latitude. Such instabilities in rotating spherical shells.
force acts as a buoyant force in that its differential pattern propagation has not been
magnitude is proportional to the local previously seen in computational models, and Other experiments with latitudinal heating
temperature of the fluid and in the radial these results may provide an alternative view showed how spiral wave convection breaks
direction perpendicular to the spherical on the mechanisms for "banded"-looking down to turbulence by secondary branching.
surface. In this manner, cooler fluid sinks structures in planetary atmospheres like
toward the surface of the inner sphere while Jupiter. However, contrary to suggestions 1Hart, J.E.; Glatzmaier, G.A.; Toomre, J.:
warmer fluid rises toward the outer sphere. from our Taylor-column idealized models, no "Space-Laboratory and Numerical Simula-
The value of this artificial gravity is vacillatory (periodic global pulsation) states tions of Thermal Convection in a Rotating
proportional to the square of the voltage were observed. Hemispherical Shell With Radial Gravity."
applied across the sphere and can thus be Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 173, pp.
imposed as desired. With practical voltages, An extensive study of slowly rotating 519-544, 1986.
its magnitude is only a fraction of Earth's convection was carried out, and two distinct
and so requires a microgravity environment convection patterns were observed in 2Brummell, N.; Hart, J.E.: "High Rayleigh
to be significant. experiments with the same external param- Number Beta-Convection." Geophysical
eters but with different initial conditions. This and Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics, pp.
The GFFC flew aboard the second United means that the long-time evolution of 85-114, 1993.
States Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2) modestly convecting flows in slowly rotating
October 20 to November 5, 1995 on spherical shells (like Earth's mantle) is not 3Sun, Z.-P; Shubert, G.; Glatzmaier, G.A.:
Columbia. The instrument carried out unique, but depends on initial conditions. "Banded Surface Flow Maintained By
29 separate 6-hr runs using different Equivalently the "climate" can be persistent, Convection in a Model of the Rapidly
parameters (cell rotation rate, heating or locked, for long times as external condi- Rotating Giant Planets." Science, vol. 260,
distributions, etc.). Eighteen of the runs were tions change slowly. In addition, information pp. 661-664, 1993.
nominal in terms of instrument performance, was obtained on how these persistent states
except for indications that suggested higher- evolve as parameters are increased across Sponsor: Office of Life and Microgravity
than-expected temperatures along the outer stability boundaries. Experiments produced Sciences and Applications
sphere's equator. Because of this overtemp- an instability of "horseshoe convection,"
erature problem, science activities were wherein the off-center ring of convection University/Industry Involvement: University
focused on situations with spherically breaks down by north-south oriented stripe of Colorado, Boulder, CO
symmetric heating (the so-called "solar formation as the voltage is increased from
model" cases). The last 11 runs were 1.44 kV to 1.56 kV. Biographical Sketch: Fred Leslie is a scientist
affected by a problem with the 16-mm film in the Microgravity Science and Application
transport, leaving the video as the primary A large data set (several different rotation Division at MSFC. He served as a payload
data source. This was compensated for by rates, many different heating rates) was specialist astronaut aboard the Space Shuttle
running experiments towards the end of the obtained on the transition between anisotro- Columbia on the USML-2 (STS-73) mission
mission with commanded boundary pic north-south oriented "banana convection" in October/November 1995. He operated a
temperatures similar to those run earlier in and more isotropic nonaligned convection. number of experiments during the 16-day
the mission on which f'dm data is available. These results, when quantified by digital mission including the GFFC investigation.
193
Astrophysics
The Burst and Transient seen in the radio region to produce jets of nonrepeating blasts of radiation that last
matter that move at nearly the speed of typically last a few seconds and come
Source Experiment on the light. from random directions in the sky. Their
Compton Gamma-Ray origin still remains a mystery. Another

The bursting pulsar is near the center of our example are the soft-gamma repeater
Observatory Milky Way Galaxy. More than 2,000 hard objects (SGR's), different from gamma-
x-ray bursts from this object have now been ray bursts in that they produce lower
Gerald J. Fishman/ES81 detected, each having remarkably similar energy bursts of radiation, are observed to
205-544-7691 properties. Never before had an object been repeatedly blast gamma rays and x rays
observed that displayed both the bursting into space, and are located within the disc
E-mail: fishman@ssl.msfc.nasa.gov
behavior combined with the periodic of our own galaxy. The BATSE experi-
behavior of a pulsar. Both the bursting ment on the Compton Gamma-Ray
Since its launch in April 1991, the Burst (flaring) nature of this object along with the Observatory (GRO) is expected to operate
And Transient Source Experiment pulses (-0.5 sec) are shown in the average for at least 5 more years, providing a
(BATSE) has been returning a continuous profile of many outbursts superimposed as wealth of new information about high-
stream of data and produced new discover- shown in figure 162. energy objects and phenomena in the sky.
ies in high-energy astrophysics. Not only
have new properties of previously known Other highly transient and variable objects Sponsor: Office of Space Science
objects been uncovered, but entirely new have been studied by BATSE as well.
types of objects have been found. Col- Gamma-ray bursts, for example, are
lapsed objects such as neutron stars and
black holes are found in our galaxy that
produce gamma rays which vary greatly;
6.0
some systems vary on a scale of months
and others on a scale of milliseconds.
These collapsed objects emit gamma rays BATSE
when they pull matter from a companion 5.5 20 to 55 keV
star onto themselves, a process called
_1 I . (Avg. 849 bursts)
accretion. The neutron stars in binaries also
7
A
iiiJ,
emit x rays when their surfaces burn in
W
thermonuclear explosions. The neutron M
5.0 D
stars without companions emit gamma rays

when their spin induces a current of 0
relativistically moving particles. The latter J
systems form one of the two types of

4.5
pulsars. The other type consists of a
N
neutron star binary system undergoing
accretion as the neutron star rotates.
_r
4.0 -- ._j
The spin of the neutron star in both pulsar
systems produces very regular variation in t_
x-ray and gamma-ray emission; this

regularity provides a strategy for finding
3.5 I I
new pulsar systems. Some systems show a
-5 0 5 10 15 20
rich variety of behavior; a recent example
is the bursting pulsar (GRO J1744-28), Time (sec)
discovered by BATSE in December 1995,
which in flared from being unobservable to FIGURE
162.--The time profile of the Bursting Pulsar (GRO J1744-28). This unique
being the brightest gamma-ray source in Galactic object was discovered by BATSE in December 1995. It is the
the galaxy within 2 weeks. In addition to only known pulsed x-ray source to produce intense outbursts. Shown
pulsed radiation, it also emitted brilliant here is the superposiUon of a large number of outbursts, clearly
bursts of gamma rays lasting only several showing the average shape of the bursts and the pulsed emission
seconds. Several other binary systems are throughout.
194
_oIeIe IeloIOIOIOlOIOIOI_
IOIOIOIeIe_lelolo IO_ IOIeIOIeIO]
ResearchPrograms
University/Industry Involvement: AdvancedGamma-Ray Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton GRO

and extend the field into new domains of
University of Alabama
Telescope temporal variability and spectral measure-
Biological Sketch: Gerald J. Fishman is an ments. As shown numerous times in modern
astrophysicist in the Space Sciences GeraldJ. Fishman/ES81 astronomy, new classes of sources and
Laboratory of MSFC and is head of the 205-544-7691 phenomena may be expected with an order-
gamma-ray astronomy research group. His of-magnitude increase in sensitivity.
E-maihjerry.fishman@msfc.nasa
gov
primary research has been in the fields of
gamma-ray astronomy, nuclear astrophys- The detector system under study uses the
ics and background radiation in space. This year, MSFC Space Sciences Labora- same basic principle (tracking of the initial
Presently, he is the principal investigator of tory scientists have become part of a new electron-positron pair and its subsequent
the BATSE on the Compton GRO. He effort to establish a future mission for development, scattering, and absorption) as
obtained his Ph.D. in 1969 from Rice studies in gamma-ray astronomy in the that used in all detector systems in high-
University. timeframe following the Compton Gamma- energy gamma-ray astronomy above
Ray Observatory (GRO). The generic term -20 MeV. Many variations of the tracking
for the new mission is the gamma-ray large elements have been developed or proposed.
area space telescope (GLAST) and the These include spark chambers, drift
MSFC contribution to the effort is the chambers, gas microstrip detectors and
development of a scintillation fiber solid-state strip detectors. We propose to
telescope for energetic radiation (SIFTER). utilize a different technology: scintillating
This research and technology development fiber optics.
activity is being conducted in collaboration
with investigators at the University of For most other proposed detector systems
Alabama in Huntsville and Washington for high-energy gamma-ray astronomy, such
University in St. Louis. as silicon solid-state strip detectors, the
major cost of the system is in the active
In the energy regime above 20 MeV, the detector elements. Thus, their cost scales
most energetic processes and most directly as the sensitive area. A 1-m 2 system
luminous objects in the universe are studied. is usually specified in order to stay within a
The observational difficulties of this region reasonable cost constraint. By contrast, in
have resulted in a relatively slow start in the scintillating fiber optic system proposed
this new branch of astronomy, but the to be developed here, the active detecting
successes of the Compton GRO have elements (plastic scintillating fibers) are a
pointed the way to new discoveries and small fraction of the total detector cost. The
avenues of research for the future. Among major cost is the optical read-out system,
the many discoveries and studies made in around the perimeter of the active area.
this high-energy region have been active Thus, the cost scales as the square-root of
galactic nuclei (AGN's), a new type of high- the active area and total active areas of
energy object called blazars, diffuse gamma several square meters should be well within
radiation from cosmic-ray/molecular cloud the cost constraints of a medium-sized
interactions, high-energy gamma rays Explorer mission. Furthermore, continuing
(prompt and delayed) from gamma-ray developments in the high-energy physics
bursts, several new gamma-ray pulsars and community as well as new optical technolo-
as-yet unidentified sources. gies can be utilized for the system proposed
here for both increased performance and
A review panel chartered by NASA reduced costs.
Headquarters' Office of Space Science has
indicated that a major new thrust in high- Recent advances in optical fibers, image
energy gamma-ray astronomy (>30 MeV) intensifiers and solid-state optical readout
with at least 10 times the sensitivity of systems have now made this technology
previous missions should be pursued. This feasible as the basis of a low-cost, large-
new mission would build on the discoveries area detector system for high-energy
of the Energetic Gamma-Ray Experiment gamma-ray astronomy. The scintillating
195
50 Mev Photon 100 Mev Photon

950 8OO
_900
E o
_'600
/
E
.,_, X-Ray Astronomy Research
850
_o
c c Brian D.Ramsey/ES84
800 - o 205-544-7743
r,
E-mail: Ramsey@SSL.msfc.nasagov
N 200
750 - o
[]
Martin C.Weisskopf/ES01
205-544-7740
7OO i I I I o L I I Martin@Smoker.msfc.nasa.gov
2OO 300 400 500 600 700 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800
X Detector Axis (mm) X Detecter Axis (mm)
The thrust of the group's experimental
research focuses on the development of
750 Mev Photon 10 Gev Photon
1,000 detectors for x-ray astronomy. Two balloon
1,000
flight instruments are currently being built,
i
each incorporating new techniques
i ;
developed in-house and each based on gas-
E
e5oo - E_'500 .;= :: filled proportional counters. The first of
N these, the Marshall Imaging X-Ray
Experiment, No. 2, (MIXE21) detector,
r .,4
m utilizes special gas mixtures and construc-
tion materials and incorporates a novel
_ O- = / . . '_=_.-'=, • .
/" ;-" microstrip electrode array, fabricated using
,it _-_0 n L - ; • ',-.-_"_4d_'_,_T' _1-- microlithographic processes, which greatly
-, ,- improves the detector performance over
conventional (discrete wire) proportional
-500 - =
l I '1 I I -1,000_
counters. An in-house development
200 300 400 500 600 700 program, coupled with facilities provided
800 1,400 1,5001,6001,7001,8001,900 2,000
X Detector Axis (mm) by outside vendors, has led to the produc-
X Detector AXis (mm)
tion of very large area devices (30 cm by
30 cm) one of which will be flying in the
FIGURE163.-.-Computer simulations (x-y views) of gamma-ray-produced tracks through
Spring of 1997 from Fort Sumner, NM,
an array of plastic scintillator fibers and lead sheet stack at two different
energies. aboard a high-altitude balloon for x-ray
astronomy observations.
fiber technique is already well-demon- Sponsor: Office of Space Science The second instrument is a hard x-ray
strated and is successfully used in many imaging polarimeter which utilizes an
applications for high-energy physics and University/Industry Involvement: intensified CCD camera to image the
cosmic ray research. Calculations and University of Alabama in Huntsville; photoelectron tracks produced by x-ray
simulations have been performed to indicate Washington University (St. Louis) interactions. 2 It makes use of a special kind
reliable and accurate gamma-ray identifica- of gas counter, an optical avalanche
tion and characterization using a multilay- Biographical Sketch: Gerald J. Fishman is chamber, which produces extremely large
ered scintillation fiber and lead sheet array. an astrophysicist in the Space Sciences quantities of light photons (> 107) under
Simulated gamma-ray tracks in a SIFTER Laboratory at MSFC and is the head of the x-ray irradiation. Analysis of the initial
are shown in figure 163. From these tracks, gamma-ray astronomy research group there. ejection direction of the photoelectron
both the direction and the energy of the His primary research has been in the fields permits a measure of the polarization of the
incoming gamma ray can be determined. of gamma-ray astronomy, nuclear astro- incident x-ray photon. After extensive initial
The first 2 years of this development will be physics and background radiation in space. tests, a final design of a flight instrument
devoted to continuing computer simulations Presently, he is the principal investigator of has been completed and many of the
with various array configurations and the Burst and Transient Source Experiment components are either on order or in-house.
determining the performance of such arrays (BATSE) on the Compton GRO. He The full-up instrument is scheduled to be
directly by gamma-ray beam tests at a obtained his Ph.D. in 1969 from Rice completed by mid 1997.
particle accelerator. University.
196
Research
Programs
To date, our flight experiments have been Another major research effort is the tion. To avoid this, we developed a three-
flown on a gondola in collaboration with development and production of Wolter- 1 part mandrel, comprising the principal
Harvard College Observatory, but work is x-ray optics using electroformed-nickel mandrel and two end caps, each cap being
underway to develop an MSFC gondola. replication (ENR) off an electroless-nickel- -l-in long. The entire three-part mandrel,
This will incorporate a novel pointing coated aluminum mandrel. Our goals are to rigidly bolted together, undergoes the usual
system, the heart of which is an attitude develop improved techniques for figuring, diamond turning, electroless-nickel plating,
determination technique based on the global polishing, and coating the mandrel, plating polishing, and gold coating. Just prior to
positioning system. By determining the and separating the mirror shell, controlling the final electroforming of the mirror shell,
relative x, y and z positions of several contamination, and testing the optic in the three-part mandrel is disassembled and
antennae around the gondola, the true x rays. Production of a replicated optic thin Teflon spacers are inserted between
orientation of the gondola can be ascer- begins by turning a stress-relieved high- the end caps and the main mandrel. These
tained and folded into the control loop to purity aluminum cylinder close to the thin, dielectric spacers do not alter
give pointing accuracies of a few arc desired optical figure. This mandrel is then significantly the electric field; the plating is
minutes. plated with a thin (typically 0.16 mm) uniform on either side of the discontinuity.
electroless-nickel/phosphorous layer, and However, the spacers do facilitate removal
Various research projects support or spin off machined to the precise optical figure. The of the end caps after electroforming,
from the balloon flight programs and may mandrel is then polished (goal: micro- leaving a mandrel/optic combination ready
lead to flight instruments in their own right. roughness <5/k), and a weakly adherent for separation.
Typical of these is an investigation of the gold coating is applied to the polished
properties of ultra-high-pressure (50 to surface. The gold layer is later separated The final step in producing a replicated
100 atm) xenon ionization chambers that from the mandrel and becomes the inner optic is separation of the mirror shell from
can extend the energy range of a conven- reflecting surface of the x-ray optic. the mandrel, by cryogenically cooling the
tional low-pressure (1 to 5 atm) gas-filled mandrel until differential contraction
detector up to much higher energies (MeV causes complete detachment from the
Advances in Mirror-Shell Replication.
region). Several prototype instruments have nickel shell. Initially, we found it very
already been built and tested. 3 Similarly, we The most serious issue in replication is that difficult to separate the mirror shell without
are investigating liquid xenon as a detection standard nickel electroforming intrinsically scratching the gold reflecting surface or the
medium, using microstrip and microgap produces a shell with high internal stress highly polished mandrel. Furthermore, the
techniques developed for gaseous detectors. (typically several thousand lb/in2), causing extremely cold optical surfaces condensed
Liquid xenon is potentially very attractive the shell to deform after separation. In atmospheric water vapor, leading to surface
as it is 500 times more dense than gas and collaboration with researchers at the contamination. To eliminate these
hence offers much greater absorption University of Alabama Center for Applied problems, we designed and built a
capabilities. This large increase in density Optics, we developed a method for stress- separation fixture which allows precise
also results in the potential for much free electroformed-nickel plating, using withdrawal of the shell from the mandrel.
improved spatial resolution and the thin-membrane sensors to monitor stress During the separation procedure, both the
possibility of enhanced energy resolution. A during the nickel plating and to reduce the optic and the separation fixture are
small prototype chamber and associated gas average internal stress to zero by controlling maintained in a clean, dry-air environment
liquiflcation/purification system has the plating current density. to avoid contamination.
recently been constructed and tests are
underway. Finally, as a potential payload for End effects encountered during electroform- The culmination of these process improve-
future mini satellites, we are developing a ing also presented a problem. The higher ments is that we have successfully
Thomson scattering polarimeter sensitive electric field at the sharp ends of the produced mirror shells from several
over an energy range from 10 keV to mandrel results in nonuniform nickel mandrels. The best of these mandrels has
20 keV. 4 Polarization measurements are deposition. In addition, the plating extends an excellent surface (6-/_ RMS micro-
notoriously difficult to make and demand over the end of the mandrel, thus preventing roughness), measured to be the same
long observation times which in turn separation. For our early replicated optics, before and after replication.
necessitate a dedicated mission. As the we machined the ends of the mandrel/optic
scattering polarimeter is simple in concept combination to remove the offending
X-Ray Test Results.
and combines low weight with low-power material. Such an approach was unsatisfac-
consumption, it is ideally suited to future tory because it introduced significant In January 1996, we x-ray tested two
lightweight, low-cost, fast-turnaround contamination between the optic and 1/10-scale AXAF-P6/H6 shells (replicated
missions. mandrel during machining, and shortened from the same mandrel), using MSFC's
the mandrel with each subsequent replica- 100-m "stray-light" facility outfitted with
197
commercial electron-impact x-ray sources. instrument calibration. 5 They are also being 1Ramsey, B.D.; Apple, J.A.; Austin, R.A.;
The blur introduced by the finite-size used to develop software for analysis of Dietz, K.L.; Minamitani, T.;
source and the finite distance is negligible data from the forthcoming SXRP 6 Kolodziejczak, J.J.; Weisskopf, M.C.: "A
(-----0.5arc sec (")). To detect the focused experiment, on which the x-ray astronomy Large-Area Microstrip-Gas-Counter for
image, we employed an x-ray-sensitive group is collaborating. X-Ray Astronomy." Nuclear Instruments
Charge Injection Device, with a 528 by and Methods In Physics Research A., in
528 array of 28-mm pixels. Figure 164 As a complement to the above experimental press, 1996.
shows an image at 8.0 keV. A preliminary program there is an active theoretical effort
analysis of the results of these tests within the group. This work includes the 2Austin, R.A.; Ramsey, B.D.: "An Optical
(FWHM =8", HPD =27" at 8 keV) calculation of high-resolution x-ray spectra Imaging Chamber for X-Ray As-
document a significant improvement over from galaxy clusters through models for tronomy." Optical Engineering, Voi. 32,
our previous efforts (table 12). Future galaxy-cluster atmospheres. The goal of no. 8, pp. 1990-1994, 1993.
research will be directed toward creating this research is to identify promising
lighter-weight optics while maintaining or spectral diagnostics for cluster spectros- 3Bolotnikov, A.; Ramsey, B.D.: "High-
improving the angular resolution demon- copy from x-ray observatories such as Pressure Xenon Ionization Chambers for
strated here. ASCA, AXAF and ASTRO-E. These X-Ray and Low-Energy Gamma-Ray
diagnostics will help determine the basic Astronomy." Nuclear Instruments and
properties of the cluster plasma, such as Methods In Physics Research A., in press,
temperature, density and elemental 1996.
abundances. Another goal of this research is
to determine whether effects such as 4Weisskopf, M.C.; Ramsey, B.D.; Elsner,
multiphase plasma flows, radiative cooling, R.E; Joy, M.K.; O'Dell, S.L.; Garmire,
or plasma shocks by cluster merging G.; Meszaros, P. "The QCB X-Ray
possess unique quantitative spectral Polarimeter." SPIE, vol. 2285, 1994.
signatures.
5youngen, J.; Austin, R.A.; Diem, K.L.;
-1( A large body of software has been O'Dell, S.L.; Ramsey, B.D.; Tennant, A.;
-50 50
0 O developed, in support of the AXAF Weisskopf, M.C.: "The Importance of
program, which has widespread applica- Electron Tracking in Proportional
x (arc sec) 50 50y (arc sec)
tion, for example, in the design of x-ray Counters." SPIE, vol. 2280, 145, 1994.
optics or the design and evaluation of
FIGURE164.--Image at 8 keY of optic imaging systems. One typical current 6Kaaret, P. et al., "Status of the Stellar
No. 1. application is the design of novel continu- X-Ray Polarimeter for the Spectrum-
ously graded multilayers for broad-band X-Gamma Mission." SPIE, vol. 2010, pp.
x-ray optics in the hard x-ray region. Such 22-27, 1993.
muitilayers are currently being developed
TAOtt12.--X-ray test results.
for MSFC under the Small Business 70'Dell, S.L.; Elsner, R.E; Joy, M.;
Innovative Research Program and would be Ramsey, B.D.; Weisskopf, M.C.: "A New
of use not only in astronomy, but in medical Approach for Contamination Monitoring
Optic 1 physics and such areas as x-ray photoli- of X-Ray Telescopes." SPIE, vol. 2279,
thography. 1994.
Optic 2
Finally, also in support of the AXAF Sponsor: Office of Space Science
program, a technique has been developed
for in-situ monitoring of surface contamina- Biographical Sketch: Brian D. Ramsey
Related efforts include the development of tion of x-ray telescopes. 7 This utilizes received his Ph.D. in astrophysics from The
extensive software tools to model all radioactive source to measure the University of Birmingham, England, in
aspects of photon (and subsequent charged- reflectivity at several wavelengths and 1978. After a 5-year postdoctoral fellowship
particle) interactions within flight instru- offers many benefits over the traditional in Birmingham, he came to MSFC in 1983,
ments. These programs have recently technique of witness samples that accom- and currently works in the x-ray astronomy
shown the importance of modeling pany the optic and are examined at group of the Physics and Astronomy
photoelectron tracks in gas detectors if true appropriate intervals. division. His principal duties include
response matrices are to be developed for providing support for the AXAF program,
198
_ _ IoloIOlOIOloI@IOIOIO I@I@IOIO _IOYOYOIOIOIOI@_IOIO_
ResearchPrograms
and overseeing the MSFC X-Ray Balloon

Interferometric Imaging single-dish observations. A further
Program and the developments of new advantage of interferometry, especially for
instruments for x-ray and gamma-ray of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich relatively low frequency observations, is the
astronomy.
Effect at 30 GHz ability to image and then remove emission
from point sources that otherwise contami-
Martin C. Weisskopf received his Ph.D. nate the S-Z effect. Last, interferometry
from Brandeis University in 1969. From MarshallJoy/ES84 provides a two-dimensional image of the
1969 until 1977, he was at Columbia 205-544-3423 emission.
University--first as a research associate, E-maihmarshall.joy@msfc.nasa.gov
and then as assistant professor of physics. In this paper we present images of the S-Z
In 1977, he came to MSFC to start the x-ray Observations of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect obtained with the millimeter-wave
astronomy group and is currently senior (S-Z) effect have been attempted since the array of the Owens Valley Radio Observa-
scientist for x-ray astronomy at MSFC and effect was first predicted 25 years ago. The tory (OVRO) outfitted with centimeter-wave
project scientist for the AXAF mission. effect is a spectral distortion of the 3-K receivers. Using an array designed for
cosmic microwave background radiation millimeter wavelengths at centimeter
resulting from inverse-Compton scattering wavelengths is ideal for imaging the S-Z
of the microwave photons as they pass effect and alleviates most of the problems
through the hot x-ray-emitting gas in the discussed above. Additionally, the
extended atmospheres of clusters of two-dimensional layout of the array makes
galaxies. The spectral distortion appears as it possible to obtain good u, v coverage and
a temperature decrement at frequencies high brightness sensitivity, even for
below 218 GHz (>1.4 mm) and an incre- equatorial sources.
ment at higher frequencies. Although the
magnitude of the effect is small (~ 1 mK at Low-noise receivers utilizing cooled high
radio wavelengths), its promise of providing electron mobility transistor (HEMT)
an independent estimate of the Hubble amplifiers that operate from 26 to 36 GHz
constant and of the peculiar motions of were built and mounted at the Cassegrain
distant clusters of galaxies has continued to focus of each of the 10.4 m telescopes of
motivate increasingly sensitive observa- the Owens Valley millimeter array specifi-
tions. The first observations of the effect cally to image the S-Z effect. The tele-
were made in the radio regime with single- scopes operating at 28.7 GHz provide a
dish telescopes. The reported results show 4 arc rain (') FWHM primary beam. The
considerable differences, reflecting the resulting 1.0 kk minimum baseline allows
difficulty of the measurement. These imaging angular scales as large as 1.7',
observations illustrated the need for although in practice angular scales only less
telescopes and receiver systems designed than about 1.4' are imaged well. At these
explicitly to minimize differential atmo- frequencies the surface accuracy is better
spheric emission and ground pickup. than _,/100, and the pointing accuracy is
better than _,/50 of the primary beam. The
Interferometric observations offer several observations were obtained with five
advantages over those made with single elements of the array during the period of
dishes for detecting and imaging weak June 16 to July 9, 1994.
emission. An interferometer measures only
the correlated signal received by separate Three clusters were targeted for observa-
telescopes. Furthermore, the correlations are tions: CL 0016+16, Abell 773, and Abell
performed after compensation for the 1704. Their selection was based on a
changing differential delays introduced as combination of strong x-ray emission, small
the array telescopes track the celestial angular size, previously reported S-Z
source. This synchronous detection ensures decrements, and position. Abell 773 and
that a well-designed interferometer will not Abell 1704 are at similar distances,
suffer from the systematic effects associated z=0.197 and 0.220, respectively, while CL
with atmospheric and ground emission that 0016+16 is much more distant at z=0.541.
are so difficult to determine and control in The S-Z effect toward CL 0016+16 is
199
D _ IO_ IO _OIOIOIOIOIO IOIOIeIOIO D _0 IOIO_IOID_ J_IDI_OIOl@_
believed to be strong. The OVRO array is increase the sensitivity and imaging speed The JACEEMeasurement
well suited to observations of CL 0016+16 of the instrument.
since it allows reasonable u, v coverage at of the Cosmic Ray Proton
declination 16 degrees, and the l' synthe- 1Carlstrom, J.; Joy, M.; Grego, L.: Astro-
and Helium Spectra
sized beam is better matched to more physical Journal Letters, 456, 75.
distant clusters. The S-Z effect toward Abell
2Carlstrom, J.; Joy, M.; Grego, L.: Astro-
JamesH. Derrickson/ES84
773 was observed by others with the Ryle
telescope with a resulting signal-to-noise physical Journal Letters, 461, 59. 205-544-7698
ratio (S/N) of -5. We observed it to test our E-mail:derrickson@ssl.msfc.nasa.gov
system and to provide a confirmation of Sponsor: MSFC Center Director's
their 15 GHz interferometric result. Discretionary Fund The Japanese-American cooperative
Unsuccessful searches for the S-Z effect emulsion experiment (JACEE) collaboration
toward Abell 1704 have been made by University/Industry Involvement: J. has now flown 15 balloon-borne experi-
others; we also obtained a null result. Carlstrom, University of Chicago; L. Grego, ments to measure the cosmic ray composi-
California Institute of Technology tion, energy spectra, and nuclear
The full paper presents imaging results for interactions above l012 electron volts
each cluster. A decrement and associated Biographical Sketch: Dr. Marshall Joy is (1 TeV). Some of these flight opportunities
sidelobes were clearly detected. In reference an astrophysicist in the Space Sciences included long-duration balloon flights from
2 an illistration shows our 56.5 in by 51.2 in Laboratory at Marshall. He earned his Ph.D. Australia to South America and circumpolar
resolution S-Z image overlaid on an x-ray in astrophysics at the University of Texas, flights in Antarctica. The JACEE collabora-
image taken with the Roentgen Satellite Austin, in 1986. _,_ tion includes MSFC, University of Alabama
(ROSAT) PSPC instrument, which has a in Huntsville (UAH), University of
resolution of ~ 30 in. The bright x-ray Washington (UW), Seattle, Louisiana State
emission to the north of the cluster is from University (LSU), Institute for Nuclear
an active galactic nucleus (AGN) at Physics, Krakow, Poland, and nine
z = 0.554. The overall similarity of the two universities located in Japan. The instru-
images is striking; the positions agree ment package contains multiple layers of
within the uncertainties, and both images doubled-sided nuclear emulsion plates,
show resolved structure elongated at a CR39 etchable track detectors, x-ray films,
position angle of -50 degrees. While the and lead plates. The emulsion chamber is
images give an impression of the data typically divided into a charge detector, a
quality, quantitative information is best target section for interactions, a stack of
obtained by directly fitting models to the honeycomb spacers, and an ionization
visibility data. calorimeter section for the determination of
the cosmic ray energy. To achieve adequate
Using the core radius and ellipticity derived exposure to the meager flux of high-energy
from the x-ray data to constrain the model cosmic ray protons and helium nuclei, six
parameters resulted in a decrement for CL emulsion chambers, 1.2-m 2 and 20-cm
0016 + 16 of AT 0 =-7 i 7_+65 _tK. Measure- thick, were flown at an altitude of 120 to
ments of the S-Z effect can lead to a 125,000 ft for 9 to 15 days. After repeated
determination of the Hubble constant and long duration balloon flights, a total
other cosmological parameters. However, a accumulated exposure of 1,436 m 2 hr was
sensitive, unbiased imaging survey of realized. To date, we have analyzed
galaxy clusters at both microwave and 45 percent of this accumulated data
x-ray wavelengths will be necessary to resulting in 656 protons above 6 TeV and
achieve a reliable determination of these 414 helium nuclei above an energy of
parameters. The results presented here 2 TeV/nucleon. We present in figure 165 the
demonstrate the power of using the OVRO JACEE differential energy spectra for both
millimeter array equipped with centimeter hydrogen and helium (filled circles)
receivers to obtain high S/N images of the together with previous measurements for
S-Z effect toward distant clusters. With the comparison. The kinetic energy scale is
goal of conducting a survey of clusters, we expressed in units of GeV/nucleon where
have made several improvements to GeV = 109 electron volts. Both the JACEE
200
Research Programs
is consistent with supernova remnant shock

wave acceleration into the interstellar
medium to explain the hydrogen spectrum
104 and supernova shock wave acceleration into
the stellar wind of a Wolf-Rayet star to
explain the helium spectrum. The hydrogen
and helium data appear to be in good
agreement with the predictions of the
supernova shock wave acceleration model
coupled with the standard "leaky box"
model describing the propagation of cosmic
rays through the galaxy. The JACEE
collaboration has produced the highest
energy direct measurement of the cosmic
ray hydrogen and helium spectra up to an
energy of 800 TeV.
T 103
Asakimori, K. et al. To be submitted to the

=
Astrophysical Journal, 1996.
%
Sponsor: Office of Space Science
i.,,i
=.-- University/Industry Involvement:
%,
University of Alabama in Huntsville;
University of Washington, Seattle; Louisi-
ana State University; Institute for Nuclear
Physics, Krakow, Poland; Kobe Women's
Junior College, Kobe, Japan; Kobe
102
University, Kobe, Japan; Kochi University,
Kochi, Japan; Waseda University, Tokyo,
Japan; Okayama University of Science,
Okayama, Japan; KEK, Tsukuba, Japan;
d Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan;

Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, Tokyo,
Japan; Tezukayama University, Nara, Japan.
llJ J i iiii111 i J i=;=l_J J i iiiiili i i iiiltll i i iiiiitl I I I IIIII

Biographical Sketch: Dr. James
0° 101 102 10 3 104 105 06
Derrickson is a space scientist at the Space
Kinetic Energy (GeV/Nucleon) Sciences Laboratory located at MSFC. He
has experience in the study of the space
FZQURE
165.--The differential energy spectra of cosmic ray hydrogen (H) and helium (He) radiation environment focusing on the field
showing the latest JACEE results (O) together with earlier results from Frier of high energy cosmic ray research. He
and Waddington (1968, +), Anand et al. (1968, i), Ryan et al. (1972, A), received his Ph.D. in 1983 from the
Verma et al. (1972, _), Ramaty et al. (1973, V), Smith et al. (1973, r-I), University of Alabama in Huntsville.
Badhwar et al. (1977, A), Seo et al. (1991, V), Dwyer et al. (1993, D),
Ichimura el al. (1993, <1), Ivanenko et el. (1993, _), Zatsepin et al
(1993, ×), and Swordy et al. (1995, [_).
proton and helium data can be fit with an can conclude from this inverse power law fit
inverse power law in energy with spectral that the H/He ratio gradually decreases with
indices Trl= 2.69+0.13/-0.05 and increasing energy. A helium spectrum
THe= 2.54 + 0.13/- 0.04, respectively. We slightly flatter than the hydrogen spectrum
201
The Utilization of Direct volts. Unlike other methods dependent on the development of several promising
the electromagnetic interaction (e.g., detector designs. If the design effort is
Electron Pairs for the Cerenkov and transition radiation), this successful, a measurement of the
energy measurement technique has the ultrarelativistic cosmic ray energy spectra
Energy Measurement
advantage of not saturating at using the direct pair method will provide
of Ultrarelativistic ultrarelativistic energies. Through the important clues concerning possible
MSFC/UAH/UT effort, the physical multiple sources of cosmic rays and
Cosmic Rays characteristics of the direct electron pairs potential evidence of several acceleration
have been determined. The direct pair mechanisms.
James H. Derrickson/ES84 energy varies from a few million electron
205-544-7698 volts (MeV) to several hundred MeV and Derrickson, J.H., et al.: Physical Review A.
E-maih derrickson@ssl.msfc.nasa.gov the emission angle distribution peaks close 51:1253, 1995.
to the forward direction. This basic
information on direct electron pairs will be Derrickson, J.H., et ai.: 24th International
A great deal of progress has been made in used in a Monte Carlo simulation of a Cosmic Ray Conference, Rome, Italy.
our fundamental understanding of the generic direct electron pair detector to aid in Vol. 3, pp. 641, 1995.
production of direct electron pairs by
relativistic heavy ions in matter. The past
discrepancies between theory and measure-
10 3
ment have been resolved due, in part, to the -- MSFC Calculation, Eby e Pions
collaborative work conducted at MSFC, the
o, AMSFC/UAH/UT (016, 832) A Protons
University of Alabama in Huntsville
i-lOI
" 0RNL (832) * Protons
(UAH), and the University of Tennessee • Electrons a Pions, Bubble Chamber
(UT). The accelerator measurements
performed by the MSFC/UAH/UT group at Muons
the European Center for Nuclear Research
(CERN) using relativistic oxygen and sulfur
ion beams are summarized in figure 166
along with previous accelerator measure-
ments. Included in this presentation of the
direct pair yield is the only other relativistic "6 =N101
[]
heavy ion pair measurement at CERN
conducted by an Oakridge National ==
Z
Laboratory (ORNL) collaboration using a
magnetic field to identify the positron
member of the pair and determine its
10 0
, ,,,,,,,I , ,, .....i i lll ,i
_.L
momentum spectrum. The measured direct 101 102 10 3 10 4 10 5 106
pair yield from the heavy ion exposures
have been corrected for background, pair Primary Energy - y (Lorentz Factor)
energy cut-off and bandwidth differences,

and normalized as indicated in figure 166 to FZGUaE
166.raThe direct pair production arbitrarily normalized to the equivalent yield
facilitate comparison with the theory. These of an Fe nucleus in 3 cm of emulsion as a function of the primary energy
recent direct pair yield results based on the of the projectile expressed in terms of the Lorentz factor, (7)- This unusual
heavy ion exposures compare well with a normalization can be tied to the interest the cosmic ray community has in
modern calculation performed at MSFC applying the direct pair method to measuring the heavy energetic cosmic
(solid curve). rays. The recent MSFC/UAH/UT results (0, &) are compared to the
measurements from Kinzer et al. (1968, Q), Cary et al. (1971, m), Butt et al.
This gives us confidence in both the (1973, *), Jain et al. (1974, A, Qp), Forney et al. (1975, _1), Vane et al.
measurements and the theory so that it is (1994, A). The arrow and bar indicate a correction to the bubble chamber
now possible to consider the application of yield to compensate for the high momentum cutoff (10 MeV/c). The solid
the direct electron pair process to the curve is the calculated total direct pair yield including atomic screening due
measurement of the primary energy of the to Eby (1991). The heavy ion data has been corrected for background and pair
heavy cosmic rays above 1012 electron momentum detection limits.
202
_ I OlOlO IOI@IOlO_IO_lO_lOlOlOlOlOl@lO _IO I@lOIO_I@IO_I@_
ResearchPrograms
Eby, EB.: Nuclear Instruments and Methods

in Physics Research A. 336:189, 1993.
Sponsor: Office of Space Science; Center

Director's Discretionary Fund
University of Alabama in Huntsville;
University of Tennessee, Knoxville;
Universities Space Research Association
(USRA)
Biographical Sketch: Dr. James

Derrickson is a space scientist at the Space
Sciences Laboratory located at MSFC. He
has experience in the study of the space
radiation environment focusing on the field
of high energy cosmic ray research. He
received his Ph.D. in 1983 from the
University of Alabama in Huntsville.
203
Solar Physics
To overcome this difficulty, we have

Self-Filtering Solar flux, including both the infrared and
ultraviolet, is focused onto the smaller developed an approach which combines a
Telescopes secondary mirror. This increased flux modification to the design of the primary
creates thermal problems and enhances the mirror with advances in thin film, dielectric,
John M. Davis/ES82 potential for the polymerization of hydro- multilayer filters to develop a self-filtering
carbons on the mirror surface, which can Cassegrain telescope which eliminates the
205-544-7600
result in a catastrophic loss of reflectivity. requirement for a full aperture prefilter. In
E-mail: john.davis.3@msfc.nasagov
To solve this problem a full aperture this concept the transmission coatings
G. Allen Gary/ES82 prefilter with a bandpass defined by a which were previously applied to the
205-544-7609 simple metal 1 dielectric coating can reduce prefilter are converted to reflective
the thermal load on the telescope. This coatings 2 and applied directly to the front
E-mail: atlen.gary@msfc.nasa.gov
concept has been successfully employed on surfaces of the primary and secondary
Edward A, WestJES82 the MSFC vector magnetograph for the past mirrors. The solar radiation incident on the
205-544-7625 25 years. A disadvantage of the approach is primary is either reflected, if it is within the
E-mail: edward.west@msfc,nasa.gov that it limits the spectral bands that can be passband of the filters, or transmitted
investigated to the visible and in particular through the body of the mirror. Our
Alan P.Shapiro/EB53 excludes the far UV. modification is to figure the rear surface of
205-544-3488 the primary mirror and provide it with an all
E-mail: alan.p.shapiro@msfc.nasa.gov In the Gregorian design the secondary purpose reflective coating, such as silver,
mirror is mounted outside the focus of the which has high reflectivity in the IR. In the
primary. This allows a field stop to be ideal case, the curvature of this rear surface
Measurements of the Sun's vector magnetic placed at the primary focus which can be is such that the incident rays, following
field carried out at MSFC have demon- used to limit the total energy striking the refraction in the glass, strike the surface
strated that observations with better spatial, secondary mirror. Typically, the stop normally and are reflected back along their
and temporal resolution, and over a wider reduces the field of view to about 2 arc rain 2 original path and out of the telescope. This
spectral range, than can be achieved with which results in less than half a percent of condition is met for parabolic surfaces when
the Sun's total flux from reaching the the radius of curvature of the rear surface is
ground-based telescopes, are required to
meet our scientific objectives. Since secondary. Because the incident beam is not equal to the product of the refractive index
ground-based telescopes are limited by the filtered, the Gregorian design provides and the radius of curvature of the front
variability of the Earth's atmosphere, we are access to the full solar spectrum and has surface (fig. 167). In practice the refractive
investigating concepts for moderate to large applications where the emphasis is on ultra- index is a function of wavelength and many
aperture (30- to 60-cm diameter), diffrac- high spatial resolution over a restricted field of the reflected rays will have slight
tion limited, spaced-based solar telescopes of view. The disadvantages of the Gregorian departures from the normal. Therefore, the
for operation in the visible and ultraviolet design is that the total length is approxi- figure of the back surface is designed to
regions of the spectrum. Solar telescopes mately 30 percent longer than a Cassegrain satisfy this condition in the IR so that rays
have unique thermal problems for they act with the same f-number and it has a larger at all shorter wavelengths will exit the
as solar furnaces, focusing large amounts of central obscuration. primary mirror at angles that are outside the
energy onto the post primary optics. Past incident ray and consequently will not strike
and future telescope concepts are usually The scientific focus of the MSFC group is the secondary mirror. Two applications for
based on either Cassegrain or Gregorian the study of how the Sun's magnetic field this technology are under consideration.
designs. In the Cassegrain, the secondary changes with time and how these changes The first is for a space magnetograph to
mirror is located inside the focal plane of lead to the explosive release of energy in obtain improved measurements of the
the primary mirror, and the main advantage, solar flares. To satisfy these objectives the vector fields in the photosphere. The
for space applications is its compactness. In magnetic field observations have to be made magnetically sensitive, spectral lines of
addition, the secondary mirror provides less over relatively large fields of view. interest are in the visible at 525.0 nm and
central obscuration than the Gregorian Consequently, a Cassegrain with a full 630.2 nm and the performance of a multiple
design resulting in an improved modulation aperture prefilter has been our preferred bandpass filter, which also includes the Hot
transfer function (MTF) at angular design. However, as the diameter of the line at 656.3 nm is shown in figure 168 (b).
frequencies just above the diffraction limit. primary aperture increases the fabrication The design which was prepared for Solar-B,
The disadvantage of the standard and support of a distortion free, full aperture a joint ISAS/NASA mission to measure
Cassegrain design is that there is no prefilter becomes increasingly difficult if solar magnetic fields, consists of art
location for a field stop in the primary not impossible. f-4 telescope system with a 0.5- to 0.6-m
optical path. Consequently, the full solar aperture primary mirror. The physical
204
Research
Programs
SecondaryMirror
Heat Dump
Maximum Dispersion Ray
(200 nm)
Selected envelope for the telescope provided by the
Wavelengths spacecraft is extremely limited and the self-
filtering Cassegrain design provides an
elegant solution for this case.
Telescope
The second application is for a vector
Optical
Axis magnetograph operating in the far-
Interference Coating
ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Lines in
this region of the spectrum are formed at
higher temperatures than the photospheric
lines, observed in the visible, which in turn
corresponds to greater heights in the solar
atmosphere. By comparing the UV and
visible measurements, an understanding of
Front Surface
Glass (n) how the structure of the magnetic field
varies with height can be gained. Such
Primary Mirrer information is important because we believe
that a significant part of the Sun's dynamic
Reflecting Coating
behavior originates in this upper chromo-
Back Surface sphere-low coronal region. The ultraviolet
magnetograph that we are proposing for a
NormallyReflected Ray
suborbital flight opportunity will use the
(4,000 nm)
spectral lines of Mg II at 280 nm and CIV at
FIGURE
167.--SchemaUc of the self-filtering mirrorconcept. 150 nm. These magnetically sensitive lines
are formed in the upper chromosphere and
A low corona respectively and the measure-
E 3,000
ment of their polarization will provide the
first opportunity to observe solar vector
_ 2,000 magnetic fields in a region where the field
(a) lines are unconstrained by the solar
atmosphere.
E
.=
/
Is 1,000 A preliminary design of this telescope has

a_
,FI I, .,
an f-10 system with a 0.3-m diameter
primary. To obtain the bandpass perfor-
o 0 mance shown in figure168 (c), a customized
1.0 dielectric coating consisting of alternating
150 280 525 630
656 layers of lanthanum fluoride and magne-
=. 0.8 sium fluoride has been designed.
,,g
D (c)
E In both these applications practical reasons
= 0.6 (b)
k-- impose strict limits on the size of the
0
instrument, a condition which is generally
0
- 0.4 true for all space-based solar telescopes. For
o these situations, where high spatial
0.2 resolution over wide field of view is also
required, the self-filtering Cassegrain
0 _"- I concept offers an elegant design solution.
0 750 1,500
]Brueckner, G.E.: "A New Completely
Wavelength (nm)
Digitized Filter Magnetograph". IAV
FIGunE
168.---(a) The solar spectrum(b) the passbandsof the photosphericvector Symposium no. 43, Reidel: New York, p.
magnetograph(c) the passbandsof the UV magnetograph. 84, 1971.
205
2Zukic, M.; Torr, D.G.; Spann, J.F.; and (EXVM). His main interests are in the
Coronal Heating
Torr, M.R.: "Optical Constants of Thin development of high resolution, stable
Films". Applied Optics, vol. 29, p. 4284, polarizing optics that can improve vector
1990. RonaldL Moore/ES82
magnetic field measurements and in
205-544-7613
reducing the instrumental errors, both
Sponsor: Office of Space Science optical and electrical, so that a magnetic E-mail:ronmoore@msfc.nasa.gov
resolution of 50 gauss transverse can be
University Involvement: University of achieved. Along with the development of The Sun's extended outer atmosphere, the
Alabama in Huntsville new instrumentation to observe the vector corona, is so hot that it radiates predomi-
magnetic field on the Sun, he is interested in nantly in soft x rays (1 to 10 nm in
Biographical Sketch: John M. Davis developing the real-time analysis tools to wavelength). The upper left panel of figure
received his Ph.D. in physics from the predict flares, and in studying magnetic 169 shows a typical whole-Sun soft x-ray
University of Leeds, UK in 1964. He has evolution and magneto-optic effects of the image taken by the Japan/U.S. Soft X-Ray
held positions at the Massachusetts Institute Sun. Telescope (SXT) on the Japanese orbiting
of Technology, and American Science and spacecraft, Yohkoh. This image demon-
Engineering, Inc., Cambridge, MA, where Dr. Alan Shapiro is a coating physicist at strates that in soft x rays the corona greatly
the primary emphasis of his work was the the Optics and Radio Frequency Division at outshines the underlying photosphere, the
design, development and testing of MSFC's Astrionics Laboratory. He conducts Sun's surface seen in ordinary visible
scientific, and especially x-ray imaging, research on specialized optical coatings, sunlight. This requires that the x-ray
instrumentation for space. He joined the many of which are utilized for astronomical coronal plasma be maintained at million-
Marshall Center as chief of the Solar and astrophysics related programs. He also degree temperatures, hundreds of times
Physics Branch whose members are conducts research on the surface morphol- hotter than the photosphere. How the
involved in experimental and theoretical ogy of material surfaces. Shapiro earned his necessary coronal heating is accomplished
studies of solar magnetic fields and their Ph.D. in condensed matter physics from the remains an unsolved puzzle, constituting a
interaction with the solar atmosphere. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign in long-standing premier problem of solar
1987, after which he worked at International physics and astrophysics.
G. Allen Gary received his Ph.D. in physics Business Machine Corporation, East
in 1969 from the University of Georgia. He FishkiU, NY. He has worked for NASA at Figure 169 illustrates that coronal heating is
is in the Solar Physics Branch at the MSFC since May 1989. a magnetic phenomenon: the strongest
Marshall Center, investigating the nature of heating (brightest corona) is seen to be in
coronal structures and solar magnetic fields. the strong magnetic field in sunspot regions.
His research also includes the general study (The upper right panel of figure 169 is the
of the magnetic field's configuration, same SXT coronal image as in the upper
evolution, and morphology together with left panel, but with a different scaling of the
estimation of the energy content of active brightness to show detail within the
regions. His theoretical work involves brightest regions. The lower left panel is a
developing models of linear and nonlinear cotemporal photospheric image showing
force-free magnetic fields and electric sunspots underlying the most strongly
currents in the solar chromosphere-corona. heated parts of the corona. The lower right
panel is a conventional magnetogram from
Edward West received his B.S. degree in Kitt Peak National Solar Observatory
engineering science from Tennessee showing both the concentrations of strong
Technological University in 1973 and his magnetic field in the bright-corona active
M.S. degree in electrical engineering from regions (in and near sunspots) and scattered
the University of Alabama, Huntsville in weaker fields in dimmer-corona quiet
1982. He joined the Marshall Center in the regions (well away from sunspots.) It can be
fall of 1973 and has been associated with seen from even a cursory comparison of
the Space Sciences Laboratory since that SXT coronal images with conventional
time. He has worked with the hardware and magnetograms (maps of the line-of-sight
software development of both the original component of the photospheric roots of the
vector magnetograph and the breadboard magnetic field), such as in figure 169, that
design of a space-based instrument called the brightest coronal features in an active
the EXperimental Vector Magnetograph region occupy only some parts of the
206
_IOI@IOIoIoZoIoIOI@
Research Programs
From these results, they conclude that most

of the strong heating of coronal loops in
active regions is a consequence of some
process that:
• Acts only in the presence of a polarity
inversion in the magnetic field near at
least 1 ft of the loop, and is more
effective in the presence of strong
magnetic shear, but
• Is not required to act by the presence of a
neutral line or strong neutral-line
magnetic shear;
• Makes many "substructure microflares"
in core fields, and
• Is controlled by some episodic process.
Magnetic flux cancellation driven at the
neutral line by episodic convective flows in
and beneath the photosphere is a process
that plausibly meets all of these require-
ments.
The MSFC scientists therefore infer from

their observations that:
• The strong coronal heating rooted in
active regions is done by core-field
microflaring paced by magnetic flux
cancellation; and
FIGURE169.--The x-ray solar corona and its magnetic roots.
• The microflaring activity directly
produces the enhanced coronal heating in
strong-field domain of the active region. component of the photospheric magnetic the core fields and also generates MHD
While it is true that the brightest coronal field in addition to the line-of-sight waves that propagate up into the
features are seated in strong fields, there are component mapped by conventional enhanced extended loops to provide the
other places in the active region where the magnetographs.) They found: strong coronal heating in these.
field is as strong or stronger, but the corona • Nearly all of the enhanced (outstandingly
is much dimmer, and hence the heating bright) coronal features are rooted near Falconer, D.A.; Moore, R.L.; Porter, J.G.;
much weaker. Thus, it is clear that the polarity neutral lines in the photospheric Gary, G.A.; Shimizu, T.: "Neutral-Line
strength of the enhanced coronal heating in magnetic flux; Magnetic Shear and Enhanced Coronal
active regions depends on more than just the • In most cases the core magnetic field Heating in Solar Active Regions."
strength of the magnetic field. closely straddling the neutral line at the Astrophysical Journal, 1996, in press.
root of the strong heating is strongly
During the past year, solar scientists at sheared; Moore, R.; Porter, J.; Roumeliotis, G.;
MSFC, in collaboration with U.S. and • The enhanced coronal brightness in the Tsuneta, S.; Shimizu, T.; Sturrock, E;
Japanese colleagues participating in the low-lying core fields shows spatial Acton, L.: "Observations of Enhanced
Yohkoh Mission, have established some substructure that fluctuates on time scales Coronal Heating in Sheared Magnetic
new characteristics of the magnetic origins of minutes, in the manner of Fields." Proceedings of the Kofu
of the strong coronal heating in active microflaring; Symposium "New Look at the Sun," ed.
regions. They examined the structure of the • Large parts of extensive enhanced S. Enome and T. Hirayama, Nobeyama
magnetic field at the sites of strong coronal coronal features often last for no more Radio Observatory Report no. 360, p. 89,
heating in five active regions by superpos- that a few hours; and 1994.
ing Yohkoh SXT images on vector • Some strongly sheared core fields and
magnetograms of these active regions from many weakly sheared core fields have no Porter, J.; Moore, R.; Roumeliotis, G.;
the MSFC vector magnetograph. (A vector enhanced coronal loops in them or Shimizu, T.; Tsuneta, S.; Sturrock, P.;
magnetograph maps the transverse extending from them. Acton, L.: "Microflaring at the Feet of
207
• _IOIOlOIO IOIOIU_OlOIOIOIOIO10IOIOIOIO]
DIOIOIOIOIOIO/_IOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOIO
IOIOIOI_I_O IOIO_ _IO _ IO_
Large Active Region Loops." Ibid., p. 65, Solar Flares flares would be intense enough and
1994. voluminous enough to provide the electrons
for the hard x-ray emission. The question
RonaldL. Moore/ES82
then became: How is the energy in this
205-544-7613 MHD turbulence transferred to the
University/Industry Involvement: E-mail:ron.rnoore@msfc,nasa.gov electrons? In answer to this question,
University of Tokyo; Stanford University; LaRosa, Moore, and Shore 2 proposed that
Montana State University A solar flare is an explosive event in a the electrons are bulk-energized in the
magnetic region of the solar atmosphere. turbulence by Fermi acceleration at
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Ronald L. Moore Apparently, stored magnetic energy is sufficiently small scales in the cascade.
is an internationally recognized solar suddenly released low in the corona, driving These authors also pointed out that for this
scientist. He received his Ph.D. from bulk mass motion, heating plasma, and to be a viable mechanism for the electron
Stanford University in 1972, was a accelerating electrons and ions to hard x-ray energization, the rate of proton energization
Research Fellow with the Caltech Solar energies and beyond. In particular, the by the same turbulence cannot exceed the
Astronomy group (1972 through 1980), and magnitude and energy spectrum of the rate of electron energization. Whether the
joined the MSFC Solar Physics branch in resulting burst of hard x rays often indicate protons could block the Fermi-acceleration
1981. There, he developed and continues to that: energization of the electrons remained an
lead a research program on observed solar • Much of the released energy goes to the open question.
magnetic fields and their effects in the solar energization of electrons to tens of
atmosphere. Moore has published over kilovolts; During the past year, in a collaboration
100 papers on his solar research in refereed • The number of these electrons in the between solar astrophysicists from
journals, conference proceedings, books, burst is comparable to the total number of Kennesaw State College in Marietta, GA,
and encyclopedias. electrons in the preflare coronal volume MSFC, University of Alabama in Hunts-
of the flaring magnetic field; and ville, and Indiana University at South
• The total energy channeled into these Bend? it has been shown that the protons
electrons is a sizeable fraction of the total pose no threat to the electron energization
preflare magnetic energy in the flare by Fermi acceleration. The energization rate
volume. for the electrons was derived from first
principles, starting from the elements of the
The observed hard x-ray emission from wave-particle interactions that yield the
flares thus confronts solar astrophysicists Fermi acceleration in MHD turbulence
with what is known as the electron bulk (fig. 170). The energization rate of the
energization problem: How does the flare protons was derived in the same way. For
energy-release process manage to be so typical magnetic field strengths and typical
efficient in energizing electrons to hard densities and temperatures of the plasma
x-ray energies? It is this difficulty that entering the turbulence in flares, the protons
makes the plasma energization in solar have initial thermal speeds much slower
flares one of the fundamental problems of than the Alfven speed in the turbulence
plasma astrophysics. whereas the electrons have initial thermal
speeds much faster than the Alfven speed.
An enduring central idea in flare physics is This difference between the protons and the
that the conversion of magnetic energy into electrons results in the proton energization
plasma particle energy is accomplished rate being entirely negligible compared to
through reconnection of the magnetic field. that of the electrons. In this way, electron
Under this precept, the question becomes: Fermi-acceleration dissipation of MHD
How can reconnection provide the required turbulence is now established as a strong
electron bulk energization? A few years candidate mechanism for the electron bulk
ago, MSFC solar astrophysicists pointed out energization in solar flares, and a new front
that the main function of the reconnection has been opened for attacking the problem
could be to generate MHD turbulence that, of plasma energization in solar flares.
in turn, bulk-energizes the electrons as it
cascades to small scales. 1 They reasoned lLaRosa, T.N.; Moore, R.L.: "A Mechanism
that the MHD turbulence expected in strong for Bulk Energization in the Impulsive
208
Research Programs
Three-Dimensional
Rendering and Image
Analysis of Coronal Loops
VA
G Allen Gary/ES82
205-544-?609
EL E-mail: allen gary@msfc.nasa.gov
Since launch in 1991, the Japanese solar

Iii satellite Yohkoh has been revealing many
new aspects of solar coronal physics:
coronal structures and dynamics, gigantic
arcades formations, cusp-shaped flares, soft
x-ray jets, microflares, single-loop flares.
q Ii, and loop-loop interactions. MSFC was the
6e
management center for the Soft X-Ray
Telescope (SXT) built by I,ockheed for the
FIGURE170.mElements of the wave-particle interactions in the Fermi acceleration ISAS (Institute of Space and Aeronautical
of charged particles in MHD turbulence. Sciences) in Japan. MSFC involvement in
solar x rays and magnetic fields has been
extensive: Apollo Telescope Mount's Solar
Phase of Solar Flares." Astrophysical Astronomy group (1972 through 1980), and X-Ray Telescope S-056, MSFC Solar
Journal, 418, 912, 1993. joined the MSFC Solar Physics branch in Vector Magnetograph, MSFC and Stanford
1981. There, he developed and continues to x-ray telescope rocket programs, High
21,aRosa, T.N.; Moore, R.L.; Shore, S.N.: lead a research program on observed solar Energy X-Ray Telescope. Soft X-Ray
"A New Path for the Electron magnetic fields and their effects in the solar Instrument, and Solar-B. This research is
Energization in Solar Flares: Fermi atmosphere. Moore has published over extending this effort.
Acceleration by MHD Turbulence in 100 papers on his solar research in refereed
Reconnection Outflows." Astrophysical journals, conference proceedings, books, The objective of this research is to expand
Journal, 425,856, 1994. and encyclopedias. [] MSFC's in-house capabilities by developing
innovative three-dimensional dynamic
3LaRosa, T.N.: Moore, R.I,; Miller, J.A.; displays, tools, and programs to simulate
Shore, S.N.: "New Promise for Electron gaseous configurations, interactions, and
Bulk Energization in Solar Flares: dynamics through the rendering of
Preferential Fermi Acceleration of three-dimensional gaseous volumes into
Electrons Over Protons in Reconnection- two-dimensional images. Having these line-
Driven MHD Turbulence." Astrophysical of-sight images allows the backward
Journal, 1996, in press. interpretation of observations to obtain the
three-dimensional structure of the solar
Sponsor: Office of Space Science phenomena. The main intention of the
research is to develop pseudo-imaging
University/Industry Involvement: techniques of soft x-ray emission to
Kennesaw State College, Marietta, GA; compare with observations in order to
University of Alabama in Huntsville; investigate the structure of the coronal
Indiana University at South Bend magnetic field by analyzing the field line
and emission characteristics. Data analysis
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Ronald l,. Moore techniques will be applied to the MSFC and
is an internationally recognized solar Themis/France vector magnetograms and
scientist. He received his Ph.D. from the Kitt Peak National Observatory
Stanford University in 1972, was a longitudinal magnetograms to characterize
Research Fellow with the Caltech Solar the spatial and temporal changes of
209
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
magnetic and electric current systems transversing through the solar atmosphere. backward interpretation can begin; that is
within active regions. The research, in part, is the development of having a two-dimensional image, the three-
software that will display pseudo soft x-ray dimensional configuration can be inferred
In the Solar Physics Branch at Marshall, images given magnetic field lines, density, and further studies of coronal temperatures,
research is conducted on solar magnetic and temperature. The development process emission characteristics, field modeling,
fields and their physical associations and is as independent of specific models as footpoint and photospheric correspondence
effects in the photosphere, corona, and possible to allow for many models in the will proceed.
interplanetary medium. Extensive efforts final version. The crucial development here
have been carried out in relating the MSFC is to provide an efficient computer algo- The description of the coronal magnetic
vector magnetograms to flare theories. This rithm that renders a three-dimensional field is a key component in understanding
research continues this extremely useful volume into a two-dimensional image with solar activity. Hence, this topics is in direct
research by describing the observed coronal adequate quality compatible for analysis support of flight- and ground-based vector
magnetic structures in the solar atmosphere and comparison with observations (e.g., magnetograph programs which are specific
in relation to the observed photospheric from soft x-ray telescope (SXT)/Yohkoh). NASA programs and a focus of the
magnetic field on the solar surface. The The code will provide a systematic activities of the MSFC Solar Science
photospheric field is derived from comparison between (1) observed coronal Branch. The results are of particular
magnetograms. Using this data and flux tubes and models, and comparison importance to the mechanisms of solar
observed x-ray images of the Sun, we are between (2) coronal flux tubes and their variability (MSV) and space-borne
developing general data analysis tools to be photospheric footpoints. Using existing magnetograph programs which are aimed at
used to produce the soft x-ray images by codes and scaling laws to determine the understanding the physical cause of
reconstruction and using these images to coronal density and temperatures, and an variations in and from the Sun. The free
compare with data (fig, 17 l). The research instrument response code, one can deter- magnetic energy which drives much of the
objective is directed at the overall goal of mine theoretically the observed emission variation is directly connected to the
being able to define the available free- characteristics for each volume cell (voxel). magnitude of the electric currents and
energy via the three-dimensional magnetic This analysis package is the major compo- heating in the solar atmosphere. To
and electric current morphology nent of the research. With this software, the understand the dynamics of the x-ray
imagery (e.g., from Yohkoh) one needs
again to understand the electric currents (the
source of energy) and the coronal configu-
ration. The general analysis of the magnetic
structures and their associate electric
current systems will discriminate between
contending theoretical models. There is
clearly a need for this analysis and relates to
observations from the MSFC vector
magnetograph and the development of the
next generation solar orbiting instruments.
The research program is developing a

formal basis for deriving and investigating
solar magnetic structures and to obtain a
better physical understanding of these
results. MSFC magnetograms will be
analyzed extensively to characterize the
photospheric magnetic fields. The specific
FIGURE171 .--A comparison of a soft x-ray image from the Japanese/American solar strength of this research is that the scientific
instrument SXT/Yohkoh (left) with a set synthesized coronal loops (right) investigation continues a strong program by
is shown. The synthesized image was produced under the CDDF project, the Solar Physics Branch in the area of
Initial comparison of the results are promising in that the overall magnetic field analysis. These studies are of
morphology of the images are similar. As more detail modelling is included the highest scientific merit to solar physics
the important physical parameters of the coronal plasma will be and are fundamentally important to the
established. The views shown here are a low resolution version of the NASA Space Physics Program le.g., Solar-
original digital display. B, Solar Probe, Solar Stereo Missions). The
210
_IOlOlOlOlOIoYoIoIo Io IololOlOIOIO IOIOIOlOIOIOIOlOIO IoIOIOIOYOIO Io _IOIOlOIOIoloIoloYo_o_
Research Programs
objectives are assured through a thorough

technical approach. The relevance of the
Gary, G.A.; Musielak, Z.E.: "A Regulariza- Fractal Analyses of Sunspot
tion Method for Extrapolation of Solar
work to NASA's space physics program lies Potential Magnetic Fields." Astrophysics Magnetic Fields
in the deeper understanding it will provide Journal, 1992, 392, 272.
of the processes underlying the observed Mitzi Adams/ES82
structure of solar active regions, which are Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary 205-544-3026
the main contributors to solar variability in Fund (CDDF)
E-maih adamsml@magaxpl.msfc.nasagov
ultraviolet and x rays.
Educational Involvement: The MSFC
Gary, G.A.: "Rendering Three-Dimensional Student Volunteer Service Program (SVSP) One of the major challenges for solar
Solar Coronal Structures." Solar Physics, has provided useful research experiments to physics is the understanding of the physical
1996, accepted. local high school students. mechanisms which are responsible for the
onset of solar flares. Observational data
Gary, G.A.: "Potential Field Extrapolation Biographical Sketch: G. Allen Gary indicate that solar flares and sunspots are
Using Three Components of Solar Vector received his Ph.D. in physics in 1969 from strongly linked and that the global structure
Magnetogram With a Finite Field of the University of Georgia. He is in the Solar of the sunspot magnetic field is a factor in
View." Solar Physics, 163, 43, 1996. Physics Branch at Marshall Center, the probability for flaring activity; more
investigating the nature of coronal struc- magnetically complex solar active regions
Falconer, EA.; Moore, R.L.; Porter, J.G.; tures and solar magnetic fields. His research flare more often. Through the use of data
Gary, G.A.; Shimizu, T.: "Neutral-Line also includes the general study of the obtained with MSFC's vector magneto-
Magnetic Shear and Enhanced Coronal magnetic field's configuration, evolution, graph, MSFC and University of Alabama in
Heating in Solar Active Regions." and morphology together with estimation of Huntsville (UAH) solar scientists continue
Astrophysics Journal, 1996, accepted. the energy content of active regions. His to study sunspot magnetic fields, the
theoretical work involves developing presumed source of energy for the solar
Gary, G.A.; D6moulin, P.: "Reduction, models of linear and nonlinear force-free flares, with fractal techniques of data
Analysis, and Properties of Electric magnetic fields and electric currents in the analysis.
Current Systems in Solar Active Regions." solar chromosphere-corona.
Astrophysics Journal, 1995, 445,982. In the late 1970's Benoit Mandelbrot
created the term "fractai" to describe
Gary, G.A.; Rabin, D.: "Line-of-Sight objects which are complex on their
Magnetic Flux Imbalances Caused by boundaries and have self-similar subsec-
Electric Currents." Solar Physics, 1995, tions. Since that time, fractal-based models
157, 185. have commonly been used to understand
natural phenomena that produce irregular
Gary, G.A.; Hagyard, M. J.: "Transforma- structures and to describe complex, rough
tion of Vector Magnetograms and the surfaces. Therefore, it seems reasonable to
Problems Associated With the Effects of use the fractal dimension (Df) to describe
Perspective and the Azimuthal Ambigu- the irregularity or complexity of a solar
ity." Solar Physics, 1990, 126, 21. active region and to relate variations in the
magnitude of the fractal dimension to
Gary, G.A.: "Mathematical Basis for the flaring activity.
Extrapolation of Solar Nonlinear Force-
Free Magnetic Fields." Memorie della In previous work, MSFC scientists teamed
Societa Astronomica Italian, 1990, 61, with scientists from UAH to study a fractal
457. technique known as range over standard
deviation experimental trend analysis
Gary, G.A.: "Numerical Modeling Tech- (ROSETA) and identified tantalizing
niques for Extrapolating Solar Vector changes in the fractal dimension prior to a
Magnetic Fields From the Photosphere." solar flare. However, the ROSETA
Direct and Inverse Boundary Value technique is an unfamiliar tool for data
Problems, eds. R. Kleinman, R. Kress, analysis and its limitations in this regard
and E. Martensen (New York: Peter have not been studied. Therefore, since
Lang), 1991, p. 67. ROSETA is based upon a classic fractal
211
_IOIOI, @IOIOIOIOIOIOIOIOD IO_IJIOIOJ_IOI@_IO_I@_IOI@_
MSFC Research
andTechnology1996
(a)
100
algorithm (Hurst's rescaled range

analysis), MSFC scientists have, over the
last year, conducted studies to determine
the efficacy of that and other fractal
techniques for sunspot magnetic field
research. One study concentrates on
Hurst's rescaled range analysis,l the other 3
examines a differential box bounting
(DBC) method and the Jaenisch technique.
150
Classical Hurst analysis involves calculat- 50 100
ing the exponent, H, from well accepted (b) 150 50
statistical parameters, the standard 0
deviation (S) and the range (R), for various
i
subsets of the data. Hurst exponents are
related to the fractal dimension, Df, by 100
i
Df = 2-H. A major drawback to the Hurst
technique is the transformation of the two
dimensional data set to one-dimension,
since small scale changes may be masked
by the conversion process. The techniques
evaluated in the study of Stark et al (1996),
differential box counting and Jaenisch, do
not require any alteration.
All of the above techniques,

and Jaenisch,
Hurst, DBC,
were applied to three types
1°
of data: constructed data, model sunspot 0
data, and MSFC vector magnetograph
observations. We find that the Hurst
Icl
method is sensitive to differences between
the constructed data sets illustrated in 150 uo
figures 172 (a) and172 (b). Applying the
DBC method to these same data sets
shows a systematic increase in the value of
100
the fractal dimension as the complexity of
the images increases (i.e., fig. 172 (a) and
172 (c)). The Jaenisch method, on the
other hand, is unable to discern the 50
difference between two visually different
data sets (fig. 172 (a) and 172 (b)).
0
Results from fractal analysis of magneto- 150
graph data are quite interesting. A series of
10 vector magnetograms obtained 100
throughout the day on June 10, 1991,
spanned a large flare which began at 51 100
13:45 LIT (the start time which is reported
in MSFC data records). Hurst analysis was 0
applied to six parameters. Although only F,r.UeF172.--These are examples of the test data: (a) a gausslan surface; (b) has the
the Hurst exponent calculated from the same array values as (a), but the positions of the data within the array are
shear parameter 2 shows statistically randomized; (c) a gaussian surface with offset gaussians of 20 percent
significant variations over time (fig. 173), amplitude of original gaussian (a).
212
_OIOIoI@_IoIO_IOlOlOIOIo][o_I@IoIOIo_IoI@loIOIo]
Research Proqrams
0.80 0.80 0.80

IpH BT 8Z
0.70 0.70 0.70
t-
o
0.60 0.60 0.60

0
<> o0o ecc
0.50 0.50 0.50
%oo¢
0.40 j 0,401 ° I 0.40
0.80 0.80 0.80
c
BTOT PBT /'%'TO
m 0.70 - 0.70 -- 0.70
O
K
uJ 0.60 - 0.60 -- 0.60 --
<> dx> <>
0.50 - 0.50 -- 0.501--
0.40 I 0.40 I 0.40 I

1200 1300 1400 1200 1300 1400 1200 1300 1400
Time UT Time UT Time UT
FIGURE173.--Plots of Hurst exponents as a function of time for various parameters. Reading from left to right and top to bottom, the
parameters are: photospheric (white-light) intensity (Ip,), the transverse component of the magnetic field (BT), the line-of-
sight component of the field (Bz), the total field (Brm = (BTz + azZ)l/z), the transverse component of the potential field (PBT),
and weighted shear angle (DfwTD).Only the shear parameter DfwTo shows any significant variation.
this pre- and post-flare behavior suggests masking technique to distinguish between 3Stark, B., Adams, M., Hathaway, D.H.,
that Hurst analysis should be further the sunspot and the photospheric back- Hagyard, M.J.: 1996, Solar Physics, in
considered as a possible flare prediction ground These issues will be addressed in press.
tool. the future studies.
The DBC method was tested for sensitivity The analysis of flare-related changes in
to small scale changes by altering small sunspot magnetic fields can be quite University Involvement: University of
numbers of pixels within a magnetogram challenging, since the magnetogram images Alabama in Huntsville
image array. The DBC fractal dimension, as on which we rely may be contaminated by
calculated from the unaltered data, differs instrumental effects or atmospheric seeing. Biographical Sketch: Mitzi Adams is a
from the altered data by an amount which is Understanding the changes induced by solar scientist for the Solar Physics Branch
comparable to the effects induced by these and other influences and deconvolving of the Space Sciences Laboratory. Her
instrumental noise and is therefore not a them from those caused by solar flares is a research involves the study of sunspot
useful tool for detecting flare related necessary step toward solar flare prediction. magnetic fields and the detection of changes
changes within the sunspot magnetic field. As we embark upon activities which place in these fields before, during, and after a
us in environments susceptible to the solar flare. She is currently developing
Our studies indicate that the Hurst method harmful effects of energetic particles and techniques for studying magnetic field data
may have some usefulness in detecting radiation produced by solar flares, the using the concept of fractal dimension.
global changes over the field of view of a important role of the "solar weather person" Adams received a bachelor of science
solar vector magnetogram. However, further is clear. degree in physics from Georgia State
work should address the most effective University in Atlanta, and a master of
method of removing large-scale structures ZAdams, M.; Hathaway, D.H.; Stark, B.A.; science in physics from the University of
from the data and should investigate the and Musielak, Z.E.: 1996, Solar Physics, Alabama in Huntsville. _._
effect of isolating magnetic areas of interest accepted.
(image masking) to avoid the inclusion of
random photospheric measurements in the 2Hagyard, M.J.; Smith, J.B., Jr.; Teuber, D.;
value of the Hurst exponent. The lack of and West, E.A.: 1984, Solar Physics, 91,
sensitivity of the DBC method to small 115.
scale changes may also benefit from a
213
MSFCResearch
andTechnology1996
Space Physics
Ultra-Fast Measurements Image

Memory
With the Pinhole Ion
Velocity Imager
Victoria N, Coffey/ES83
Field of View
RPAStack
Pinhole With
c...r,
x,
f
L
_
._._
Position
Computer
-
_._ E
205-544-7635
Knife-Edge
E-mail: victoria.coffey@msfc,nasagov
MCP Stack Potential
Results from recent sounding rocket ._[Retarding] X Image
imaging Anode Supply Moment m
experiments have led to an increased
emphasis on resolving smaller scale
ionospheric plasma structures than can be
achieved with present methods. For these
___t
Computer
previous rocket flights, three-diminsional TM

_ Sequencerand Interface
ion velocity distribution measurements were
provided by the Scanning Thermal Ion
Composition Spectrometer (STICS) 1,2 by
FtOU_E
174.--A cross-sectiondrawingof the pinhole camera with its functionalschematic.
varying voltages to measure the particle The UV diffraction grating filter is not shown.
energy, its incident angle in one direction,
and its mass. The spinning of the rocket was
used to measure the second angle and the macroscopic properties of the plasma plasma. This pinhole mounts on top of
therefore obtain the third dimension in given by the density, temperature, and flow microchannel plates which are thin plates of
velocity. A new charged particle imaging velocity components. Faster methods of a million tiny glass channels used to
detector called the pinhole ion velocity measuring these characteristics of the amplify the incident charged particle for
imager (PIVI) is in development to permit plasma at the lowest possible energies are detection. Below the MCP stack, an anode
ultra-fast two-dimensional image sampling the only way to attain a clearer understand- with four charge-sensitive outputs resolves
of the plasma in order to resolve narrow ing of the mechanisms involved in particle the position of the incident particle into two
spatial features and fluctuations while transport and heating of the ionosphere. dimensions so that each particle event is
traveling at high velocities. The two- separated into X and Y coordinate positions.
dimensional images are reduced on board to The essential part of the PIV1 design is a Other components of the PIVI design are a
parameters used to calculate and describe pinhole aperture used to view the rammed diffraction grating filter and a retarding
1 2 3 4 5
Total # of Cnts. 1.23E4 1.0E4 0.98E4 0.94E4 0.90E4
Average X: 68.46 85.66 100.71 121.05 137.47
Average Y: 167.03 175.43 184.86 196.19 208.46
Std. Deviation X: 14.94 19.92 24.90 21.91 17.93
Std. Deviation Y: 20.92 24.90 22.91 t8.93 21.91
FIGURE
175.--Five pinhole imagesfrom initial testingof PIVI andthe computedaverages andstandarddeviationsafter collapsesin both
the X and Y dimensions.
214
Research Programs
potential analyzer (RPA). The filter is on Spectrometer. AGU Monograph on Plasmaspheric Total
top of the pinhole to suppress unwanted Measurement Techniques for Space
ultraviolet while maintaining sensitivity to Plasmas, submitted, 1996. Densities
the charged particles. Below this diffraction
grating is the RPA that selects the incident 2Moore T.E.; Chandler M.O.; Pollock C.J.; Paul D, Craven/ES83
particle's energy/charge and is managed by Reasoner D.L.: Plasma Heating and Flow 205-544-7639
a feedback system that varies the energy in an Auroral Arc. Journal of Geophysi-
E-maih paul.craven@msfc.nasagov
voltage as it monitors the count rate. cal Research, vol. 101, pp. 5279-52971,
Figure 174 shows the cross-section drawing 1996
of the pinhole imager and a functional Because of spacecraft charge, the plasma
schematic. Sponsor: Center Director's Discretionary density measured from spacecraft by
Fund particle and wave instruments can be
During each accumulation, histograms are different. The wave measurement derived
developed in memory of the number of Other Involvement: Dwight England and densities are obtained in such a way that
particle events versus their incident X and Dean Alford, Astrionics Laboratory. they are not affected by spacecraft charge
the Y position value. In parallel with this but they can not always measure composi-
time period, the total number of counts, the Biographical Sketch: Victoria N. Coffey tion as can the particle instruments. Each
average, and the standard deviation of the X joined NASA/MSFC in 1984 and supports instrument type has its own advantages and
and Y histograms from the previous the flight instrument programs in the Space limitations. By using both types of
accumulation is computed and the memory Physics Branch. She has optimized particle instrumentation, more can be learned about
is reset. Figure 175 shows an example of throughput designs, tested and calibrated the Earth's plasma environment and in some
five pinhole images obtained during initial the instruments before flight, and analyzed cases, the spacecraft response to the
testing of the PIVI. The pinhole aperture flight data to study ionospheric transport ambient environment. At MSFC, we are
was rotated below the particle source in processes. She is currently completing her taking advantage of the data from the
5-degree increments and a 60-sec accumula- master's degree in physics at UAH. plasma wave instrument (PWI) and the
tion was taken at each step. A crosshair is retarding ion mass spectrometer (RIMS) on
placed at the centroid of the image. The Dynamics Explorer 1 to explore and expand
table lists the total number of counts, the our understanding of the plasma in the inner
average and the standard deviation in pixel magnetosphere. PWI data in the form of
units for each image dimension. The total electron densities are being supplied to
characteristics of the plasma given by the MSFC by the University of Iowa (the home
density, temperature, and flow velocity institution of the PWI principle investigator,
components are determined with these Dr. D. Gurnett). Investigators at MSFC and
reduced parameters, the knowledge of the the University of Iowa are cooperating in a
pinhole camera dimensions, the particle study of the plasma-spheric response to
energy, and the spacecraft velocity. geomagnetic and solar input and in an
attempt to build a data base on which a
PIVI will also provide a significant global model of the total plasma density can
improvement in our present capability to be based. The global model can then be
diagnose the ion source in the low-energy used in space weather applications or in
electron and ion facility (LEEIF). This other studies that support future mission
particle source is used for the testing and such as those that have the purpose of
calibration of instruments before their flight obtaining data on a global scale.
and therefore it is very important to be able
to routinely measure the characteristics of The first step in this study is the examina-
the ion source while testing. This pinhole tion of the of the plasma density in thew
camera design will yield rapid diagnosis of plasmasphere, and that is the purpose of the
not only the spatial distribution but also the cooperative effort between MSFC and the
angular distribution of the ion source, which University of Iowa. The plasmasphere is a
has never been obtained before. doughnut-shaped area centered on the Earth
that contains cold dense plasma. Figure 176
lCoffey V.N.; Moore T.E.; Pollock C.J.: The shows a small sampling of the data from
Scanning Thermal Ion Composition PWI in the form of density as a function of
215
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
104
Imager for Magnetopause-
to-Aurora Global
Exploration
103
DennisL. Gatlagher/ES83
205-544-7587
I E-mail:dennis.gallagher@msfc.nasa.gov
E
._, 102
The lmager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora
c
m
Global Exploration (IMAGE) mission, led
a
by Dr. James L. Burch of Southwest
Research Institute, is the first for all-remote
sensing of the Earth's magnetospheric
101
0 environment. Almost 40 years of point-by-
OC point, in-situ measurement of particles and
C fields in the terrestrial magnetosphere

led to a detailed understanding
has
of micro-
10 o I 1 I and meso-scale physical processes. The

0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 modem challenge in magnetospheric
physics is the synthesis of these scattered
L
measurements in space and time into a
coherent global picture of energy transport
FIGURE176.--Density derived from wave measurements as a function
from the solar wind into the ionosphere and
of the Mcllwain L parameter.
particle transport from the ionosphere out
into the magnetosphere. The IMAGE
the Mcllwain L parameter, a parameter Biographical Sketch: Dr. Paul Craven has mission will provide images of the time-
related to the ambient magnetic field. been involved with the analysis of data from changing ring current, plasmasphere,
Notice the sharp decrease in the density the RIMS instrument analysis and is aurora, and magnetopause. The global
near L=5. This is the plasmapause and presently working with the thermal ion morphology of these individual plasma
marks the outer edge of the plasmasphere. dynamics experiment instrument on the systems and the interrelationships between
The position and shape of the plasmapause polar spacecraft. Craven's research interests them will be revealed in a way never before
changes in response to the geophysical include the source, transport, and possible.
environment so that the decrease covers a energization of the magnetospheric ions. He
rather wide range of L values in figure 176. received his Ph.D. in physics from the Along the 45,000-kin by 1,000-km altitude
We are presently enlarging the data base of University of Alabama in Huntsville in polar orbit, six instruments will remotely
these profiles. When completed, the data 1993. [_ measure the state of the magnetosphere.
base will contain multiple years of data, to Energetic neutral atoms (ENA) emitted by
which RIMS particle observations can be magnetospheric plasmas will he imaged in
added to give information on the energy, three energy ranges, low (10 to 300 eV),
mass composition, and spatial extent of the middle (1 to 30 KeV), and high (10 to
plasma. 200 KeV). These instruments will measure
ENA produced by ions flowing out of the
Sponsor: Office Of Space Science ionosphere at auroral latitudes and produced
by energetic ring current ion populations as
University Involvement: Dr. Douglas these populations dynamically respond to
Menietti and Chris Piker at the University magnetospheric storms and substorms.
of Iowa; Dr. R. H. Comfort at the University Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) solar light
of Alabama in Huntsville/Center for Space scattered by He + ions in the plasmasphere
Plasma and Aeronomy Research. will be imaged by the EUV camera. This
cold population of plasma can be used as an
indicator of the electric convection forces
216
_I010 IOIO I010 I010 I0 _ I0 IOlOIO IOlOlO IOIO _ lO_lOIOlOIO;
Research Proclrams
that dominate storm-time dynamics in the decay due to collisions. Ring current losses scattered solar ultraviolet light at 30.4 nm is
inner magnetosphere. The aurora will be into the auroral ionosphere will be used to shown for a noon-midnight scan across the
imaged in far ultraviolet light and be used estimate diffuse auroral photon emissions inner magnetosphere, as would be seen by
as a familiar guide to the dynamic state of and to estimate precipitation-driven outflow an observer located about 45,000 km above
the magnetosphere. The densities and of plasma from the ionosphere. To these the north magnetic pole. The scan is
motions of magnetospheric plasmas will be plasma systems, models are being added for centered on the Earth and negative angles
polar cusp and magnetosheath plasmas. All are toward the Sun. The reduced intensities
sampled remotedly by the radio plasma
models will be "geared" to conditions in the at positive angles is because much of this
imager (RPI). The RPI will broadcast coded
pulses of radio waves from 3 kHz to 3 MHz solar wind and all will share use of the Rice plasma is in the Earth's shadow. The
and measure the direction of arrival, time magnetospheric specification model (MSM) intensity hole at small angles is due to the
delay, and frequency of returning echos. for the computation of convection electric greatly reduced He + densities over the polar
fields. The Rice Toffeletto-Hill magnetic region. The density peak at small negative
Researchers in the MSFC Space Plasma field model will also be shared by all team angles is due to the dayside ionospheric
Physics Branch are participating in the members for defining the terrestrial density peak in He + ions. The plasma-
university, industry, Government partership magnetic field near the Earth and at high spheric regions of particular interest in the
latitudes. IMAGE mission are those in the outer
that comprise the IMAGE team. Our role
involves participation in the development of plasmasphere, where densities and
flight instrumentation, environmental MSFC and associated researchers are consequently intensities are relatively low.
involved in modeling the plasmasphere, the The EUV instrument, therefore, must be
modeling, and the development of data
analysis techniques. Led by the Applied ring current, and auroral ionospheric designed with sufficient sensitivity to see
outfow. This modeling is now being used to scattered ultraviolet light with intensities as
Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins
University, MSFC is participating in the support decisions related to the detailed low as a 0.1 Rayleigh, while avoiding
development of the high energetic neutral designs of ENA cameras and the EUV saturation by intensities close to the Earth,
atom (HENA) camera. This instrument will camera. An example of that modeling is that may be more than 150 Rayleighs.
measure energetic neutral atoms of shown in figure 177. The intensity of
hydrogen and oxygen. These atoms are
produced with high-energy ring current ions
that are neutralized through collision with
the cold neutral hydrogen gas that extends
to high altitudes from our terrestrial 103
10,
atmosphere. The development of auroral
cameras is led by the University of
California at Berkeley. MSFC is responsible
for working with researchers in Canada to
provide the wideband imaging camera
/
(WIC) that will measure the far ultraviolet
light produced when electrons bombard the
upper atmosphere, producing auroral light.
The IMAGE theory and modeling effort is / II \

II \
jointly led by MSFC and Rice University.
Modeling is required for this mission for the
purpose of defining necessary instrument
capabilities
the necessary
and for the purpose of preparing
techniques
required to interpret the measurements
that will be
that
will be returned. The approach taken by the
'°'It,
10-4
-60 -40 -20
I,I
0 20
,\
40 60
theory and modeling team has been toward
Viewing Angle (deg)
the development of a single, consistent time
dependent model for the magnetosphere.
The model component for the plasmasphere Ftr.U,E177.--The intenaity of 30.4 nm solar radiation scattered by He÷ ions in a model
will be used together with the model for the plasmaephere is shown for an observer located at an altitude of about
ring current in order to compute ring current 45,000 km over the North magnetic pole.
217
Gallagher, 1).1,.; Craven, ED.; Comfort,

R.H.; and Moore, T.E.: On the Azimuthal
Imaging the Aurora
Variation of Core Plasma in the Equato- in the Far Ultraviolet
rial Magnetosphere. Journal of Geophysi-
cal Research, vol. 100, pp. 23597-23605, James F. Spann/ES83
1995.
205-544-5339
E-mail: jim.spann@msfc,nasa gov
Ober. I).: Horwtz, J.L.; and Gallagher, I).L.:
Convection Effects on Global Plasma-
sphere Evolution. 1995 Cambridge The aurorae, seen from F,arth as dancing
Symposium Workshop: Multiscale curtains of green and red light concentrated
Phenomena in Space Plasmas, February in the polar regions, have captured the fancy
20-25. 1995. of people throughout the ages. Scientists
have known for several years that this light
Sponsor: Office of Space Science is a result of electrons and protons that are
energized (accelerated) by the Earth's
FIGURE178.--This image was taken on
University Involvement: Mei-Ching Fok, magnetic field and collide with the F,arth's
April g, 1996, at 14:34 UT.
Universities Space Research Associates; Joe atmospheric constituents, namely atoms and
The sunlit portion of the
Perez, Auburn University/Physics Depart- molecules. How much energy is deposited
Earth is on the right, over
ment: Pat Reiff, Rice University/Depart- in the auroral zones as a result of this
Greenland. In this image
ment Physics and Astronomy; Gordon process? How does the energy vary with
the night side aurora is
Wilson, University of Alabama in Hunts- changes in a solar-terrestrial environment?
calm as denoted by the thin
ville/Center for Space Plasma and Aer- What was the origin of these energetic
blue feature.
onomy Research electrons and protons, and what was their
path ending in collisions in the Earth's
Biographical Sketch: Dr. Dennis 1.. atmosphere? What is the source or impetus
Gallagher received his Ph.l). in physics at of the accelerating energy? What triggers a
the University of Iowa in 1982. He ,joined substorm, the sudden intensification of the
NASA/MSFC in 1984 with responsibilities aurora lasting for hours'? These questions
for conducting magnetospheric plasma are significant to our understanding of the
physics research and for coordinating the interplay between the Sun and the t,arth.
use and development of computer and
networking resources lot the Space The successful launch and activation of the
Sciences l,aboratory. Today Gallagher is ultraviolet imager (UVI) in February of
dedicated exclusively to space plasma 1996 will help scientists find answers to
research and is a co-investigator in the these questions. The UVI is a wide-angle
IMAGE mission. His primary focus is on camera that is sensitive in the nonvisible
the modeling and simulation of cold plasma far-ultraviolet wavelength regime (130 to
ions in the inner magnetosphere. 190 nm). As such it images the light that
results from precipitating energetic
elecu'ons both on the sunlit and night sides
FIGURE179.--This image was taken on
of the Earth. Images of the entire northern
April 9, 1996, at 14:44 UT,
aurora, such as figures 178 and 179, are
only 10 min after figure 178.
taken enabling the simultaneous correlation
In this image, the onset of a
of different regions in the aurora with a time
substorm can be seen on the
resolution of 37 sec. The special state-of-the
night side over the coastline
art filters used in the UVI allow the imaging of Siberia.
of different emissions in the far ultraviolet.
This results in the ability to quantify the
total energy and the characteristic energy of and ground-based observatories, scientists
the electrons as a function of time and around the world participating in the
location on the globe. In concert with data International Solar Terrestrial Physics
from other instruments on several satellites Program (1STP) will make use of the UVI
218
D_OLOIOIOIOIO_OIOIO_IOIOIOIO
ResearchPrograms
images to study the source of the energetic Tethered Satellite System tether broke (fig. 180). The data obtained
electrons and phenomena that cause their are high quality and contain several
energization. Reflight Electrodynamic unexpected and unexplained results that will
Characteristics be of general scientific interest and are
Ton', M.R.; Torr, D.G.; Zukic, M.; Johnson, important to future technological applica-
R.B.; Ajello, J.; Banks, E; Clark, K.; tions of tethered systems in space.
Cole, K.; Keffer, C.; Parks, G.; Tsurutani, NobleH. Stone/ES83
B.; and Spann, J.:"A Far Ultraviolet
205-544-7642 The system current that was collected by
Imager for the International Solar E-mail:nobie.stone@msfc.nasa.gov the satellite, as it was biased to various
Terrestrial Physics Mission." Space voltages during deployment, was signifi-
Science Review, vol. 71, pp. 329-383, The Tethered Satellite System Reflight cantly greater than theoretical predictions,
1995. (TSS-1R) mission was launched as shown in figure 181. Moreover, the
February 22, 1996, on STS-75. The satellite potentials required to attract the observed
Sponsor: Office of Space Science deployment (flyaway) occurred at 2:45 P.M. currents to the satellite were far less than
Central time (MET 3/00:27). All mecha- predicted. For example, in figure 181, the
University Involvement: George Parks and nisms functioned as planned and a unique Parker-Murphy model I predicts that
Mitch Brittnacher at the University of data set was obtained as the tether was +1000 V are required to collect a current of
Washington, Geophysics Program, Glynn deployed to a length of 19,695 m. At MET 140 mA, whereas the TSS-1R data show
Germany at the University of Alabama in 3/05:11 (about 7:30 P.M. Central time) that this current was collected with only
Huntsville/Center for Space Plasma and during a day pass, the tether broke, without +130 V on the satellite. The values of the
Aeronomy Research. warning, near the top of the deployer boom. satellite potential above 500 V have, at this
point, an uncertainty of about 15 percent
Biographical Sketch: In 1984, Dr. James E Operations had begun at satellite flyaway so and the theoretical curve may shift slightly
Spann Jr., received his Ph.D. in physics that significant science activities had when the ionospheric characteristics are
from the University of Arkansas. In 1986, already been accomplished and 5 hr of better determined. However, the disagree-
he joined NASA/MSFC. During his career science data gathered prior to the time the ment between the measurements and the
at NASA, Spann has been involved with the
ultraviolet imager and is a co-investigator.
Spann's research interests and experience
include design and fabrication of space
25
'_ - -! -_ t-
flight instruments, the interaction of single
particles with light and plasmas, and the
equilibrium phases atmospheric aerosols.
2O B
A
E
15 m
Length --'3 g_4 A
c
W
m,I
_, 10- Spin Pe _.
5-
GMT
0 56/21 1 56/22
J i 2 56/23 3 57/00
E F
4 57/01 5
1
"
Time (hr) from Deployment (56/20:46 GMT)
FIGURE180.--The TSS-1R data set and conditions under which it was obtained.
219
pi_I_IOIOImlIIOIOIOIO_ _ IOIO___IOIOIOIOIO
IOIOIOIO_IOIOIOIO_ IOIO_IO_ _le_ DD_*__
0.6 satellite potential and a 40-nT magnetic

field enhancement at the satellite--both of
which were consistent with a tether current
0.5 oflA.
A The current collected by the satellite during

0.4 the break event disagrees with the theory by
approximately the same factor as in nominal
operations with the tether in tact. Collection
0.3 of 1 A by the orbiter--even at -600 V--is
TSS-1 R Data
m not fully understood. However, the fact that
N
current closure was unaffected by the tether
0.2 break was apparently due to the tether
Parker-Murphy
construction, which resulted in air being
trapped inside the Teflon TM insulation.
0.1
When ruptured, the escaping gas could
easily ignite into an electrical discharge at
the high voltages available. This process is
o I I I I I
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 under investigation.
Satellite Voltage (V) The MSFC research on orbital plasma-

eleclrodynamics investigation 3 consistently
FigunE181 .---Measured TSS-1R and theoretically predicted current-voltage relationships,
observed suprathermal (or energetic)
electrons, coincident with current flow in
theoretical potential requirements is a factor indicating no contact with the tether--while the tether, that peaked in flux intensity at an
of ten--far greater than the existing the satellite potential and tether current energy of approximately 200 eV. (This is
uncertainties. 2 This disagreement may measured, at the satellite, remain approxi- high compared to the ambient ionospheric
result from orbital motion, which appears to mately unchanged across the break event thermal electrons, which typically have
introduce additional physical processes into (table 13). The validity of the satellite energies in the range of 0.1 eV.) The source
the tether systems' interaction with the current measurement was shown by of the energy transferred to the supra-
simultaneous measurements of an elevated thermal electrons may come from the
ionosphere. These processes would not be
expected to occur in the static case treated
by the theoretical models.
TABLE13.--AMhology of the Tether Break Event.
The highest current observed during the
mission was produced by the tether break
Observation 3/05:11:00 3/05:11:18 3/05:12:15
event; i.e., approximately 1 A with the
tether deployed 19.7 km and developing an
Tether Current-Measure at 960 to 1,100 1,100
emf of 3.5 kV (table 13). By contrast, the
Parker-Murphy model predicts a tether Satellite (mA)
current of only 540 mA for these condi- Tether Current-Measure at
tions--even with the unrealistic assumption
Orbiter (mA)
that, except for the IR drop in the tether, all
of the tether emf was available to collect emf-Measure at Orbiter (V) 3,500 -100 0
electrons at the satellite (i. e., no voltage
Satellite Potential (V) 0 -1,000 >1,000
required for charge collection at the orbiter).
In fact, a 600 V potential drop was observed 0 -600 0
Orbiter Potential (V)
between the orbiter and the ionospheric
plasma. Even more surprising, the tether Satellite Acceleration (rng) 4.4 -8.4 0
current did not change appreciably as the
tether broke and separated from the Orbiter.
Conclusion Tether Discharge to Tether Open
The orbiter potential and tether current,
Intact Orbiter Ground Circuit
measured at the orbiter, both vanish--
220
Rosom_Ir
:1_F:_r
o!]r_tms
reflection of streaming ionospheric ions by Gullahorn, SAO; and Georgio Tacconi,

the positive space potential in the frontal University of Genoa. The TSS-1R mission
region of the satellite. The ionospheric ions was supported by NASA Headquarters and
have 5-eV ram energy (resulting from the the data analysis effort.
orbital motion of the tether system) and,
therefore, will be reflected by a 5-V ISingh, N.; Wright, K.H., Jr.; Stone, N.H.:
potential. In agreement with this, an outflow "Current Collection From Space
of ions from the satellites' plasma sheath Plasmas." NASA Conference Publication,
was observed, and the potential within the p. 3089, 1990.
sheath became noisy, whenever the satellite
became biased above approximately 5 V. 2Stone, N.H.: "Electrodynamic Characteris-
tics of the Tethered Satellite System
The Italian satellite was deployed 19.7 km During the TSS-IR Mission." AIAA
above the orbiter during the TSS-1R Paper no. 96-4472, 1996.
mission--making TSS-1R, electro-
dynamically, the largest manmade structure 3 Stone, N.H.; Wright, K.H. Jr.;
ever placed in orbit. The demonstrated Winningham, J.D.; Biard, J.; Gurgiolo,
capability to extract sizable currents from C.: "A Technical Description of the
the ionosphere will have a direct impact on TSS- l ROPE Investigation." II Nuovo
the application of electrodynamic tethers for Cimento 17C, 85, 1994.
the production of electrical power or
electrodynamic thrust. Scientific inves- Sponsor: Office of Space Science
tigations can also benefit from space plasma
processes that are produced and uniquely Biographical Sketch: Nobie Stone is an
controlled by an electrodynamic tether astrophysicist in the Space Sciences
system (e.g., neutral gas-magnetoplasma Laboratory at MSFC. He received his B.S.
interactions, generation of various plasma and M.S. degrees from Florida State
instabilities, generation and propagation of University in 1966 and 1968, respectively,
plasma waves, and the transport of energy and his Ph.D. degree from the University of
through electrical currents in plasmas). Alabama in 1979. He served as project
Such investigations may elucidate the scientist for the TSS program, was mission
physics of processes that are common to the scientist for the TSS-1 and TSS-IR
Earth's environment but much more missions, and is the principal investigator
difficult to study when produced naturally. for the TSS-1 and TSS-1R research on
Clearly, the TSS has opened the door to a orbital plasma electrodynamics
new technology that provides exciting new investigations.
research opportunities, and can contribute
significantly to future scientific and
technological missions.
Results from the TSS-IR mission are the

product of more than a decade of work by
the TSS science investigator team; i.e.,
Carlo Bonifazi, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
(ASI); Brian Gilchrist, University of
Michigan; Dave Hardy, USAF/Philips Lab;
Stephen Mende, Lockheed; Marino
Dobrowolny, ASI; Franco Mariani, 2nd
University of Rome; Nobie Stone, NASA/
MSFC; Silvio Bergamaschi, Inst. of Appl.
Mech.; Adam Drobot, Science Applications
International Corp.; Bob Estes, Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory (SAO); Gordon
221
Space Systems
Space Station Reboost altitude. In contrast, towed reboost of the precursor mission, shown in figure 182, is
ISS by the orbiter requires minimal new being studied in which the orbiter tows a
Via Orbiter Towing hardware, little changes to existing significant mass such as a Progress vehicle.
hardware, and minimal, if any, changes to Validation of the towing process by such a
VernonW, Keller/PS02 Station design. Towing would occur late in demonstration enhances capability to
205-544-2470 a mission, and any orbital maneuvering perform towing of ISS during the assembly
system (OMS) propellant reserved but not and operational stages.
E-mail:vernon.keller@msfc.nasa.gov
used for phasing and docking could be used
ConnieCarrington/PD12 for towing. Additional OMS "top-off" MSFC, Boeing Defense and Space Group,
205-544-4869 propellant could be flown on missions and Tether Applications: "Downmass
E-mail: carrick@pdalpha.msfc.nasa.gov having launch performance margins that Deployment/Disposal From International
permit it, providing more propellant for Space Station Using Tethered Systems."
towing. This Station reboost concept makes Contract NAS8-50000, Schedule F,
The hzternational Space Station (ISS) must use of a derivative of the Small Expendable TOF-007, Final Report, January 1996.
be periodically reboosted in altitude to Deployer System (SEDS) and a noncon-
counter the effects of atmospheric drag. The ducting, expendable tow line. Orbiter Keller, V., et. al.: "Space Station Reboost
primary means of achieving this reboost is towing appears feasible and attractive for Via Orbiter Towing." Paper No. 4252,
via thruster firings of an attached Russian ISS reboost during both assembly and AIAA Space Programs and Technologies
vehicle. Multiple Progress missions are operational phases with a nearly one-to-one Conference, September 24-26, 1996,
required annually to accomplish this task. savings in ISS reboost propellant for each Huntsville, AL.
kilogram of OMS propellant expended.
The orbiter (Space Shuttle) could provide Using the orbiter as a supplementary Sponsor: Office of Advanced Concepts and
the same service, but due to ISS design, method to reboost ISS, particularly in its Technology
only early in the assembly sequence. assembly phase, reduces the risk of sole
Transfer of propellant from the orbiter to dependence on Russian vehicles and Industry Involvement: The Boeing
the ISS requires complex and expensive provides a U.S. contingency reboost Company, Tether Applications Company;
system modifications to maintain Station capability for relatively low cost. A Spar
Biographical Sketch: Vernon Keller is the

study manager for Space Station reboost via
orbiter towing as well as for additional
, Progress M
studies of tether applications for the ISS. He
works in the Advanced Systems and
Technology Office, within the Program
,3-km Long Tether Development Directorate. He has a B.S. in
physics, an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in
physics with specialty in atmospheric
physics. He holds two U.S. patents. He has
been employed at MSFC since 1978.
Sill Mounted Carrier
(Port or Starboard)
Connie Carrington is the lead systems
Orbiter Rolled 60 °
engineer for ISS towing and other tether
60 ° Roll activities in Program Development. She
i,i holds a Ph.D. in spacecraft dynamics and
controls, and has 23 years of engineering
experience in industry, government, and
Vector
academics.
FlounZ182.iOrbiter towing-thrusl vector along local horizontal.
224
Advanced Studies
Station Tethered Express capsules 78 cm in diameter with a payload control law, and a soft mid-air recovery
capacity of 100 L (3.5 ft3). STEPS is small technique.
Payload System enough to fit through the Japanese experi-
ment module airlock allowing deployment Sponsor: NASA Headquarters, Small
CharlesC. Rupp/PS02 without extravehicular activity. STEPS is Business Innovation Research Program
205-544-0627 both deorbited and oriented for reentry by a
2.5 kg expendable tether, so no rocket Biographical Sketch: Charles Rupp is a
E-mail:c.rupp@msfc.nasa.gov
motor is needed. The tethered deorhit and senior engineer in the Advanced Systems
"kite tail" orienting effect before reentry and Technology Office of Program
Payload return opportunities from the were both demonstrated on the first flight of Development and has been working on
International Space Station to Earth are the Small Expendable Deployer System space tethers since 1975. He helped develop
now limited to the Shuttle, Soyuz, and (SEDS). The STEPS deployer is a small the tethered satellite system and the small
Raduga. This traffic is being clustered to easily reloadable version of the SEDS expendable deployer system. He also helped
lengthen microgravity periods on the deployer. It is part of a reusable ejector/ provide hardware and software for the
station, so payload return opportunities are deployer assembly that remains on the plasma motor/generator tether mission
often 2 to 3 months apart. This can be a Station. The empty capsule plus its tether flown by the Johnson Space Center and the
severe constraint, especially on inherently weigh i0 kg and take only 30 L of storage tether physics experiment flown by the
iterative research and development projects. space. The ejector/deployer stow in a Naval Research Center. Rupp received his
A NASA SBIR Phase II project is address- 20x40x 100-cm volume. A STEPS BSEE and MSEE degrees from Auburn
ing this need for more frequent payload precursor flight is planned as a Delta University in 1961 and 1964 and has been
return with Station tethered express payload secondary payload. It will test the heat employed by the Marshall Center since
system(STEPS). STEPS uses Apollo-shaped shield, modified SEDS deployer, tether 1964.
Capsule and Deployer Mounted Initial Deployment Beginning of Capsule

on JEM Airlock Arm from Station Reentry
FIGURE183.---STEPS deployment from International Space Station.
225
DIOI_IOI_IOD IOIOIOlQ_OI_IOI_DD _OIOI_DIOI_IOIOD_$JIOIU/O/Ol_/D_ "
Electrodynamic Tethers electrical thruster. Preliminary calculations demonstration that will, for the first time,
indicate an average thrust of 0.5 N from show a measurable boost and inclination
for Transportation 5 kW and 0.8 N from l0 kW. In each case, change from such a system. The demonstra-
and Power Generation the tether is 10-km long with a mass less tor would be launched into a 220-km orbit,
than 200 kg. boost to 500 km, change inclination by
5 degrees, and then deboost back to reentry.
C. Les Johnson/PS02
Outfitting ISS with an electrodynamic
205-544-0614 reboost tether severs the most critical and As was demonstrated on TSS-1R and
E-mail: les.johnson@msfc.nasa.gov constraining dependency on Earth-- Plasma Motor Generator (PMG) missions,
propellant resupply. The Station can tethers can be used to generate electrical
Eiectrodynamic tethers can provide currently supply its own power but not its power. For ISS the tether would tap
propellantless thrust for free-flying own propellant. Add a tether to the ISS and electrical energy from the Station's great
spacecraft or the International Space it is theoretically possible to eliminate the reservoir of orbital energy to support either
Station (ISS). As was demonstrated on the need for propellant resupply! a supplementary system for temporary high-
Tethered Satellite System Reflight demand periods or emergency power
(TSS-1 R) mission, they can also generate In addition to ISS application, an electrody- applications. A flexible system could deliver
electrical power. Studies are underway at namic tether can be used on a free-flying a continual power of 6 kW (leveling
MSFC to examine the utility of electrody- spacecraft or upper stage to raise orbit or batteries required to make up an average of
namic tethers for power generation and change inclination without the use of 670 W), day and night, or variable output
reboost of the ISS and for propulsion of propellant. MSFC is defining an electrody- with orbital average power of 9 kW or more
free-flying spacecraft and upper stages. namic tether upper stage flight depending on requirements and drag
TSS-1R drew currents on the order of l A,

which corresponded to a magnetic force on
the Shuttle-tether system of around 0.4 N Orbital Velocity
(though as a drag rather than a thrust due to Power Supply _
the direction of current flow in the tether).
Plasma Contactor _ _ _F-Deployer
An electrodynamic tether can work as a _==..,_.__. Space
thruster because a magnetic field exerts a
I , _ Thrust I/ Station
force on a current-carrying wire. This force I I _ -_-----4/
is perpendicular to the wire and to the field
vector. If the current flows downward /# _, _ _/,Ah"" Direction of current flow
through a tether connected to a spacecraft in Electrons ejected; spacecraft _--_./
Earth orbit, the force exerted by the maintained at low bias ._-_v
geomagnetic field on the system has a
component that accelerates the spacecraft .,__ Insulated segment of tether
along the direction in which it is already
Geomagnetic field exerts "_-'--- _=,
moving (fig. 184). thrustin force ro ortinoal
g P P _ _Tether deployed vertically downward
to current all along tether
An orbiting system, by virtue of its motion (deflected somewhat by reboost force)
k.
through the Earth's magnetic field,
experiences an electric field (VxB)
perpendicular to its direction of motion and Thrust
to the geomagnetic field vector. For an % Electrons collected from ionosphere
eastward-moving system, such as the ISS, along positively biased bare segment
the field is such that the electrical potential of tether
decreases with increasing altitude (at a rate
%
of around 100 V/km for the ISS orbit). In
order to drive a current down the tether, it is
necessary to overcome this induced voltage.
Thus, such a system requires a power
supply and may be considered a type of FIGURE184.--An electrodynamlc tether reboost system for the International Space Station.
226
Advanced Studies
tolerance. A relatively short and light tether

Atmospheric Tether Mission the Shuttle by a 90-km long tether. The
(less than 20 km, 300 kg) is required, thus instrument package would cut through the
minimizing the impact on the 1SS. atmosphere collecting data at three different
C Les Johnson/PS02
altitudes over a 6-day mission.
205-544-0614
Tether power is not a "free lunch," however.
The Earth's magnetic field exerts a drag E-mail: les johnson@msfc nasa gov A science definition team (SDT) was
force on the current-carrying tether (1 to 2 formed by NASA Headquarters to define
N for the 6- to 9-kW systems discussed Understanding the plasma and atmosphere the scientific objectives of the ATM. The
above), thus increasing the reboost around the Earth in the lower altitude SDT defined a set of science measurements
requirements of the ISS. regions of the mesosphere and lower that together would meet all ATM mission
thermosphere/ionosphere is important in objectives. A summary of these measure-
Sanmartin, et al.: Journal of Propulsion and research of the global electric system. An ment requirements is shown in table 14.
Power, rot. 9, 1993. upper atmosphere tether mission is being
considered to collect much needed data and For the ATM mission, the orbiter will enter
Sponsors: Office of Advanced Concepts further our knowledge of these regions. The a 220-km circular orbit at 57 degrees
and Technology; Advanced Space Transpor- Atmospheric Tether Mission (ATM) would inclination. On the first day, the tethered
tation Program use a set of instruments housed in an endmass will be deployed downward 50-km
endmass that is deployed downward from to 170-km altitude and remain there for
Industry Involvement: The Boeing
Company; Tether Applications Company;
Tethers Unlimited TABLE14 .--ATM scientific measurement requirements.
Biographical Sketch: C. Les Johnson has a

B.A. in chemistry and physics from
Transylvania University, Lexington, KY,
AM
1984, and an M.S. in physics from Neutral Atmosphere 10 5 -1011 ore-3 <±10% M =1 at M=30
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 1986. Composition 5%
smaller for major
From 1986 through 1990, Johnson worked species
at General Research Corporation, Hunts-
ville, AL, as task manager for development Neutral Wind -500 to 500 m-s -1 +10% 1 m-s -1
of neutron sensors for neutral particle beam Vector
systems. He began working at Marshall in
1990. He is manager for future tether AM
Ion Composition 1 to 105 cm -3 +10% M =latM=16
mission studies and managed the concept
1%
definition of the flight-approved Magneto-
sphere Imager mission. Ion Drift -2 to +2 km-s -1 ±10% 1 m-s -1
Velocity Vector
Ion/Electron/ 300 to 3,000 K +10% 50 K

Neutral Temperature
Electric Field -200 to +200 mV-m -1 +10% 0.05 mV-m -1

Vector d.c,
Current Density/ -65 to +65 K-nT +0.1% 0.01%

Magnetic Field
FUV Imaging 10 R - 50 KR 0.5% N/A

±5% N/A
Energetic 10 eV to 30 KeV
Particles >107 to 1010 cm -2
/s/st/eV
227
2 days. On day 3, an additional 20 km will Industry Involvement: Lockheed Martin, Project ORLON:Orbital
be deployed, lowering the endmass to an Tethers Unlimited
altitude of 150 km for 2 days. On day 5, the Debris Removal Using
final 20 km of tether will be deployed, Biographical Sketch: C. Les Johnson has a Ground-Based Laser
lowering the endmass to its final 130-km B.A. in chemistry and physics from
altitude where it will remain for 2 days. The Transylvania University, Lexington, KY, and Sensor Systems
orbiter altitude is maintained by use of the 1984, and an M.S. in physics from
orbiter thruster system. On day 7, the tether Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 1986. Dr.JonathanW.Campbell/PS02
is cut and the endmass begins a reentry From 1986 to 1990, Johnson worked at 205-544-7076
course. General Research Corporation, Huntsville,
E-mail:jonathan.campbell@msfc.nasa.gov
AL, as task manager for development of
The preliminary concept of the ATM neutron sensors for neutral particle beam
endmass is seen in figure 185. systems. He began working at Marshall in Presently, it is estimated there are
1990. He is manager for future tether 150,000 orbital debris particles ranging in
Sponsors: Office of Space Flight; Office of mission studies and managed the concept size from 1 to l0 cm. This size range is too
Space Science definition of the flight-approved Magneto- small to be reliably tracked, too numerous
sphere Imager mission. ___ to easily allow avoidance mitigation, and
too large to easily allow shielding mitiga-
tion. This debris at altitudes above 200 km
pose a significant threat to many low-Earth-
orbit space-based platforms such as Space
Tether 't _To Orbiter ,""
Station. A study was conducted to deter-
mine the feasibility of using ground-based
", E-Field J"
laser and sensor (e.g., radar) systems to
..... E-Field _ Double Probe /'"
,/-
'.,
Double Probe
-,,x ,f //"
remove this debris.
This study was initiated by Ivan Bekey at

NASA Headquarters, co-sponsored by the
, ///"
USAF Space Command, and included a
Neutral Mass "", ,•"...... F- 3-_is team of laser experts managed by
Dr. Jonathan W. Campbell at MSFC. The
study team included the USAF Phillips
\ Laboratory, MIT Lincoln Laboratories,

MSFC, Northeast Science and Technology,
Photonic Associates, and the Sirius Group.
The objective of this work was to determine

the feasibility of using ground-based lasers
a yze / _/ _]---'_/_',. _ r E-Field and sensors to accomplish orbital debris
removal.
Ion Ma_'-"_ Double Probe
Spectrometer "_, _ Energetic Particle
All aspects of the problem were considered
," _-, Spectrometer
including the nature and characteristics of
Langmuir "_,. the orbital debris population, the interaction
of a number of different lasers and radars
with the spectrum of debris categories, laser
atmospheric transmission effects, available
laser and sensor technology, and associated
E-Field Double Probes
costs. Current and near-future laser
technology are not sufficient to vaporize a
debris particle in low-Earth orbit; however,
a thin layer of the debris surface can be
FIGURE185.--ATM tethered endmass preliminary configuration. ablated. This ablation then provides a small
228
Advanced Studies
change in the orbital velocity of the particle. Sponsor: NASA Headquarters; Office of
If the point of interaction is chosen
Transportation Elements
Aeronautics; USAF Space Command
carefully by the laser operator, this velocity for the Human Lunar
wilt lower perigee. A pulsed laser produces University/Industry Involvement: USAF
a large number of these interactions over a Phillips Laboratory; MIT Lincoln Laborato-
Return Study
short period of time ultimately bringing ries; Northeast Science and Technology;
perigee below the critical altitude of Photonic Associates; and the Sirius Group.
MarkL. Stucker/PS04
200 km. Below these altitudes, atmospheric 205-544--0189
drag will dictate particle reentry in a few Biographical Sketch: Dr. Jonathan W. E-mail:mark.stucker@msfc.nasa.gov
hours to a few days at most. Campbell is an astrophysicist/space scientist
working in the advanced concepts area of
ThomasD. Dickerson/PD32
The study was completed successfully Marshall Space Flight Center's Program
205-544-0530
showing that it was feasible with substan- Development Directorate. Dr. Campbell E-mail:thomas.dickerson@msfc.nasa.gov
tive margin to remove orbital debris by holds five degrees, including a Ph.D in both
using ground-based systems. engineering and science from both the Within the Agency's Strategic Plan,
University of Alabama and Auburn Johnson Space Center (JSC) is the lead for
The launch costs associated with shielding University. He is a colonel in the U.S. Air implementing the Human Exploration and
just one critical asset, the space station, Force Reserve and a certified instrument Development of Space (HEDS) Enterprise.
against l- to 2-cm debris is estimated to be flight instructor. Because of this assigned responsibility,
on the order of $100 million. For a similar Mr. Daniel Golden, the Agency Adminis-
cost, all debris could be removed below trator, challenged JSC in the fall of 1995 to
800 km and all space-based assets at and develop an innovative strategy for
below these altitudes could be protected. returning man to the Moon and beyond at
mimimum cost. One response to this
A demonstration experiment could be request was to immediately open an in-
accomplished for about $20 million using house project at JSC to investigate the
existing off-the-shelf laser and sensor issues and opportunities for a manned
hardware. This experiment would demon- return mission to the Moon targeted at the
strate the feasibility of detecting, tracking, year 2002. The project was formally titled
pointing, and changing the orbit of selected the Human Lunar Return (HLR) study and
debris targets using a ground-based laser/ was managed by Elric McHenry of the
sensor system. Technology and Project Implementation
Office. The entire project was sponsored
Also, the study revealed that for $60 million by the Advanced Development Office at
using near-term technologies all orbital JSC. Following two preiminary JSC
debris below 800 km could be removed, assessments, engineers from MSFC, Lewis
thus protecting Space Station and all other Research Center and Langley Research
assets at these altitudes. This operational Center were asked to join the team in April
system would consist of a Nd:glass laser 1996. A 4-month study ensued. MSFC was
operating at 1.06 Ixm with a pulse width of charged with development of selected
5 ns operating at a rate of 1 to 5 Hz. It transportation elements for this more
would have 3.5 m diameter optics, operate extensive assessment. A baseline lunar
with a single sodium guide star, and reference mission, which utilized the
produce 5 kJ pulses. International Space Station (1SS) and is
believed to be representative of a "mini-
For an additional $80 million, more exotic mum" cost return mission, was developed.
technologies might be employed to remove
all orbital debris below 1,500 km. In early May 1996, a team was formed
within the Program Development Office at
NASA TM Project Orion: Orbital Debris MSFC to develop a pre-phase A-level
Removal Using Ground-Based Sensors technical design and cost for selected HLR
And Lasers.
transportation elements. This 4-month task
was in response to a request from JSC to
229
D_I@IOi@IOIOIOIO_OIO
_OIOIOIOIO_IOIOI@_OI@_ IOI@IOIOI@
_ _ IOIOIOIO_IO_I@_I@D_I_OIOI@_
MSFCResearchandTechnology1996
A ReferenceMission for Returningto the Moon in 2002

Baseline:Predeployment Habitat,ReusableComponents
• , Integrated
,_ , Lunar Orbit Stage
/ _,' with Lander

TLI/LOI Stage /
(Expendable) / TEl Stage,2,
(Expenaaole}
--....-.
I Hrl_r _t=t'lc
TLI Stage 1
_ (App_ # (Expendable)
Earth Orbit ..........................

E_t _O_t ,..._.. Operations@ ISS ...... .. Earth Orbit
/
Launch for Hab 4 Launches Aerobrake onto Earth Orbit,
Return to Station
(Proton-M W/New (Two Shuttles and
Upper Stage Two Proton-Ms)
FIGURE
186.--Design ReferenceMission(2002). Baseline:predeployedhabitat, reusable components.
230
Advanced Studies
Main En(
Fixed RCS DI NTO Tanks
support specific aspects of an investigation

into a manned return to the Moon. All
solutions complied with HLR baseline NTO and
mission manifest objectives and assump- MMH Tanks
tions developed by the JSC HLR project
team. Transportation elements developed
included:
• All propulsive elements and associated
propellant carrier/transfer kit for the
lunar orbit insertion/trans-Earth injection
(LOI/TEI) stage which serves as the
primary propulsion system for the lunar
orbit stage;
• A tandem configured trans-lunar
injection (TLI) stage for delivery of the Deployed
fully integrated lunar orbit stage; and RCS Cluster
• A trans-lunar injection/lunar orbit --Deployed RCS MMH Pressurant
,d
insertion (TLI/LOI) stage for delivery of Cluster

the lander/habitation module. Main Engine I Engine
MMH Tanks / Y
/ /
Design of the fully reusable propulsive Deployed RCS-.J Pressurant Z,,,,,k,X
elements of the LOI/TEI stage was Cluster
completed within 2 months. The design
scope included engine selection, propellant FIGURE187.--LOI/TEI propulsive elements.
requirements, propellant tank sizes, mass
breakdown of component parts, materials
selected, power requirements, dimensions,
schematics, inert stage mass, integration Grapple
support to JSC, and costs. It is delivered Grapple Fixture
dry to the ISS with other mission hardware Mechanical/Electrical
aboard the Shuttle.
Interface Assembly
(Valves, Regulators,
The LOI/TEI stage propellant delivery and
Controls, etc.)
transfer system design was completed in NTO Tanks (2)
less than 1 month from the mid-July 1996
initiation. The design scope included
concept selection, operations, configura-
tion, subsystems, mass summary and costs.
The LOIFFEI stage propellant carrier/
transfer kit is fully reusable and transported
to and from the ISS via the Shuttle.
The design for the TLI stage was com- EDO Pallet
pleted in about 2-1/2 months from initiation AFIS (Structurally
in early May 1996. The design scope for Enhanced)
the TLI stage included an assessment of
configuration and deployment options,
MMH
trades, concept selection, a systems MMH
Tank
analysis defining the various subsystems Tank
required, performance analyses, timelines,
configurations, mass statements, schedules Pressurant Tanks (8)
and costs. The TLI stage is required to
provide the transportation for placing the FI6URE188.---LOIfrEI propellant carrier/transfer kit.
231
Stage 1 Avionics
lunar orbit stage assembly consisting of the

crew module, lander, aerobrake and LOI
RCS Thrusters
and TEl stage on a lunar trajectory which
allows insertion into lunar orbit by the LOI/
TEl stage. It is configured as tandem,
pump-fed (main engine) expendable
cryogenic stages. Once mated to the lunar Stage 1
orbit stage, the subsequent assembly (i.e. First
becomes the lunar stack. Stage delivery is
Proton Launch)
accomplished via two Proton-M launches.
The TLI/LOI stage for the lunar lander/

habitat module was completed in less than Aft RCS Tankage
1 month following a mid-July 1996 start. Inside Interstage
The scope of the design included mission
profile, performance analyses, configura- Stage 2 Avionics
tions, timelines, subsystems, mass and
z Stage 2
costs. The TLI/LOI stage is expendable,
(i.e, Second
and was derived from the 1I, I stage 2
Proton Launch)
design. It performs the TLI burn, midcourse
corrections, coasts to the Moon and then
brakes the lander/habitat module into low-
lunar orbit with a single burn of the main Aft RCS Tankage Inside Interstage
engine. RLIOB-1 Engine
With Bell Extended
This internal Agency study dealing with
human lunar return concluded in August FIGURE189.--Tandem translunar injection (TLI) stages.
1996. Included in the results were: a
description of the top level vehicle
elements; what we want to do at the Moon;
and the kinds of lunar resource develop-
ment and science that could be performed.
All assigned transportation elements were

_ Lander/Hab
delivered on schedule with a high level of
detail. Center to center coordination was Envelope
excellent. The baseline HLR mission cost (3.4Mx4M)
was estimated at between $3 to 5 billion or
equivalent to about 2 to 5 percent of the
• Requires 2M
i
Apollo missions and could be implemented Extension of
within a 3- to 5-year time frame. The Proton-M 4.35M
baseline implementation plan made
_ .A
Shroud
maximum use of existing launchers, i
commonality of hardware design, inclusion

i
of new or emerging technologies, and
sought to maximize reusability where
beneficial. A cursory investigation was
given to a possible alternate mission
scenario which departed from the ISS but
returned directly to Earth. This appears to
offer somewhat lower mission costs and the
easiest access to all possible lunar surface
landing sites. The area of greatest scientific Fmunz 190.--TLI/LOI stage configuration for lander/habitat
232
Advanced Studies
value appears to be the polar ice region. study. Dickerson is a 1962 graduate of
Landing here would drive any developed Middle Tennessee State University and
transportation architecture. It would has 34 years experience with NASA. His
therefore be best if the final transportation technical background is in launch vehicle
architecture for any manned missions be trajectory and performance analysis and
made following analysis of data obtained orbital mechanics. During his career with
by robotic rovers sent to the polar region. NASA, he has served as the lead engineer
for other projects including the Aeroassist
Sponsor: Johnson Space Center-- Flight Experiment, Earth Science Geosyn-
Advanced Development Office chronous Platform, Aerobrake Design for
Lunar Return Vehicles, High Temperature
Biographical Sketches: Mark L. Stucker Materials Processing Furnaces for the
is a project engineer in the Advanced Space Station Furnace Facility and others.
Systems and Technology Office at
Marshall. Since joining NASA in the
summer of 1987, he has actively applied
technical management skills to propulsion
technology projects dealing with solid,
liquid, and hybrid rocket motors. He has
served in numerous positions within the
Joint Army-Navy-NASA-Air Force
(JANNAF) Interagency Propulsion
Committee and was cited in 1993 for
outstanding contributions to chemical
propulsion technology and service to
JANNAF. Stucker received his BSIE and
MSIE from the University of Tennessee in
Knoxville in 1974 and 1975.
Thomas D. Dickerson is the Mission

Analysis team leader in the Preliminary
Design Office of the Program Develop-
ment Directorate at the Marshall Space
Flight Center. He served as the lead
engineer for the Human Lunar Return
233
Research
NASAAir Force Cost Model: components are summed in the final stages to be a valuable cost-estimating tool at
of cost estimating. NAFCOM CER's are MSFC and is being accepted at other NASA
A Potent Parametric Cost subsystem unique and were derived from centers and by the U.S. Air Force. Until
averages taken from some 100 historical recently this model was limited to only
Estimating Tool space missions making up over 1,000 sub- government distribution because of
system data points. proprietary cost data included in the data
CareyThompson/PP03 base. However, a nonproprietary version of
205-544-6707 A comprehensive listing of data points is NAFCOM has been developed and is
E-mail:carey.thompson@msfc.nasa.gov provided for each project subsystem/ available upon request to any commercial
component within the NAFCOM data base. company willing to provide data to be used
The Engineering Cost Office of the The NAFCOM user, in developing a cost within the model. This tool can be of great
Program Development Directorate at MSFC estimate, may use overall average CER's, or value to space hardware developers in
provides comprehensive cost estimates for may generate unique CER's by combining preparing cost proposals for contracts as
new projects as well as those projects under CER's from one or more projects that most well as for evaluation of subcontractor
consideration for development. The closely parallel the new project whose cost proposals.
following paragraphs provide an overview he is estimating.
of the NASA Air Force cost model "Executive Summary." NASA Cost Model,
(NAFCOM). This automated model, Integration costs are generated for each vol. 1, 1993.
currently in its fifth version, makes use of estimate at the total project level. Integra-
regression analysis methodology and is one tion costs are def'med as the costs for Sponsor: Marshall Space Flight Center
of the primary cost estimating tools within integration of components/subsystems and Engineering Cost Office
the office. It was developed under contract associated system level functions. The
for MSFC by the Science Applications following are included elements of Biographical Sketch: Carey Thompson
International Corporation (SAIC). integration costs: works in Aerospace Technical Management
• Integration, assembly, and check-out; in MSFC's Engineering Cost Office, where
At the core of NAFCOM is its data base. • System test and operations; he provides cost estimates for potential new
This data base contains elements of cost • Ground support equipment; NASA space projects. Thompson earned a
(including first pound cost), weight, and • Systems engineering and integration; B.S. degree at the U.S. Military Academy,
other data for 9 manned spacecraft, • Management; and and an MBA at the Florida Institute of
75 unmanned spacecraft, l0 launch vehicle • Launch operations orbital support. Technology. D_
stages, 4 liquid rocket engines, and
approximately 350 space-based scientific Integration cost CER's are also developed
instruments. Technical and programmatic by using overall average CER's or generat-
data are provided for each program or data ing unique CER's by selecting projects that
point to enhance the understanding needed are similar in system integration activities.
for the analyst to select analogous data in Once the hardware and integration costs
the development of a weight-driven cost have been determined, these costs are
estimate. The first breakout or subdivision adjusted for inflation to any desired year by
of the data base is into one of four major the model.
categories:
• Manned spacecraft; The search and filter routines in the model
• Unmanned spacecraft; allow users to select projects that used low-
• Launch vehicle stage and engine; and cost, new ways of doing business ap-
• Scientific instruments. proaches. If the project to be estimated
plans to use the same low-cost approaches,
Each project is then further categorized into then the resulting estimate will include
its system and subsystems/component costs. similar cost reductions.
For each of these further divisions, costs are
divided once again into flight unit costs and Consequently, by means of a user-friendly
development costs. A separate cost data base and program, the NAFCOM user
estimating relationship (CER) is developed can bring together the procedures described
for each of these elements. Total project above to arrive at legitimate and defensible
costs are determined as costs for all of these cost estimate. NAFCOM has proven itself
234
Advanced Studies
The Virtual Research MSFC is integrating an experimental information in a format consistent with that
]ntranet known as the Virtual Research room. For example, the library contains
Center: An Experimental Center (VRC) for geographically distributed documentation, the laboratory contains
Intranet concept development teams. The VRC analytical files such as spreadsheets, and
provides an integrated set of tools for the auditorium contains multimedia files.
collecting, archiving, disseminating, and
DanielA 0'Neil/PS05
discussing project-related information. The Advanced Concepts Office at NASA
205-544-6618
Users gain access to the VRC through a Headquarters established an agencywide
E-mail:on311@aol.com World Wide Web (WWW) browser. team in February of 1995 with members at
Johnson Space Center (JSC), Ames
In any typical project, decisions made Using the motif of a lunar colony, the VRC Research Center (ARC), Jet Propulsion
during the conceptual design stage Graphical User Interface (GUI) displays a Laboratory (JPL) and MSFC. The initial
constitute 75 percent of a product's cost.l lobby with entrances to a central complex prototype integrated public domain
Many of these decisions are made by teams and several project wings. The central software and served as a model for
spread over disparate locations. An Intranet complex comprises a museum, library, and developing requirements. International
facilitates communication among team auditorium. Each project wing includes a Space Systems Incorporated (ISSI)
members by applying Internet technologies conference room, library, mail station, and supported the integration of the first
to the management of project information. laboratory. Rooms within the VRC contain prototype.
Rauae 191.--The VRC home page.
235
In 1996, products appeared on the market into the Portable Data Format (PDF). • Discussion Forum_The mail station also
that incorporated many of the functions and Users can view the documents with the provides a discussion forum or bulletin
features embodied in the public domain free Acrobat reader software from Adobe. board. Users can create topics for
Intemet programs. The VRC team inte- discussion and other people can write
grated these new products with support Document Archiving--Users may read comments about that topic.
from Auburn University and the University brief descriptions and select a document
of Alabama in Huntsville. Deployment of for viewing from a list of available PDF Conference Room
the demonstration system began in August files.
of 1996 with the implementation of project Tools within the conference room augment
wings for the Advanced Concepts Office Search Engine--A search engine from team telecons. Functions include action
and the Highly Reusable Space Transporta- Verity, Inc., enables users to search tracking, scheduling, and desktop video
tion (HRST) programs. through online documents and data bases conferencing.
for key words.
The VRC organizes information through a Action Tracking System--As teams
spatial reference system. Information of ° Project Data Base--An Oracle 7 data conduct meetings, they can assign action
different formats are stored in a room that is base provides a means of collecting items and record them in the action item
appropriate for that format. Each room project-related data and creating reports. tracking system.
contains tools for storing, retrieving, or
exchanging files. The following paragraphs • Mail Station--Functions in the Mail Scheduler--This tool includes a calendar
identify the rooms and the associated tools. Station include a file server, e-mail list of events. Within the calendar, events
manager, and a bulletin board. appear as a hypertext link that users can
The library provides tools for onfine select to obtain more information about
publishing, searching, and collecting File Exchange Through the mail that event. In addition, the scheduler
project-related data. station, team members may exchange contains a fill-in form for the NASA
files. An embedded File Transfer Protocol Teleconference Center (NTC). The
° Online Publishing--The library provides (FTP) program provides a consistent look system will generate the form and
utilities for converting Postscript files and feel across heterogeneous platforms. automatically fax it to NTC.
FIGURE192.--A view of the VRC lobby.
236
Advanced Studies
• Meeting Minutes--Teams can capture the - Creates project data base; and Biographical Sketch: Daniel O'Neil has a
important points of a meeting with both - Copies "glueware" that integrates the B.S. degree in electrical and computer
text and graphics for later review by the HTML pages and databases. engineering from the University of Alabama
individuals, in Huntsville. He works in Program
Multiple Security Levels--To ensure a Development's Advanced Concepts office
• Desktop Video Conferencing--The VRC safe environment for information where he manages the VRC project and
server includes a CUSeeMe reflector for exchange, the VRC offers a multilayer other activities related to information
desktop conferencing. Team members security system. This security system systems technologies.
can view one another during telecons. includes password protection, access
rights at the operating system level,
• White Board--CUSeeMe also provides a access rights for the project data base,
white board capability. Users can display and data encryption.
images on the white board and all
participants can see and mark up the Future Plans
image.
To deploy a VRC server for the Space
Transportation Research Center (STRC) to
Laboratory
support the Advanced Space Transportation
Teams often develop analytical programs, Program (ASTP) at MSFC.
simulations, and spreadsheets to support
concept development. The laboratory Additional Information
provides a file management system so
people can archive analytical files. All commercial products mentioned in this
report are trademarked and copyrighted by
their respective companies.
Auditorium
Multimedia presentations on project or IMachlis, S.: "Management Changes Key to

organization subject matter will be available Concurrent Engineering." Design News,
in the auditorium of the central complex. September 17, 1990, pp.36-37.

System Administration
Technology
Behind the scenes, the VRC provides tools
for system administration and multiple University/Industry Involvement: Auburn
levels of security. University, University of Alabama in
Huntsville; International Space Systems
• Wing Construction Kit_Creating project Incorporated, Bay Area Multimedia
wings requires considerable work if done Technology Alliance, 4th Planet
manually. The VRC includes Unix shell
scripts that automate the process. A Other Involvement: NASA Headquarters,
system administrator can simply type in Ames Research Center; Johnson Space
the name of the new project wing, and the Center; Jet Propulsion Laboratory
script performs the following actions:
- Creates directories;
- Copies HyperText Markup Language
(HTML) pages into those directories;
- Changes pathnames embedded in the
HTML pages;
237
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
"America's space program is paying off for Marshall Center is a member, proves that
Technologies Pour Into American businesses consistently benefit
American business and industry. Technolo-
American Industries, gies, developed for the nation's space from NASA's research and development
program by NASA and its contractors, are expertise," Craft said.
Spurring Growth in now at work in thousands of American
Employment and New firms," according to Harry G. Craft Jr., As a result of NASA's technology transfer
manager of the Technology Transfer Office and industrial assistance activities, more
Products at MSFC. than 18,500 jobs have been added to the
nation's job bank or saved from elimination
Bob Lessels/LA02 "The latest survey of industrial assistance since January 1993, Craft reported.
205-544-6539 activities conducted by NASA's Southeast
E-mail: bob.lessels@msfc.nasagov Technology Transfer Alliance, of which the
FIGURE193.--J. Wayne Littles, Marshall Center Director, seated left, joins with William Dunavant, Tennessee State Commissioner
of Economic and Community Development, seated right, in signing a memorandum of understanding which renews a
cooperative agreement between NASA and Tennessee. This arrangement enables businesses, schools and entrepreneurs to
benefit from the wealth of technology being developed by NASA's talented team of engineers and scientists. Looking on
from left are: Jeneene Sams of the Marshall Technology Integration Team; Jerry Seemann, Process Management Office
Manager; Harry G. Craft, Jr., MSFC Technology Transfer Office (1"1"O)Manager; William Eads, Tennessee Advisor on
Science and Technology; Dr. Kenneth Fernandez, Technology Utilization Office Manager; and Fred Schramm, Marshall TTO
liaison to Tennessee. In addition to Tennessee, Marshall has similar agreements with Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama,
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Kentucky, and Arkansas.
240
Technology
Transfer
Assistance from the space program, he said, patients. Lockheed-Martin Co., the NASA development agencies to identify candidate
has enabled American industry to introduce contractor that makes the insulation for the industries for receipt of aerospace techno-
more than 1,212 new or improved products space shuttle's external fuel tank, tested the logical assistance.
for sale at home and abroad, an increase of durability of USECO's insulating material
more than 150 from just 6 months ago. and provided the information to the firm's "To date, more than 5,000 requests have
engineering staff. been received from U.S. firms and pro-
Craft said the survey estimates the value of cessed by the Southeast Alliance's technol-
this assistance to American business and NASA's Southeast Alliance pools the ogy assessment board," Craft said. "Nearly
industry at $1.8 billion. scientific and engineering research and 90 percent of these have been resolved
development resources of the MSFC with successfully. Of the firms which have
One of the most recent beneficiaries those at the Stennis Space Center in contacted the alliance for assistance, nearly
NASA's engineering expertise is Systech in Mississippi, the Kennedy Space Center in all have indicated they would again seek
Demopolis, AL. The company burns a Florida, and the Southern Technology NASA expertise if problems arise in the
slurry of waste material as fuel to heat Applications Center in Alachua, FL. future."
cement kilns. The waste must be ground up
before it can be burned, but iron and steel in Despite its name, the alliance's technology Businesses wishing to discuss ways in
the waste material was damaging the plant's transfer efforts do not target the southeast- which NASA technical assistance programs
grinder. ern United States exclusively. American might benefit them are encouraged to call
businesses and industries in nearly every 1-800-USA-NASA.
Engineers at the Marshall Center, familiar state have received technical assistance. The
with similar metal waste extraction alliance does, however, have formal SImnsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
problems, were able to link Systech with a technology transfer agreements with most ment and Technology Transfer
private firm that solved the problem. One southeastern states' economic development
aspect of NASA's technology transfer agencies. These include Georgia, Alabama, Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the
program involves linking companies Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
requesting assistance with other firms which Kentucky, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi for the Technology Transfer Office at
offer suitable, off-the-shelf, commercially and Louisiana. MSFC. A graduate of the University of
available products and solutions. Nebraska, he has been a professional
Pooling the resources of the alliance's journalist for the past 30 years. He joined
Closer to home, Marshall engineers tackled members allows the resources of all four to NASA in 1986.
a problem at Plasma Processes, Inc., (PPI) be brought to bear on technological
in Huntsville, AL. The company asked for problems in the private sector. This permits
help in developing a way to make low-cost a complementary approach to finding a
tooling and metal liners for pressure vessels solution. When appropriate, the resources of
made from composite materials. The firm the entire 752-member Federal Laboratory
applies metal, ceramic and polymer Consortium can be accessed through
coatings onto substrates for wear, thermal alliance members.
and corrosion protection. The Marshall
Center has one of the world's leading "The alliance expedites American busi-
productivity enhancement centers which is nesses', academic institutions' and
developing innovative methods of using entrepreneurs' acquisition, adaptation and
composite materials industrially. As a result application of a broad spectrum of state-of-
of Marshall's help, the company has the-art technologies and techniques which
increased employment and expanded its have been proven in the nation's space
product line, thereby increasing sales. program to work most effectively and
efficiently," Craft said.
The United Service Equipment Co.
(USECO), a food service equipment As a member of the alliance, the Marshall
manufacturer in Murfroesboro, TN, asked Center actively solicits requests for
Marshall for assistance in evaluating a foam assistance from private industry through the
insulation material it had selected for use on use of mobile technology utilization
food carts of the type used in hospitals to assistance teams. These teams work with
transport meal trays from the kitchen to state and local governments and economic
241
MSFC Small Business project results in the private sector and in Ceramics for
the Federal Government.
Innovation Research Turbomachinery
The Small Business Technology Transfer
and Small Business Systems
(STIR) pilot program awards contracts to
TechnologyTransfer small business concerns for cooperative
R&D with a research institution through a Christopher J, Bramon/LA40
Programs uniform, three-phase process. The program 205-544-2800
was authorized for 3 years beginning in E-mail: chris.bramon@msfc.nasa.gov
Helen Stinson/LA40 1994. Program goals are to transfer
Michael R. Effinger/EH34
205-544-7239 technology developed by universities and
Federal laboratories into private market- 205-544-2800
E-mail: helen.stinson@msfc.nasa.gov
place through the entrepreneurship of a E-mail: michael.r.effinger@msfc.nasa.gov
small business. The small business and its
The Small Business Innovation Research partnering institution are required to sign an
(SBIR) program was established by agreement on how intellectual property will Marshall and a team of industry experts,
Congress in 1982 to provide increased be shared between them. Phase I STIR under a NASA Aerospace Industry
opportunities for small businesses to projects receive up to $100,000 in funds for Technology Program cooperative agree-
participate in Federal research and 1 year; Phase II is limited to $500,000 for ment, are developing a manufacturing
development (R&D) to increase employ- 2 years. process for silicon nitride ceramic compo-
ment and improve our country's competi- nents. Under this agreement, a team of
tiveness. The program objectives engineers from AlliedSignal Aerospace
established by law include stimulating The NASA SBIR program is an Agency- Equipment Systems, AlliedSignal Ceramic
technological innovation in the private wide effort that contributes to NASA's Components, AlliedSignal Technology
sector, strengthening the role of small mission in planning, directing, and Team, Allison Engine Company, MSFC,
business concerns in meeting Federal conducting R&D for civilian uses of space and Lewis Research Center are working to
research and development needs, increasing and aeronautics. All 10 NASA field develop and demonstrate ceramic turbine-
the commercial application of federally installations and Headquarters program wheel technology suitable for air turbine
supported research results, and fostering offices participate in the program. MSFC starters, with potential applications for other
and encouraging participation by socially managed nineteen 1995 SBIR Phase I turbomachinery such as turbopumps,
and economically disadvantaged persons contracts valued at $1.3 million; forty-seven turbochargers, and turbogenerators.
and women-owned businesses in techno- 1993 and 1994 SBIR Phase II contracts
logical innovation. The 11 Federal agencies valued at $27.6 million; ten SBIR Phase HI Ultimately, the efforts of this team should
contracts valued at $2 million, eight 1995 lead to the commercialization of ceramic
with R&D budgets exceeding $100 million
have implemented SBIR programs. STIR Phase I contracts and ten 1996 STIR turbine-wheel technology. To accomplish
Funding is provided by allocating a Phase II contracts during the past year. this, the team will develop and demonstrate
low-cost, high-yield ceramic manufacturing
percentage of each agency's extramural
R&D budget for SBIR. Each Agency Sponsor: Office of Aeronautics; SBIR/ processes. In order to provide the
administers its own individual program STIR turbomachinery technology outlined in this
within guidelines established by the Small agreement, the team must develop
Business Administration (SBA). Biographical Sketch: Helen Stinson gelcasting as a low-cost, high-yield
manages the MSFC SBIR/STIR program. ceramic-forming process, develop brazing
Phase I is the opportunity to establish the She graduated with a degree in materials as a high-load capacity, low-cost ceramic-
feasibility and technical merit of a proposed engineering from the University of Alabama to-metal attachment, and demonstrate
innovation. Phase I contracts last for in Birmingham and has previously worked ceramic turbine wheels in an air turbine
6 months and up to $70,000. Phase II is to in the Smactural Analysis division of the starter.
continue development of selected innova- Structures and Dynamics Laboratory.

tions shown feasible in Phase I that have The development of this manufacturing
the highest potential value to NASA and to process for turbine wheels will build on
the U.S. economy. Phase II contracts are for newly developing uses for gelcasting, while
the new ceramic-to-metal attachment will
a period of 2 years and up to $600,000.
Phase III involves non-SBIR capital to employ current brazing techniques. Once
pursue commercial applications of their the manufacturing process has been defined,
242
Technology Transfer
the turbine wheels will be produced and molds is underway. The company has University. He has worked for NASA for
tested in an Aerospace Equipment Systems planned a program to cast existing turbine- 12 years.
production air turbine starter. These tests wheel designs to evaluate their dimensional
will focus on the entire spectrum of control and repeatability. Mike Effinger is a materials engineer in the
operating conditions, as well as duration Nonmetallic Materials Division at NASA-
testing. Next, Allison Engine Company will The AlliedSignal Technology Team has MSFC. He conducts mechanical property
provide field service tests of the air turbine tested brazed shaft attachments using a testing on ceramic and ceramic matrix
starter with the ceramic wheels. Tinker Air variety of sizes, materials, and geometric composites. Data generated is used for the
Force Base has also expressed intent to test configurations. Using a simple geometry design of rocket engine components.
starters with ceramic wheels on service consisting of a silicon nitride stub shaft Effinger has worked for NASA for 5 years.
aircraft. brazed onto a steel-stub shaft, full torque
strength has been achieved. This team has
In order to design the turbine wheels and also improved process repeatability by
components necessary to adapt the turbine refining brazed materials and techniques.
wheels to the existing air turbine starter, the Short-range plans for the AlliedSignal
team will take advantage of the develop- Technology Team include brazing to
ments from a previous ceramic turbine achieve final metal properties using a butt-
research program. Although the turbines for joint configuration with long-term plans to
this project are axial in design, the resulting control the integrity of the interlayer
technology will also benefit ceramic materials in the braze joint. These interlayer
forming processes for radial turbines. materials must be maintained to accommo-
date the differential thermal expansion
In addition to developing the gelcasting between the ceramic wheel and the metallic
technique, Ceramic Components will shaft.
conduct material characterization tests and
produce the turbine wheels. The ceramic-to- As with any new technology development,
turbine brazing technique, being developed testing is an important step in the validation
by the AlliedSignal Technology Team, will process. In this case, the air turbine starter
be Iransferred to Ceramic Components and will be tested for mechanical integrity, with
Aerospace Equipment Systems. in-service conditions applied in the test cell.
The air turbine starter will be subjected to
Since the 1980's, AlliedSignai Aerospace both a full range of normal operating
Equipment Systems and Ceramic Compo- conditions and emergency operation
nents have worked together, designing, situations. Additional testing will evaluate
developing, fabricating, and testing ceramic the integrity of the system during prolonged
turbines for air turbine starters. Their efforts periods of operation. Tests conducted at the
have provided a rich pool of resources and Marshall Center and Lewis Research Center
insight into the primary factors necessary to will investigate the nature of the cyclic
successfully design air turbine starters. fatigue with ceramic material and the
ceramic-to-metal joints.
A working model of the turbine wheel has
already been released to Ceramic Compo- Sponsor: NASA Aerospace Industry
nents to fabricate the tooling that will be Technology Program (AITP)
used for process development, and
Ceramics Components has already begun to Biographical Sketch: Chris Bramon is a
optimize the process. Development to date project manager in the Technology
has focused on the slip development, binder Investment Office at NASA-MSFC. He
burnout and densification phases of the works with industry, academia and other
gelcasting process. Ceramic Components is Government agencies to develop dual-use
also reviewing past research programs of technologies that benefit both the public and
mold designs under the Aerospace Industry private sectors. Bramon has an industrial
Technology Program. In a concurrent effort, engineering degree from Iowa State
the design and procurement of development
243
m
Standards and Technology (NIST). The reduce the capital required for these state-
Innovative Development of-the-art TLP's because the costs of
company is the first in Louisiana to receive
of Joining/Fitting a NIST research and development grant. developing these deep-water reserves have
NIST's Advanced Technology Program kept the U.S. oil industry from earning its
Technologyfor Advanced provides cost-sharing funding to industries cost of capital in the past 6 to 7 years. Due
Composite Piping Systems willing to undertake high-risk research and to our dependence on hydrocarbons as a
development projects that could spark primary fuel source for industry and
important, broad-based economic benefits defense, the domestic oil industry is vital to
Christopher J. Bramon/LA40
for the United States. America's economic well-being.
205-544-2800
E-mail: chris.bramon@msfc.nasa.gov Producing affordable piping made from
The cost of manufacturing and erecting
offshore production platforms can be advanced composite materials will also
Thomas K. Delay/EH35
significantly reduced if even a portion of the benefit other U.S. industries. For example,
205-544-1131
heavy metal pipelines could be replaced advanced composite piping could have
E-mail: tom.delay@msfc.nasagov
with lighter weight pipeline systems made applications for fire water piping, sea water
of composite materials. Composite pipes cooling, drainage systems, and sewerage
Marshall and the Department of Mechanical could reduce the topside weight of deep- systems without the negative effects of
Engineering at Louisiana State University water offshore rigs, known in the industry corrosion. Each year, the petrochemical,
(LSU) have teamed up in support of as tension leg platforms (TLP's). These pulp, paper, and marine industries spend
Specialty Plastics, Inc., of Baton Rouge, TLP's are necessary to access deep water approximately $20 billion to combat
LA., to develop innovative joining and petroleum reserves. The replacement corrosion damage to piping made with
fitting technologies for advanced composite composite piping must be developed in such present-day materials.
piping systems. This cutting-edge technol- a way that meets the very stringent
ogy will improve piping systems for the mechanical requirements and safety Although the benefits of composites--
U.S. oil and gas industry. concerns for oil operators of sea water lightweight, corrosion resistant, handling
piping systems. A large percent of "dead ease, etc.--have long been appreciated,
This new team of industry and university weight" on the deck of an offshore oil there are technical challenges and barriers
experts and NASA engineers is working to platform is the piping system. NIST to overcome. Some of these challenges and
estimates that the use of composites to barriers include the lack of confidence in
develop high-performance composite
materials to dramatically enhance the access oil from deep water reserves could existing joint technology, high costs and
physical properties--such as strength and decrease the cost of deep-water platforms intensive labor processes associated with
durability--of hardware used in the by $250,000/m of water depth, or the manufacture of composite pipe fittings,
offshore oil and gas industry. One example $150 million per platform by reducing and unreliable composite-to-composite and
of the type of composites being used is a structural weight. composite-to-alloy joining methods. The
combination of polymers with glass or efforts of Specialty Plastics, MSFC, and
carbon fibers. To date, material costs, along The United States now spends more than LSU to develop innovative joining methods
with design and manufacturing complexity, $1 billion a week to import oil from other will allow advanced composite pipe systems
countries. This accounts for half the to be considered in essential services, such
have restricted these types of materials to
the manufacture of products for national national trade deficit. A promising source as fire water systems where copper-nickel
defense or high-performance sporting for new oil and gas is from deep-water pipes are now used. A composite piping
goods. However, the cooperative efforts of locations in the Gulf of Mexico. While most system consists of pipe, fittings, joints, and
this team should place high-performance offshore production platforms are "timed" flanges. The limitations of composite piping
composites into mainstream manufacturing. structures based on steel technology, the system applications are due to the joining
Specialty Plastics, MSFC, and LSU experts most economical deep-water platform method and fitting manufacturing process.
are working to develop joining pipe design includes TLP's. Today, the cost of a The current cost of a composite pipe fitting
segments and low-cost, high-strength pipe TLP is nearly $1.2 billion. For every ton of is approximately six times the cost of an
fittings. dead weight saved topside, two tons can be alloy fitting.
saved below the water line. The weight of
Specialty Plastics has been awarded a steel piping is an important factor in the In order to accomplish their task, this new
$1.8 million Advanced Technology Program high costs associated with construction of development team has two distinct tasks--
grant to help finance research in this high- deep-water platforms. It is essential for joint technology and fitting manufacturing
risk area of technology by the Department Government agencies to be involved in technology. Where joint technology is
of Commerce's National Institute of developing the technologies necessary to concerned, the development of the
244
Technology Transfer
"integral flange" filament wound directly of Shipping, and the U.S. Coast Guard are
Maytag and NASATeam Up
onto the pipe or fittings eliminates the joint serving as collaborators on this project.
between the pipe and flange and improves
to Do the Dishes
the mechanical properties. Another solution Sponsor: MSFC Technology Transfer
involves a heat-activated coupling system Office; National Institute of Science and BobLessels/LA02
which allows the joining of composite pipe Technology (NIST); Advanced Technology 205-544-6539
to composite and alloy pipes. Improved Program (ATP)
E-mail:bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov
adhesive bonding must also be a part of this
task to ensure a proper bond between Biographical Sketch: Chris Bramon is a
adhesives and composites. Fitting manufac- project manager in the Technology Maytag's famous lonely repairman is likely
turing technology will include processes to Investment Office at NASA-MSFC. He to stay that way, at least if NASA has
improve the overall performance of the works with industry, academia and other anything to say about it.
piping system. New pipe fitting manufactur- government agencies to develop dual-use
ing processes will be developed to provide a technologies that benefit both the public and Representatives of Maytag Corporation's
higher production rate and enhanced private sectors. Mr. Bramon has an Jackson, TN dishwasher manufacturing
properties at a lower unit cost. This task can industrial engineering degree from Iowa plant have teamed up with engineers at
be accomplished by intelligent filament State University. He has worked for NASA MSFC to help wash the dishes. Maytag
winding and resin transfer molding of pipe for 5 years. sought to incorporate state-of-the-art
fittings. This is done using two-dimensionai aerospace technologies from NASA and its
woven fabric and three-dimensional shape Tom Delay is working as a materials/ contractors into future dishwasher designs.
performs. manufacturing engineer in the nonmetallic
engineering division of MSFC's Materials Maytag came to Marshall for help in
New technologies are necessary to improve and Processes Laboratory. His work is evaluating the changes and finding areas
the reliability of composite components and primarily in the development of launch where further refinements and improve-
reduce the cost of manufacturing compo- vehicle hardware and components out of ments were possible. After an initial
nents such as pipe fittings. These new advanced composites. This hardware assessment and evaluation of the request by
technologies will ultimately lead to includes composite tanks for cryogenic the Marshall Technology Transfer Office's
improved joining methods and lower-cost applications, composite pipe and duct (TTO) Technology Applications Board,
composite pipe fittings, allowing companies systems, and composite molds and tooling. Maytag's request was given to the TrO's
to develop suitable alternative products for He has a degree in physics from Southwest- industrial outreach team for Tennessee:
carbon steel pipes. One of the greatest ern Oklahoma State University and an NASA engineer Fred Schramm and Jeff
advantages of composite materials is the M.B.A. from Oklahoma State University. Cornelius, an engineer with Lockheed
flexibility of design. Potential applications He has worked at NASA for 8 years. Martin Corp. who serves as that firm's
for composite pipe on deep-water platforms industrial outreach liaison.
include process water, cooling water,
potable water, nonhazardous waste water, Help for Maytag was found at another
nonhazardous drains and vents, chemical NASA contractor, Teledyne Brown
lines, fire water ring main, fire water wet Engineering (TBE) of Huntsville. TBE's
deluge, fire water dry deluge, and ballast Chester Simmons led an effort that provided
water. It has been estimated that composite Maytag's designers with insights into
pipe could be installed for one-fourth the factors that influence dishwasher perfor-
cost of copper-nickel pipe in fire water mance.
systems. With lower cost fittings and
reliable joining methods, a composite pipe TBE found that Maytag's dishwasher
system specifically designed for nonessen- design was very close to its maximum
tial services could be installed for approxi- thermal efficiency, but recommended some
mately the same cost as carbon steel pipe. "fine tuning" to improve performance by
However, the composite pipe would have an 10 to 20 percent. TBE's engineers studied
improved life cycle cost and one-fifth the where heat energy is absorbed in a
weight of carbon steel pipe. To gain dishwasher as it washes and dries. They
accelerated code acceptance and designer found that the thermoplastic polymer tub
confidence, representatives from Shell retained less heat than did the porcelain
Offshore, ARCO, Amoco, American Bureau models. This would affect performance.
245
Maytag has benefited from the NASAfFBE state and local governments and economic NASATechnologyHelps
effort. These insights and various recom- development agencies to identify candidate
mendations resulting from TBE's effort industries for receipt of aerospace techno- American Horses Get
have guided design changes for Maytag. logical assistance.
a Jump on Their
The assistance provided to the Jackson, "To date, more than 5,000 requests have Competition
TN, plant is part of a national industrial been received from U.S. firms," Craft
outreach program operated by NASA's observed. "Nearly 90 percent of these have Bob Lessels/LA02
Southeast Regional Technology Transfer been resolved successfully. Of the firms that 205-544-6539
Alliance. The alliance pools the engineer- have contacted the alliance for assistance,
E-mail: bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov
ing resources of both NASA and its nearly all have indicated they would again
contractors at the space agency's Marshall seek NASA expertise if problems arise in
Center, Stennis Space Center in Missis- the future." Businesses wishing to discuss While still ensuring America's Space
sippi, Kennedy Space Center in Florida and ways in which NASA technologies or Shuttles lift off and land safely, NASA
the Southern Technology Applications technical assistance programs might benefit technology also will be at work helping
Center in Florida. Alliance members them are encouraged to call 1-800-USA- premiere jumping horses do the same.
conduct technology transfer programs of NASA.
various kinds in nearly every state in the Horses are to be fitted with newly devel-
nation. Sponsor: Office of Commerical Develop- oped magnetic hoof protector pads and will
ment and Technology Transfer wear them while competing.
Up to 40 hours of technical assistance can
be provided to U.S. f'trms, free of charge. Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the According to their designer, Linda
"America's space program is paying off for technical writer/editor (physical sciences) Hamilton Greenlaw, the pads are now being
American business and industry. Technolo- for the Technology Transfer Office at the marketed worldwide under the name
gies, developed for the Nation's space Marshall Center. A graduate of the "Power Pads." Greenlaw says Power Pads
program by NASA and its contractors, are University of Nebraska, he has been a support and cushion the impact of walking,
now at work in thousands of American professional journalist for the past 30 years. running and jumping on the horse's hooves
firms," Harry G. Craft Jr., Marshall's "Iq'O He joined NASA in 1986. _._ and legs, serving as an injury prevention
manager said. "Now Maytag is among product, similar to sneakers for human
them." beings. Magnets implanted in the pads
increase blood circulation in the horse's
"The latest survey of industrial assistance hooves, reducing the chance for injury, yet
activities conducted by the alliance proves do not overheat the area. If any injury does
that American businesses consistently occur to the hoof, the magnetic pad
benefit from NASA's research and enhances blood flow to the area, speeding
development expertise," Craft said. the healing process and helping to prevent
permanent damage, Greenlaw says.
"The alliance expedites American busi-
nesses', academic institutions' and The magnetic material in the pads also
entrepreneurs' acquisition, adaptation and works with the naturally occurring
application of a broad range of state-of-the- electrical impulses of the horse's nerves to
art technologies and techniques that have reduce or eliminate pain from injuries to the
been proven in the Nation's space program hooves. According to an article, "Magnetic
to work effectively and efficiently," he Fields in Animal Health," by Dr. Roger L.
added. DeHaan, D.V.M., published in the
February-April 1992 issue of the Journal of
As a member of the alliance, the Marshall the American Holistic Veterinary Medical
Center actively solicits requests for Association: "Magnets have been used
assistance from private industries such as successfully in medical therapy for humans
Maytag. This is done through the use of and animals for hundreds of years,
mobile technology utilization assistance particularly for the treatynent of
teams such as the one that helped Maytag osteoarthritos."
refine its designs. These teams work with
246
Technology
Transfer
toxic; thus the pads are the best way of

providing the benefits of magnets without
the hazards. The pads "fill the need to use
magnets in the hoof area without heat
buildup or toxicity," Greenlaw said.
"Through field testing, we've discovered
that the magnetic pads will cause the
horse's foot to grow faster and become
more resinous, thus correcting the medical
problem of 'brittle hooves,' caused by
riding a horse on hard ground."
The cushioning material and the magnetic

material in the prototype pads were
fabricated and stress analyzed at MSFC, by
materials engineer Deborah Dianne
Schmidt and materials technician Anthony
J. Schaffer.
According to Greenlaw, "I became aware

of the technology development assistance
available to U.S. firms via the Marshall
Center through an article which appeared
in the Kiplinger Washington Letter. Calling
the 1-800-USA-NASA telephone number
listed in the news article, I reached the
Marshall Center's Technology Transfer
Office. Staff there helped me submit a
simple, one-page request for assistance in
developing and marketing my idea."
The request was forwarded by the

Technology Transfer Office staff to
Schmidt at the center's Materials and
Processes Laboratory for study and
evaluation. The lab has an expertise in
material stress analysis resulting from
FIGURE194.--A REALLY BIG SHOE. NASA materials engineer Deborah Dianne decades of such work related to the
Schmidt and materials technician Anthony Schaffer show the nation's space program.
prototypes for "Power Pads." These are hoof cushioning devices with
magnet implanted in them for use on horses. Invented by New "I conducted a fatigue stress analysis of the
Englander Linda Hamilton Greenlaw, the pads' material was tested for pads' magnetic inserts and sought to
fatigue and durability at MSFC. determine the best configuration for them,"
Schmidt said. "The analysis led to the
optimal configuration for durability of the
According to Dr. DeHann's article, tissue salts in damaged cells. Electromag- entire pad design. Also, I was able to
experiments at Loma Linda University in netic stimulation gets the damaged tissues' recommend a simple method to place the
California, the Massachusetts Institute of
fluids flowing again, helping to speed the magnetic inserts in the hoof pads so as to
Technology, and several universities in elimination of waste products, reduce prevent material failures caused by stress.
Europe have shown that magnetic devices swelling, and restore normal function. The hoof pad material is subjected to a
improve blood flow to damaged tissues,
good deal of stress as the horse walks, runs
speeding the healing process. Magnetism, Magnetic material cannot be inserted and jumps," she said. "The basic design
the doctor writes, helps to order and align directly into the hoof wall, as this can be uses a piece of magnetic material held in a
247
cutout area inside each pad." Schaffer cut NASATechnologyHelps the Marshall Center's Technology Transfer
the pads and magnetic inserts with Office (TIO).

"surgical precision," Schmidt added. Inventor Clean Up
Working from a technology assistance
The magnetic pads are placed on the Bob Lessels/LA02 request submitted by Thornburg, the TI'O's
horse's hooves, then the animal's metal 205-544-6539 representative for Alabama, Benita Hayes,
horseshoes are fitted onto the pads. enlisted the help of three of the Marshall
Conventional horseshoe nails hold the pads Center's mechanical engineers: Matt Marsh,
and horseshoes onto the hoof. They also Neill Myers and John R. "Rusty" Cowan.
may be attached with "Easy Glu" for Technological assistance from MSFC is All work in the Propulsion Laboratory's
horseshoes. The pads are durable enough to helping an inventor clean up--literally. Component Development Division.
he used for more than one shoeing and
should last 6 months to a year. Cecil Thornburg of Millerville, AL, After a visit to Thornburg's business to see
operated the Mr. Clean Janitorial Service in and discuss the inventor's idea and design,
"The pads--for a horse--are the equivalent nearby Sylacauga. One of his customers the engineers used their expertise to suggest
of a human being taking off leather street was a Winn-Dixie supermarket with a large improvements. These included changing the
shoes and putting on the proper track shoes parking lot. The lot needed to be swept and shape of the vacuum unit's fan blades,
for an athletic event. By cushioning the have trash picked up. Thornburg felt there introducing weight-saving and weight-
horse's feet from injury, the pads are should be a way to sweep the lot and collect redistribution refinements, and devising a
preventative as well as therapeutic," the trash at the same time. way of guiding heavier trash, such as cans
Greenlaw said. "The pads can be used by and bottles, to a point under the vacuum
horses in any type of situation that puts Working to develop this idea, Thornburg where suction was the greatest, thereby
stress on the animal's hooves and legs, devised a vacuum-sweeper combination that ensuring its collection.
including racing, rodeos, walking, show worked, but needed improvement. The
jumping, mounted police and military amateur inventor got the professional "We're picking up nearly 100 percent of the
assistance he needed free of charge through litter we roll over," Thomburg said recently.
operations, and polo, in addition to simple
recreational riding. Persons interested in
more information about Power Pads should
contact: Equine Enhancement Products,
Inc., 37A Everett St., Wobum, MA 01801
Greenlaw, a former champion equestrian in

the New England area, was left partially
disabled following an automobile accident
in 1991. Her love of horses led her to
develop this product for the animals.
"Since my injury, I've prayed God would

let me return to working with horses. I
think this is that way," she said.
Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-

ment and Technology Transfer
Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the

technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
for the Technology Transfer Office at
MSFC. A graduate of the University of
Nebraska, he has been a professional
journalist for the past 30 years. He joined
NASAin 1986. _,_
FIGURE195.raThe "Vac-n-Bag" unit is designed to be towed by a small tractor or truck,
such as the one shown here.
248
Technology Transfer
NASATechnologyGives
Montana Students
a Helping Hand Into
Industry and Amputees
a Helping Hand in Life
Bob Lessels/LA02
205-544-6539
NASA technology may soon be providing

tens of thousands of below-the-elbow
amputees with a helping hand--literally.
Montana Hands, Inc., is a new company set

up by engineering students at Montana
State University in Boseman to manufacture
and distribute a new prosthetic device
they' ve designed for below-the-elbow
FtaURE196.--The "Vac-n-Bag" is demonstrated for officials of the State of Alabama
amputees. As they graduate, the students
Department of Transportation in Birmingham.
will step directly into the world of industry
via their own company.
The new "Vac-n-Bag" design is pulled by a contractors. When appropriate, the
tractor and operates off of the tractor's resources of the entire 750-member Federal The basis for the students' forearm torque
engine. It has proven itself to be an Laboratory Consortium can be accessed actuated terminal device's design lies in a
efficient, cost-effective way of cleaning through the Marshall Center Technology similar device developed in 1986 at the
athletic fields, golf courses, parks and other Transfer Office. Marshall Center. James Carden, a NASA
grassy areas in addition to parking lots. The engineer at Marshall, lost his lower left arm
vacuum unit pulls the trash into the unit Firms and individuals interested in in a home woodworking shop accident.
where it is shredded and bagged for receiving Federal technology transfer are Carden was fitted with a commercially
disposal. "Vac-n-Bag" simultaneously encouraged to call 1-800-USA-NASA.
mows the grass and collects the clippings,
to boot. Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
The "Vac-n-Bag" is now being manufac-
tured by the dozen new employees of Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the
Thornburg's new f'trm, the Burg Corp., in technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
Sylacauga. It has been demonstrated for a for the Technology Transfer Office at
number of municipal sanitation officials and MSFC. A graduate of the University of
for the Alabama Department of Transporta- Nebraska, he has been a professional
tion. Six "Vac-n-Bags" already have been journalist for the past 30 years. He joined
sold and--at $9,995 per unit---_e new firm NASA in 1986.
is cleaning up in more ways than one.
The work done to assist the new enterprise

is part of a continuing NASA-wide effort to FmURE197.raThe cheaper, smaller,
facilitate the private sector's accessing of lightweight design appears
research and development expertise derived to offer a greater range
by the nation's space Agency and its of motion and mobility.
249
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
TechnologyTransfer
Alliance Industrial Outreach
Effort Helping Louisiana
Firm to Recycle Used Tires
Bob Lessels/LA02
205-544-6539
E-mail: bob.lessels@msfc, nasa.gov
The Southeastern Regional Technology

Transfer Alliance's industrial outreach effort
has scored another success in working with
Cryopolymers Inc., of St. Francisville, LA,
to recycle the materials in worn-out vehicle
tires.
FIGURE198.--Sandra Rossi, an early recipient of a NASA-designed prosthesis.

Identified as a candidate for NASA
technology transfer assistance by an
available prosthesis after his injury had cheaper, smaller, lightweight design appears industrial outreach team from the Marshall
healed, but he found that it was clumsy and to offer greater range of motion and Center, a member of the alliance, a tire
didn't allow him to handle heavy lumber or mobility, opposing hooks which open and recycling system was devised in coopera-
pursue his favorite pastime, fishing. close for grip and dexterity, an ability to grip tion with engineers from Lockheed Martin's
various sized objects, and freedom from operation at the Stennis Space Center in
Hearing of Carden's injury, a team of cables, harnesses and batteries. The new Mississippi. They worked with Johnson
coworkers and friends at MSFC banded firm's device should be commercially Controls World Services, Inc., also at the
together to offer their help. Carden accepted. available early in 1997. Stermis Center, to take shredded vehicle
tires, freeze them, and separate the rubber
According to Carden's long-time friend and In its charter, NASA is charged with from the reinforcing steel belts and
coworker Jewell G. "Pete" Belcher Jr., an facilitating the transfer of technology it and polyester fibers. The rubber which is
MSFC engineer and a member of the team its contractors derive to the benefit of recovered, called "crumb," is used in asphalt
formed to help Carden, "Studies have shown American businesses, schools and individu- road beds and other items.
that the work we proposed to do for Jim als. A NASA survey has shown that the
could benefit many thousands of other improved below-the-elbow prosthesis could Anne Johnson, Technology Transfer Officer
Americans as well as uncounted others be used by 49,800 amputees in the United at Stennis, said, "The Cryopolymers project
around the world." States alone. Headquarters endorsed the is a prime example of how NASA technol-
Center's work on the improved prostheses as ogy and expertise can benefit the public.
One of the team's designs was a grasping authorized under this clause of the Agency's The results of such collaborations (between
device which can be opened and closed by charter. NASA considers the work part of its NASA and private industry) can create jobs,
the amputee twisting his or her lower arm. overall technology transfer program as a increase profits and enhance economic
This design has been adapted by the students biomedical applications project. competitiveness for the United States."
at Montana State University into their own
design, assisted in the process by George Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- NASA personnel have been working with
Studor, a NASA engineer assigned to the ment and Technology Transfer Cryopolymers to incorporate cryogenics
university to facilitate the transfer of NASA (super-cold fluids such as liquid nitrogen
technologies. Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the and liquid hydrogen) into its recycling
technical writer/editor (physical sciences) process. Stennis, as NASA's Center of
Unlike conventional body-powered prosthe- for the Technology Transfer Office at MSFC. Excellence for large propulsion engine
ses that use a cable and harness or battery- A graduate of the University of Nebraska, he testing, uses about 70 percent of all liquid
powered myoelectric devices, the new design has been a professional journalist for the hydrogen used by NASA.
attaches directly to the amputees arm. The past 30 years. He joined NASAin 1986.
250
Technology Transfer
Joe Kelley, director of community affairs nasa.gov. She coordinates her efforts with Portable Seat Lift Benefits
for Cryopolymers, said the assistance from Andy Bush at the Louisiana Department of
the Southeastern Alliance members has Economic Development's Technology
the Disabled
been "a blessing. The technology is there Transfer Office, operated by the Louisiana
and we are purchasing equipment based on Business and Technology Center at BobLessels/LA02
(alliance members') recommendations." Louisiana State University; and Gordon 205-544-6539
Dyer of Lockheed Martin Manned Space
The most practical method of making Systems in New Orleans. Through this
"crumb" involves using liquid nitrogen to team, Louisiana firms can access the
freeze the rubber to a temperature of technological expertise and resources of all Persons who cannot sit down or stand up
-225 degrees Fahrenheit. Since the 752 members of the Federal Laboratory easily are getting a boost literally--from
company has only been in business for a Consortium. The alliance will provide up to the American space program.
few months and the liquid nitrogen used in 40 hours of technical assistance, free of
the process is extremely expensive, charge. A portable lifting seat developed and
Cryopolymers was anxious to learn how to patented by the Marshall Center, is now
reduce the amount of liquid nitrogen needed Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- being manufactured by TQM, Inc., in
to process the worn-out tires. Stennis helped ment and Technology Transfer Merrimack, NH. For individuals with
Cryopolymers adapt its equipment to work degenerative knee or hip joint diseases or
in very cold temperatures and to better use Biagraphleal Sketch: Bob Lessels is the injuries, the easily carried device offers
cryogenic materials. technical writer/editor (physical sciences) them a new degree of freedom. With it, they
for the Technology Transfer Office at will be able to attend movies, go out to
The "crumb" that is created from the MSFC. A graduate of the University of dinner, and do other things which involve
cryogenic process can be broken down into Nebraska, he has been a professional sitting and standing without the need for a
various grades according to particle size. journalist for the past 30 years. He joined companion to help them sit or rise.
The largest particles are used to improve the NASA in 1986.
wearability of road surfaces and can be Development of the portable lifting seat was
reprocessed to mold products which must begun in 1990 by Bruce Weddendorf, Pete
be weatherproof. Finer particles can be Rodriguez and Richard Smith, all from the
recycled to make new tires, agricultural structural development branch of Marshall's
hose, or mixed with plastics to produce Structures and Dynamics Laboratory. Dr.
culvert linings or beds for trucks. For each David W. Gaw, an orthopedic surgeon at the
pound of rubber that is processed, 60 per- Southern Hills Medical Center in Nashville,
cent is reduced into crumb. The scrap metal Tenn., provided professional medical
and polyester residue also can be recycled guidance to the team. While the MSFC
into new products as a reinforcing fiber. team members are more commonly
involved in helping lift space shuttles to
The importance of this recycling effort is orbit, their expertise found a welcome
best reflected in these statistics: More than application in developing the portable
300 million tires wear out worldwide every lifting seat.
year creating an enormous environmental
disposal problem. Recycling techniques Using funds provided by the Marshall
such as those developed for Cryopolymers Technology Utilization Office, the three
are expected to recycle about 4,800 tires developed what they call "an upholstered
each day, recovering 4,000-1b of rubber aluminum box"--a lightweight, battery-
every hour the plant is in operation. powered lifting device capable of assisting
individuals weighing up to 300 lb with
Dr. Elizabeth Rodgers at the Marshall severe degenerative conditions in their
Center Technology Transfer Office is the knees, hips and/or backs with sitting down
primary NASA contact for Louisiana firms or standing up. It was estimated when work
seeking assistance. She may be reached at began in 1991 that up to eight million
Mail Code: LA20, MSFC, AL 35812; by individuals could benefit from the device, if
telephoning 1-800-USA-NASA; or on the it could be developed. Most afflicted
Internet by accessing http://techtran.msfc. individuals have devices such as powered
251
Marshall Center Book

Lists Patents Available
for Licensing
Bob Lessels/LA02
205-544-6539
E-mail: bob.lessets@msfc.nasa.gov
Need information on welding innovations?

Advances in bearing technology? How
about medical advances or new uses for
materials?
"NASA's ImagiNation," a new book

produced by the Technology Transfer Office
at the Marshall Center may provide just
what you need.
Now, necessity may be the mother of

invention, but the patent process is its legal
guardian. The 76-page book lists and
describes 38 of the best inventions patented
by scientists and engineers of the Marshall
Center. The 38 inventions were selected as
they seem to offer the most potential for
commercial application--a technology
FIOUnE199.--The battery-powered portable lifting seal can help people who need
"spinoff," in NASA-ese--and because they
assistance sitting and standing to lead more independant lives.
are representative of the kinds of technol-
ogy assistance available from the northern
chairs in their houses, but require assistance or stand up with ease, thereby experiencing Alabama space center.
when away from home. If no one is a fuller, more normal lifestyle.
available to assist the individual, they often The technologies range from the exotic to
cannot leave home. With the portable seat Nurses and orderlies in hospitals and the "why didn't I think of that!?"
lift, these persons may soon be able to carry nursing homes also may find the device
the help they need as easily as a person useful in protecting themselves from back Perhaps the longest title is "Control
carries a briefcase. strain incurred lifting patients or residents Circuitry Using Electronic Emulation of a
and in assisting them to sit down. The Synchro Signal for Accurate Control of
The device consists of a battery-powered powered seat would carry the weight of the Position and Rotation for Shafts." The
motor which drives a gear train and crank patient with the nurse or orderly safely patent, in short, describes a digital circuit
assembly. The gears and crank lift up and guiding and steadying the patient. that improves the operation of robotic arms.
push forward simultaneously, ensuring the Some of the shorter titles include a new
padded seat remains at a proper angle to Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- design for a "Slip Joint Connector" and a
maintain contact with the individual being ment and Technology Transfer "Prosthetic Elbow Joint." A "Quick Connect
assisted. The individual being lifted controls Nut and Bolt" device offers speed and
the device via a three-position switch to Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the security in building a space station---or in
raise, lower or stop the seat. A carrying technical writer/editor (physical sciences) making emergency repairs here on Earth.
handle completes the device. for the Technology Transfer Office at the
Marshall Space Flight Center. A graduate of As NASA's leading center for the develop-
By placing the powered lifting seat on a the University of Nebraska, he has been a ment of spacecraft propulsion systems,
chair in a restaurant or on a theater seat, the professional journalist for the past 30 years. many of the patents included in the
individual needing assistance can sit down He joined NASA in 1986. publication stem from work performed in
252
Technology Transfer
developing the Saturn series of launch

Computational Fluid MSFC. Using both desktop computer work
vehicles for the moon landing, the present stations and the Cray supercomputer at the
Space Shuttle, and the next generation of Dynamics, Not Crystal Marshall Center, the men and women in the
propulsion systems for American space
Balls, Help in Predicting CFD branch use a variety of software to
launch systems. Many of these patents deal model the flow of liquids and gasses critical
with innovations in welding technology or the Future at Marshall to the design and development of current
equipment, development and testing of and future spacecraft and propulsion
roller bearing assemblies and hydrostatic
Space Flight Center systems. Both liquids and gases are
bearings used in rocket engine turbopumps, considered fluids for the purpose of
and the use of x-ray technology in nonde- Bob Lessels/LA02 computational analysis of their dynamic
structive testing. The welding technology, 205-544-6539 properties.
for example, already has seen spinoffs into E-mail: bob,lessels@msfc,nasagov
recycling 55-gal oil drums and in improving McConnaughey said, "CFD is an analytical
the manufacture of deep fat fryers and air- tool which helps speed design and guide
conditioning compressors. For centuries, mankind has sought to development while reducing costs and
predict the future, but at MSFC, its saving time. CFD does not replace wind
A Centerwide interest in biomedical computers, not crystal balls, and mathemat- tunnel testing of aerodynamic designs or
technologies has resulted in prosthe_s for ics, not magic, are helping rocket scientists 'hot firing' of rocket engines. It does help to
amputees and an x-ray system for imaging predict successful designs of future make such activities more time- and cost-
soft tissues. American spacecraft and propulsion effective through early identification of
systems. probable 'dead-end' designs, mathematical
Research into uses for composite materials evaluation of alternative approaches to
is extensive at Marshall and patents have The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) problem solving, and appreciation of
been issued for breakthroughs in devising Branch, led by Dr. Paul K. McConnaughey, potential improvements early in the design
new methods of making composite is part of the Fluid Dynamics Division of process. CFD enables us to look at design
structures. Metallurgy is another area of the Structures and Dynamics Laboratory at options up front, early in a program's
interest at Marshall, particularly as regards
alloys and superalloys which are tolerant to
rapid temperature changes.
The new publication provides but a brief

overview of some of the thousands of
patented developments stemming from the
nation's space program which are now
available for licensing to American business
and industry. For more information on
NASA-patented technologies or to obtain a
copy of the publication, call 1-800--USA-
NASA.
Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-


for the Technology Transfer Office at the
Marshall Center. A graduate of the
University of Nebraska, he has been a
prot'essional journalist for the past 30 years.
He joined NASA in 1986. R]
FmoRt 200.BDr. Paul McConnaughey was a RTOP award winner with the
implementation of state-of-the-art CFD codes at MSFC.
253
T
Turning technologies developed through the

national space program to the benefit of
American industries is a major goal of
NASA. Data concerning fluid dynamics is
already being used in the new marine jet
engine being built in Arkansas, and there is
work underway to study using liquefied
natural gas (LNG) as a fuel for the family
car of the future and for commercial
transportation systems. Aircraft and
helicopters have already been test flown
using LNG as a fuel. Other efforts to
commercialize NASA technology in which
CFD has played a developmental role
include a human bone marrow implant, a
cleaning nozzle, and a new design for a
valve seat.
As regards assisting the Arkansas firm, the

CFD branch was called upon to evaluate a
proposed improved impeller blade for a
medium-sized powerplant. The CFD
branch's Robert Garcia used analytical
systems to show that the proposed design
FtGURE
201._An X-33 configuration which may replace NASA's Space Shuttle. would not meet desired performance
requirements. Garcia and the firm's design
team then discussed modifications to the
development, ensuring NASA and NASA- after combustion in the rocket nozzles. We shape of the impeller blades, which Garcia
contractor engineers identify and pursue also are seeking to understand the effect of then analyzed via computer. His figures
optimum solutions in the most efficient way the thrust of the hybrid engines on the body correctly predicted the new design would
possible." of the vehicle, particularly on the couplings meet or exceed all the f'trm's requirements,
which hold the engines to the spacecraft. resulting in the creation of a new product
The branch has initiated work on the X-33 We will provide our mathematical models line for the firm. The marine jet-propulsion
and X-34 spacecraft with which NASA to materials scientists, engineers and others engine market is dominated by manufactur-
hopes to replace its current fleet of Space as we combine our efforts to develop a safe, ers in Europe and New Zealand; however,
Shuttles in the next century. efficient hybrid propulsion system." the Arkansas firm feels NASA's assistance
will help it to compete successfully in the
"We're beginning work on mathematically The CFD figures also will be used to assess international market.
modeling both the propulsion system and the impact of hybrid-propellant engine
the vehicle itself," McConnaughey said. testing and operation on the environment. Improving impeller technology is particu-
"This will be the largest, most complex task As an example, McConnaughey told of a larly important to NASA as these devices
ever undertaken by the CFD branch. We're study which involved disposing of liquid are used to move liquid hydrogen and liquid
seeking to understand how various nitrogen. CFD was used to ensure the oxygen from the Space Shuttle's external
spacecraft shapes will behave operating in nitrogen would disperse safely as it tank to the three main engines at the tail of
the Earth's atmosphere at high speeds where evaporated without posing any dangers. the orbiter. A substantial improvement in
the gases which comprise the atmosphere impeller performance could enable the
ionize around the surface of the craft. Since The Marshall Center has been NASA's engine system to be modified to reduce
NASA plans to use a hybrid propellant principal field center for the development weight of the propulsion system, increasing
system--a solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer-- and evaluation of spacecraft propulsion payload-to-orbit capabilities.
we must ensure we fully understand the systems since the beginning of the nation's
fluid mechanics and dynamics of candidate space program in the 1950's. The transfer of technologies developed
fuels and oxidizers, both as liquids on their through the U.S. space program to benefit
way to combustion and as gasses during and American industries is a responsibility
254
Technology Transfer
given NASA in the Space Act of 1958

NASAComposites found their way into sports equipment.
which established the agency. Firms Tennis racquets, fishing rods, skis, boat
interested in receiving NASA technological TechnologiesAvailable hulls and golf club shafts are but a few
assistance to resolve manufacturing
problems are encouraged to call 1-800-
to Industry examples.
USA-NASA.
"Various composite materials have different
BobLessels/LA02 properties which can be tailored to suit the
Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- 205-544-6539 needs of the user," Vickers explained. "For
ment and Technology Transfer E-mail:bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov structural applications where high strength
and stiffness are most desirable, carbon or
Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the Work at the Marshall Center to develop graphite fibers are combined with resins to
technical writer/editor (physical sciences) composite materials and technologies for achieve the desired results with the least
for the Technology Transfer Office at the use in the space Agency's Space Shuttle weight. This, however, is the most costly
Marshall Center. A graduate of the follow-on vehicle program should pay a approach. In situations where damage
University of Nebraska, he has been a number of dividends for American resistance is paramount and weight is not a
professional journalist for the past 30 years. industries. major concern, Kevlar may be substituted
He joined NASA in 1986. for carbon or graphite. The most economi-
According to John Vickers, an engineer in cal material is fiberglass, but it normally has
the Materials and Processes Laboratory's the lowest strength-to-weight ratio. Being
Nonmetallic Materials Processes Branch, silica-based, fiberglass is very good for
manmade composite materials technologies work involving thermal extremes as it has a
can offer significant advantages over metals low coefficient of expansion. The resins
when applied to structural programs and to may be preimpregnated into the strips of
programs where thermal problems are fibers or the design engineer may elect to
anticipated. Because composite materials apply the epoxy or polyester resin later or
are light and strong, they have already during the manufacturing process."
FIGURE202.--Various composite materials have different properties that can be tailored

to suit the user.
255
Regardless of the type of fiber selected, all The pultrusion machine is similar to an The lab's Viper CNC Fiber Placement
are combined with a polymer resin such as extrusion machine. "Unlike metals, resin System is the first of its kind. Built by
epoxy or polyester which holds the fibers in fibers can't be pushed through a machine. Cincinnati Milacron Inc., the machine was
place. A number of advanced resins have It's like trying to push a rope. The strand of initially used to make inlet ducts for
been developed for use in high-heat/ epoxy-impregnated resin must be pulled experimental jet fighter prototypes. "Even
cryogenic applications. Most epoxy and through the die to shape it. Pultrusion now, there are only 10 or so of these
polyesters are thermoset resins which technologies lend themselves to making systems in the entire world," Vickers said.
require elevated temperatures to completely long, continuous geometry shapes. This is a "Marshall has been a leader in testing its
cure. continuously operating machine in that, potential applications in manufacturing
once set up, can be run for long periods. composite parts with extremely complex
According to Vickers, "The Reusable Pultrusion techniques have a number of geometries. The resin/fiber tools can be
Launch Vehicle (RLV) Program is receiving structural applications," Vickers explained. applied in patterns which can be narrowed
a lot of attention from materials engineers "All types of fiber--carbon/graphite, or expanded to maintain a constant cross-
and scientists as NASA seeks a follow-on Kevlar, or fiberglass--can be used depend- sectional thickness. This is a very sophisti-
craft for the present Space Shuttle. We've ing on the desired physical properties of the cated, computer-controlled system whose
already used composites to fabricate finished composite item." uses are only beginning to be discovered
cryogenic fuel pressure vessels for the RLV. and exploited. Possibly the most unusual
These technologies may soon show up in The laboratory's tape laying machine application has been to fabricate from
the family automobile as attention is given enables engineers such as Vickers to epoxy resin and graphite a human-powered
to using liquefied natural gas as a low- fabricate very large, somewhat contoured submarine for a national student engineer-
emission fuel. Being extremely cold in its structures with asymmetrical geometries. ing competition in which the University of
liquid state, liquefied natural gas will
require an insulated, pressurized fuel tank.
Insulation will probably be similar to the
spray-on foam insulation now in use on the
Space Shuttles' external fuel tank. We've
already done some work, through the
Marshall Center's Technology Transfer
Office, with Thiokol Corp. in developing a
compressed natural gas fuel tank for use on
a minivan. We're also looking at composites
for use in the Chrysler Corporation's
proposed Patriot II formula one racing car,
which also is expected to use liquefied
natural gas as a fuel contained in an
insulated, pressurized tank made of
composite materials."
Marshall's work in developing composites

technologies involves employing a number
of specialized machines.
The filament winding machine lays down

resin/fiber composite "ribbons" which are
built up layer by layer until the desired
thickness and degree of strength is
achieved. Computer directed, the device is
used to make pressure vessels and similar
items which have symmetrical shapes. "As
with many metal-working machine tools,"
Vickers said, "the filament winding
machine was designed to do one job but has FIGURE
203.--The filament winding machine lays down layers of resin/fiber composite
been adapted to perform others." ribbons until the desired thickness and strength is achieved.
256
Technology Transfer
Alabama in Huntsville is an annual Marshall Center is creating a technology

participant. data base which should benefit American
Marshall Begins Testing
industries and which is available to them Hybrid Rocket Motor
The lab's tape wrapping machine was under NASA's technology transfer program.
designed to build solid rocket motor Up to 40 hours of technical assistance can
Technology
nozzles, simulating those used for the solid be provided by NASA's Marshall Center to
rocket motors on the Space Shuttle. It has Bob Lessels/LA02
U.S. firms, free of charge. For further
been adapted to make nozzles for engines information, call 1-800--USA-NASA. 205-544-6539
which burn hybrid (solid fuel/liquid E-maih bob.lessels@msfc,nasagov
oxidizer) propellants and liquid fuels. Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
Using carbon composites for the nozzles ment and Technology Transfer The Marshall Center is preparing to test a
has a number of benefits. As the motor new rocket motor that will combine the
operates, gases from the composite resin Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the safety features of a liquid-propulsion
evolve from the inside of the nozzle, acting technical writer/editor (physical sciences) system with the cost savings of a solid-
as a passive cooling system. A carbon char for the Technology Transfer Office at the propulsion system.
layer builds up on the inside of the nozzle Marshall Center. A graduate of the
which also protects the nozzle from the University of Nebraska, he has been a The hybrid system will combine a liquid
heat of the motor's flame. In fabricating professional journalist for the past 30 years. oxydizer with solid fuel in a full-scale,
some nozzles, engineers replace the carbon He joined NASA in 1986. 250,000-1b thrust hybrid rocket motor. It
with silica, Vickers explained, especially will be designed, fabricated, and tested
when the nozzle will be operating in a under a multipartner effort called the hybrid
high-oxygen environment. propulsion demonstration program.
Developmental testing of the hybrid motor
The lab's final capability involves resin will be performed at MSFC's Test
transfer molding. "We have very limited Stand 500 beginning in December 1996.
capabilities in this at Marshall since this
technology is more suited to being used in "The goal of the new hybrid motor program
producing high-quantity precision is to develop a flight-like 250,000-1b thrust
components in a commercial manufactur- hybrid motor to demonstrate critical hybrid
ing set-up," Vickers explained. propulsion technologies and enable
manufacturing of large hybrid boosters for
The laboratory is heavily involved in current and future space launch vehicles,"
pushing the strength envelope of candidate said Roger Harwell of Marshall Center's
composite materials for development of the Propulsion Technology Office. Preliminary
Reusable Launch Vehicle for the nation's concepts show promise for application on
space program. Still, Vickers said, the lab is both the X-33 advanced technology
available to support less time-consuming demonstrator and the Atlas launch vehicle.
projects on a time- and equipment-available
basis. As examples of this, the lab is The hybrid motors may be used indepen-
developing an instrumented obstetrical dently, such as for a sounding rockets, or for
forceps to enable physicians to more safely thrust augmentation on an expendable or
position fetuses in the womb in instrument- reusable launch vehicle.
assisted deliveries. Gauges on the instru-
ment will enable the physician to avoid "Safety, the most critical factor for any
placing too much pressure or stress on the propulsion system, is the hybrid rocket
infant. Vickers was one of several materials motor's most notable feature," explained
engineers who recently worked on Harwell. "Hybrid motors employ an inert
development of a racing wheelchair design, solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer which is
made of composites, that is now being physically separated until ignition. More
manufactured commercially. importantly, the motor throttle can be
controlled to enable on-pad check out,
Research into high-strength, high- thrust tailoring and abort options."
durability, low-cost composites at the
257
Marshall Center's role will include Marshall Center and industry have teamed NASAProgram
providing test facilities, test operations in the past to develop subscale, hybrid
support and test analysis. "Modifications to rocket motors. An industry consortium, May Revolutionize
Test Stand 500 are being made to accom- consisting of Thiokol, the Chemical Rocket Propulsion
modate motor development," explained Systems Division of United Technologies,
Jerry Cook of MSFC's Propulsion the Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell and Air-Conditioning
Laboratory. "Expansions in the feed, International, Lockheed-Martin, and the
ignition, pressurization and purge systems American Rocket Company, joined with BobLessels/LA02
are expected at the test stand over the next Marshall Center in 1989 to develop and test 205-544-6539
year." 11 -in- and 24-in-diameter hybrid rocket
motors for space vehicle applications.
"The hybrid motor program is an excellent "Tests on the subscale motors were
example of the partnership between performed at Marshall," said Cook. "The Application of hydrostatic bearing technolo-
Government and industry working to tests have provided valuable data for the gies may well revolutionize the world
enhance and mature technologies for future new hybrid rocket motor program." commercial air-conditioning industry,
applications," said Harwell. The program eliminate a source of environmentally
combines the efforts and funding of NASA, Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- hazardous chlorofluomcarbons, and speed
the Advanced Research Project Agency ment and Technology Transfer the development of the next generation of
(ARPA) in Washington, D.C., Phillips military and civilian spacecraft.
Laboratory at Edwards AFB, CA, and Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the
members of an industry consortium. The technical writer/editor (physical sciences) The dual-use hydrostatic bearing program is
consortium consists of Lockheed Martin, for the Technology Transfer Office at the a Federal technology reinvestment project
Thiokol, United Technologies, Rocketdyne, Marshall Center. A graduate of the under the Advanced Research Projects
Allied Signal, and Environmental University of Nebraska, he has been a Agency (ARPA). The Marshall Center is
Aerosciences. professional journalist for the past 30 years. NASA's Center of Excellence for the
He joined NASA in 1986. _._ development of rocket propulsion systems.
Chris Bramon, a mechanical engineer in
MSFC's Technology Transfer Office, is the
project's facilitator. In addition to MSFC,
the project team is comprised of rocket
engine manufacturer Pratt & Whitney of
West Palm Beach, FL; world air-condition-
ing industry leader Carrier Corp., headquar-
tered in Syracuse, NY, and the U.S. Air
Force's Phillips Laboratory at Edwards
AFB, CA.
In addition to being a world leader in

spacecraft propulsion systems, the Marshall
Center has one of the world's foremost
tribology laboratories, specializing in
finding ways to reduce mechanical friction
through the use of improved bearings and
lubricants.
In this dual-use technology effort--meaning

that the results will have applications in the
public and private sectors--engineers from
both sectors are working together to replace
FmURE204.'--A suhscale hybrid rocket engine is demonstrated for one of the more the current rolling element bearings used in
"unusual" visitors to the 1996 Star Trek 30th Anniversary celebration in rocket engines and hydrodynamic journal
Huntsville, AL. The visitor agreed the new technology was out of this world-- bearings used in air-conditioner chiller units
and it should knowl with hydrostatic bearings. In rolling element
258
Technology Transfer
maintenance, and extend engine life of reduces fabrication and assembly costs, and
future reusable launch vehicles. Engines improves cost and reliability of the chiller
with the hydrostatic bearing technology also through elimination of the lubricating oil
could be retrofitted into existing launch management system's components.
vehicles to reduce costs there.
There is an additional advantage for NASA,
Improvements to the turbopump component the U.S. Department of Defense and the
of the rocket engines include elimination of nation's rocket engine industry: HFC-134a
steady-state wear, removal of the rolling is an excellent surrogate fluid for testing
element bearing speed limitations (permit- hydrostatic bearings in those rocket engines'
ting smaller, lighter-weight turbopumps), fuel pumps which are designed to use liquid
fewer parts (leading to lower manufacturing hydrogen as a fuel. Like hydrogen,
and assembly costs), reduced complexity HFC-134a is a compressible liquid.
(resulting in higher system reliability), However, unlike hydrogen, HFC-134a is
greater durability and longer service life. not combustible, thus increasing safety for
surrogate fuel testing.
In the commercial cooling and refrigeration
industry, the use of hydrostatic bearings For more information about NASA's
FIGURE205.--Advanced hydrostatic combined with nonozone-depleting Technology Reinvestment Program and the
bearings are being developed refrigerant will have significant environ- Federal Government partnering with
to replace existing bearings mental advantages. Currently, oil is used to industry, call 1-800-USA-NASA.
in rocket motors and air- ensure proper lubrication of the refrigerant
conditioning chiller units. compressor's gears and bearings. Although Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
essential for existing systems, oil contami- ment and Technology Transfer
nates the refrigerant, reducing heat transfer
bearing systems, the beating's elements are efficiency. The adoption of hydrostatic Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the
in contact with the rotating shaft. This bearings, which operate with a nonozone- technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
results in heat and drag in high-speed depleting hydrofluorocarbon coolant such for the Technology Transfer Office at the
systems such as rocket engine turbopumps, as HFC-134a, would eliminate the need for Marshall Center. A graduate of the
which decreases the bearing's useful about 72,000 gal of lubricating oil annually. University of Nebraska, he has been a
lifetime. Used oil is considered to be a hazardous professional journalist for the past 30 years.
waste. He joined NASA in 1986. [_
Hydrostatic bearing systems use the fluid
being pumped as a means of keeping the The adoption of hydrostatic bearings in
rotating turbopump shaft centered in the commercial water chillers also improves
pump and reducing friction. The fluid enters heat transfer performance, thus reducing
the small clearance between the bearing and unit cost, lowering the user's annual power
shaft under pressure from six or more costs, and extending the in-service life of
openings around the perimeter of the the unit. Jonathan Shaw, manager of
rotating shaft. This keeps the shaft centered. communications for Carrier Corp., believes
new jobs may be created as manufacturing
Adoption of hydrostatic bearing pumps for facilities for hydrostatic bearing air
future military and NASA rocket engines conditioners come on line before the end of
will reduce launch costs. A pump with the century. The technology also will enable
typical rolling element bearings has up to the U.S. firm to remain on top in the world's
10 times as many parts as its hydrostatic Mr-conditioning and refrigeration equip-
bearing counterpart and is much heavier. ment market, Shaw said.
Successful development of a hydrostatic
bearing turbopump for rocket engines also Use of hydrostatic bearings in the air-
will enhance launch-on-demand capabili- conditioner's compressor system eliminates
ties, reduce the weight of launch vehicles, mechanical energy losses in the unit's
permit the carrying of heavier payloads to gearbox, eliminates the contamination of
orbit, reduce or eliminate propulsion system the refrigerant by the unit's lubricating oil,
259
NASAHelps Invent disease," said Dr. Daniel Carter of Sometimes It Does Take
Marshall's Laboratory for Structural
Revolutionary X-Ray Biology. A Rocket Scientist...
Instrument
"This new capillary x-ray technology will BobLessels/LA02
allow us to pursue more challenging 205-544-6539
BobLessets/LA02 research problems in our own laboratory
2O5-544-6539 E-mail:bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov
with a speed and effectiveness never before
E-mail:bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov possible," said Carter. "These and future
applications should have a profound impact Georgia firms with out-of-this-world
A 3-year collaborative effort by NASA, on many areas of science and medicine. technical problems may soon f'md that
industry and university researchers has NASA can help them find some down-to-
resulted in the development of an instrument "We expect this new technology to signifi- Earth solutions.
which can generate the world's most intense cantly accelerate the ability of researchers to
source of commercial x-rays.Capable of gather the information necessary to design Working with Georgia Tech's Economic
generating beams that are more than entire families of highly effective, disease Development Institute, MSFC has estab-
100 times the intensity of other conventional fighting drugs," said Carter. The new x-ray lished a new video conferencing center at
x-ray sources, the new instrument is lens system, designed by the University of Georgia Tech's Center for Manufacturing
expected to lead to improvements in New York at Albany under NASA contract, Information Technology (CMIT) in Atlanta.
biotechnology research and have a wide incorporates the special optics manufactured NASA's goal is to help Georgia industrial-
variety of applications in scientific research, by X-Ray Optical Systems. ists, educators and entrepreneurs discuss
medicine and industry. technical problems directly with NASA
"As a result of working with NASA and the scientists and engineers at Marshall and--
The revolutionary invention was developed State University of New York at Albany, we it is hoped--find a solution.
by researchers at MSFC; X-Ray Optical have developed x-ray optics which will
Systems, Inc., Albany, NY; and the Center provide important commercial benefits to a Videoconferencing technology allows voice
for X-Ray Optics of the State University of broad range of industries," said David and video interaction so groups can
New York at Albany. Gibson, president of X-Ray Optical communicate live over long distances.
Systems, Inc. "Many commercial applica- Establishment of the videoconferencing
"This new optical instrument provides tions of this new technology are possible, center eliminates the need for Georgia
something never before possible: a capabil- including better manufacturing control for business persons to travel to MSFC in
ity to control the direction of x-ray beams," semiconductor circuits, better medical Alabama. Collaboration between Georgia
explained Dr. Walter Gibson, professor of imaging, such as in mammography, and businesses and NASA can now take place at
physics at the State University of New York improved forensics." the videoconferencing center, making
at Albany. optimum use of their time for the least cost.
The high intensity x-ray beams will permit Georgians can arrange to use the video
At the heart of the instrument is a new type scientific and medical research to be teleconferencing center to speak face to face
of optics for x rays called "capillary optics." performed in less time with higher accuracy. with those NASA scientists or engineers at
"The x rays are controlled by reflecting In some cases the research was not feasible MSFC who are best qualified to provide
them through tens of thousands of tiny in standard x-ray laboratories. Also, the technical assistance or recommendations.
curved channels or capillaries, similar to the instrument could permit the use of smaller,
way that light is directed through fiber lower cost and safer x-ray sources. The CMIT frequently hosts visits by
optics," said Gibson. "Thus, we are able to business and industry leaders from across
concentrate the beams to suit the particular Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- the state and serves as a convenient location
needs of the intended research or medical ment and Technology Transfer for videoconferencing. It showcases the
procedure." Researchers at Marshall are latest in manufacturing information
using the newly developed x-ray instrument Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the technologies available to Georgia fLrms.
to determine the atomic structure of technical writer/editor (physical sciences) Visitors can learn about the latest computer
important proteins which are the targets for for the Technology Transfer Office at the and communications technologies by
drug design by leading pharmaceutical Marshall Center. A graduate of the Univer- participating in training classes and trying
companies. "Our current research efforts sity of Nebraska, he has been a professional out some of the latest software to enhance
focus on many difficult public health journalist for the past 30 years. He joined their businesses' competitiveness at home
problems such as cancer, AIDS and heart NASA in 1986. ___ and abroad.
260
Technology Transfer
Harry G. Craft, Jr., manager of MSFC's To arrange a video conference with NASA,
NASA, USBI Engineers Turn
Technology Transfer Office, arranged Georgia business persons should contact the
NASA's loan of the video teleconferencing CMIT's Margi Berbari at 1--404-894-0357. Into "Roads" Scholars
equipment necessary to establish the link
between Georgia and the space agency. Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop- Bob Lessels/LA02
Craft said, "The establishment of the ment and Technology Transfer 205-544-6539
videoconferencing center provides an
E-mail: bob.lessels@msfc.nasa,gov
efficient, economical way to transfer of Biographical Sketch: Bob Lesseis is the
Federal technologies and expertise to technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
industries across Georgia. NASA seeks to for the Technology Transfer Office at the A process developed by MSFC and United
return taxpayer-funded technologies to U.S. Marshall Center. A graduate of the Technologies' USBI to apply heat-resistant
business; a service the public rightly University of Nebraska, he has been a coatings to the Space Shuttle's solid rocket
expects to receive from this nation's space professional journalist for the past 30 years. boosters is finding a new use. It has been
program. The Marshall Center often will He joined NASA in 1986. P._ successfully used to apply a new, skid-
provide firms with technical assistance free resistant surface to an interstate highway
of charge." bridge south of Huntsville, AL.
On September 19, 1996, the videocon- The demonstration, conducted with the
ferencing center hosted a special program cooperation of the Alabama Department of
from NASA. Business leaders electronically Transportation, successfully resurfaced a
met NASA personnel and learned, firsthand, bridge on Interstate 65 (I-65) between
how to participate in the NASA technology Huntsville and Cullman, AL. Using the new
transfer program. Demonstrations and process---called convergent spray--the
information on NASA's materials science coating was applied in less than 1 hour.
and plasma spray process were included. Four hours after the application was
Instead of the one-way communication of completed, the roadway was reopened to
regular video programming, the participants traffic. This is a fraction of the time such a
were able to ask questions on the spot and resurfacing normally would require. In
interact with NASA scientists. addition to being faster, the cost of the
resuffacing was considerably less than it
NASA technology transfer makes available would have been using conventional
thousands of items developed for use in methods.
space that have down-to-Earth industrial
applications. Lightweight materials, heat
resistant shielding, remote sensing,
cryogenic technologies, insulating foams,
welding technologies, computer software,
and a host of other inventions, develop-
ments and innovations from the space
program are finding commercial applica-
tions each day. By mid-summer 1996, more
than 5,000 U.S. firms had benefited from
NASA assistance. A survey of NASA
technology transfer's economic impact on
Georgia from January 1993 to May 1996
showed assistance provided more than
$42 million in economic benefits, with
492 jobs saved or added to the state's work
rolls. More than 60 new or improved
products were being manufactured in the FIGURE2O6.--This roadway was reopened
state, all thanks to technology transfers just 4 hours after the skid-
from the nation's space program. resistant coating was
applied.
261
MSFC
Research
and Technology 1996
demonstrated that its use would afford a

cheaper, better product that saves time,"
he said.
The bridge resurfacing project is the result

of a 1994 agreement between Marshall and
the Federal Highway Administration's
office for the southeastern United States.
Marshall and its contractors agreed to
provide innovative technology derived from
the space program and put it to use for a
variety of highway applications, including
corrosion-resistant coatings for metal
bridges and skid-resistant surface treatments
for pavement.
The new process may have a number of

other applications. It is currently being used
to apply a roof coating to two commercial
buildings. Investigators also are working
with a food company to spray toppings on
snack foods.
"The successful commercial adaptation of

this space program technology is yet
another example that shows America's
space program is paying off for American
business and industry. Technologies,
developed for the nation's space program by
FIsunE 207.--A close-up of the 1-65 roadway resurfacing project, ground flint and resin NASA and its contractors, are now at work
was used providing a higher degree of traction and better protection from in thousands of American firms, benefiting
erosion. millions of Americans," said Harry G. Craft
Jr., manager of the Technology Transfer
Office at the Marshall Center. American
In'ms wishing to discuss ways in which
Once the surface is prepared, the conven- For the 1-65 bridge roadway resurfacing NASA technical assistance programs might
tional method requires workers to apply a project, these space-age roads scholars benefit them are encouraged to call
coat of resin to the roadway, manually lay used a mixture of ground flint and resin. 1-800-USA-NASA.
down a coat of gravel or skid-resistant The new coating provides a higher degree
material, then apply a second coat of resin. of traction and will better protect the bridge Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
The new space-age process does the entire from erosion than do traditional roadway ment and Technology Transfer
job in one pass. coatings.
"Not only does it shorten the job, the Vernotto McMillian, technical manager in technical writer/editor (physical sciences)
process does not harm the environment," the Marshall Center's Technology Transfer for the Technology Transfer Office at the
Kyle Harnlin, a materials engineer at USBI Office, said, "The project afforded us the Marshall Center. A graduate of the
said. The tool uses a solvent-free spray opportunity to evaluate a new pollution- University of Nebraska, he has been a
which significantly reduces the hazardous preventing technology as well as to test professional journalist for the past 30 years.
waste normally associated with most different resin systems and filler materials He joined NASA in 1986. _,_
spraying processes. which might be used for other NASA
programs. We took an existing NASA
Another environmental plus is that recycled technology, developed it for use in other
filler materials and common resin systems NASA and commercial projects, and
can be used in the device.
262
Technology Transfer
Space Shuttle Engine

TechnologyResearch
Benefits American Jet
Engine Manufacturer
Bob Lessels/LA02
205-544-6539
E-maid: bob.lessels@msfc.nasa.gov
NASA Space Shuttle technology is paying

big dividends for one of the nation's
largest manufacturers of jet engines for
aircraft, Pratt & Whitney (P&W) of East
Hartford, CT.
As a spinoff of an experimental investiga-

tion conducted at MSFC, significant
improvements have been incorporated into
the design of a P &W jet engine. The
technological enhancements are applicable
to other turbine designs, as well.
In 1992, a series of tests were conducted to

experimentally investigate the settings of
the blades and vanes of the turbine
components on Pratt's high-pressure fuel
turbopump for the Space Shuttle Main
Engine. These tests were part of a coopera-
tive program between NASA and P &W,
one of America's premiere jet engine/rocket
engine manufacturers, to experimentally
study performance improvements possible
by repositioning turbine blades relative to
one another.
In the test rigs there were two sets of

rotating turbine blades, called rotors, and
two sets of stationary vanes, called stators,
which direct the flow of hot combustion
gases. The 50 airfoil-shaped blades on each
of the 2 rotors and 54 vanes on the 2 stators FIGURE208.--A spinoff of an experimental investigation produced significant
are aligned consecutively, one after the improvements to the design of a Pratt & Whitney jet engine.
other.
of rotor two relative to those on rotor one. Researchers at Marshall included: Stephen
The Marshall and P &W engineers studied P&W engineers were later able to apply the Gaddis and Lisa Griffin of the Structures
the effects of slightly rotating the vanes on experimental test data obtained in the and Dynamics Laboratory. Supporting them
stator two relative to their upstream Marshall Center tests to modify turbine were John Heaman, William Neighbors, and
counterpart. The vanes were thus slightly rotor designs in the PW--4084 engine for the William Kauffman of the Structures and
out of direct alignment. Tests also studied Boeing 777. Dynamics Lab and Richard Branick of
similar rotational adjustments on the blades Dynamic Engineering Inc., of Laceys
263
Spring, AL, the support contractor for the turbine efficiency, electric utilities could
lab. They worked with EW. Huber, P.D. achieve significant operational cost savings.
Johnson and A.K. Finke of P&W's West In the case of electric turbines run by fossil
Palm Beach, FL, facility, and O.E Sharma fuels, greater efficiency of operation means
from P &W's jet engine facility in East lower fuel costs and the possibility of
Hartford, CT. reduced pollution.
The research team learned that a significant With America's electric utilities moving
improvement in engine efficiency could be rapidly toward deregulation and increased
attained through the application of this competition, this means there will be great
innovative alignment of turbine rotor and pressure to pass the savings on in the form
stator blades. By applying this concept to of lower electric rates to the consumer.
the new P&W engine's rotors, they were
able to improve its efficiency by a full half- "NASA efforts working with U.S. firms in
percent. This is a significant improvement. transferring technologies from the Nation's
space program to the public sector are
A twin-engined Boeing 777 aircraft using proving to be very effective," said Harry
improved P &W--4084 engines flying a Craft, manager of the Marshall Center
round-trip between Los Angeles and Hong Technology Transfer Office. "NASA is
Kong--a total distance of about actively returning to U.S. industry the
12,500 miles--would save about 400 gal of technologies for which the American
fuel. For shorter, transatlantic flights of taxpayer has paid and rightly expects to
about 6,000 miles round-trip, the savings receive from this Nation's space program."
would be about half that for Pacific
operations. On an average, transoceanic NASA will provide up to 40 hours of free
airliners fly their routes three times a week. technical assistance to U.S. businesses and
Extrapolating the fuel savings for the entire industries. For further information on
projected airline industry fleet of 92 Boeing NASA Technology Transfer activities, call
777 jets equipped with improved 1-80(OUSA-NASA.
P&W--4084 engines over the course of a
year of operations, shows an anticipated Sponsor: Office of Commercial Develop-
savings of more than 4 million gal of fuel-- ment and Technology Transfer
the equivalent of more than 650,000 barrels
of oil. Biographical Sketch: Bob Lessels is the
The Pratt & Whitney engine is one of three for the Technology Transfer Office at the
being offered by Boeing for customers of Marshall Center. A graduate of the
the 777. The new Pratt & Whitney engines University of Nebraska, he has been a
are projected to be installed on 40 percent professional journalist for the past 30 years.
of all Boeing 777's manufactured. He joined NASA in 1986. P._
Some other benefits will accrue to the U.S.

economy from these new engines besides
greatly improved airline efficiency. U.S.
airplanes and the new fuel-efficient engines
will gain an important competitive edge in
the international aircraft marketplace.
As a result of the tests conducted at MSFC,

the fine tuning of the airfoil blade settings
also may find an application in the large
electricity-generating turbines used by
America's utilities. By increasing generator
264
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AADSF advanced automated directional solidification DC-X Delta Clipper Experiment

furnace DCAM diffusion controlled crystallization apparatus for
ADIS anomaly detection and identification subsystem microgravity
AEDC Arnold Engineering and Development Center DOE diffractive optical elements
AEOLUS autonomous Earth orbiting lidar utility sensor DOF degree of freedom
AFIS automated fluid interface system DTA differential thermal analysis
AITP Aerospace Industry Technology Program ECLSS environmental control and life support system
AMI analytical model improvement EDIFIS engine diagnostic filtering system
ARPA Advanced Research Products Agency EMA electomechanical actuator
ARRT Advanced Reusable Transportation Technology EMI electomagnetic interference
ASAL Advanced Signal Analysis Library ENA energetic neutral atoms
ASPS automated signal processing subsystem EPDM ethylene propylene diene monomer
ASTEX Atlantic stratocumulus transition experiment EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ASTP Advanced Space Transportation Program ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
AT advanced turbopump EUV extreme ultraviolet
ATM Atmospheric Tether Mission EVA extravehicular activity

ATMS analysis topographical mapping system EXVM experimental vector magnetograph
AXAF Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility FCCC framing convention on climate change
BATSE burst and transient source experiment FDM fused deposition method
BET beamed energy transportation FM frequency modulation
BLAST beyond LEO advanced space transportation FMLI foam/multilayer insulation
BSMT bearing seals and materials tester FOV field of view
C-STAR conically-scanning two-took airborne radiometer FPB fuel preburner
C/SiC carbon/silicon carbide FSM flight support motor
CADDMAS computer assisted dynamic data monitoring and FSW friction stir welding
analysis system fourier transform infrared
CAVE computer applications and virtual environments FITS flight test telemetry system
CBLISK composite integrally bladed disk GCM general circulation model
CBM common berthing mechanism GEO geosynchronous-Earth orbit
CCD charged couple device GFFC geophysical fluid flow cell
CCN cloud condensation nuclei GHCC Global Hydrology and Climate Center
CDDF Center Director's Discretionary Fund GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
CER cost estimating relationship GQE generalized quadratic equation
CFD computational fluid dynamics GRO Gamma-Ray Observatory
CFM cryogenic fluid management GSE ground support equipment
CGEL Ground Control Experiment Laboratory GUI graphical user interface
CGF crystal growth furnace HDFTP high-pressure fuel turbopump
CMC ceramic matrix composite HEDS Human Exploration and Development of Space
CoFlo compressible flow HENA high energetic neutral atom
COTS commercial off-the-shelf HIRS high-resolution infrared sounder
CPU central processing unit HLR Human Lunar Return
CW continuous wave HOE holographic optical elements
DBC differential box mounting HRMA high-resolution mirror assembly
265
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
HRST Highly Reusable Space Transportation program MMA method of moving asymptotes
HST Hubble Space Telescope MMC metal matrix composite

HTML hypertext markup language MRECS modular rocket control software
IMAGE Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global MSA Marshall sprayable ablator

Exploration MSAD Microgravity Science and Applications Division
IMSL International Math and Statistics Library MSG microgravity science glovebox
IPTD integrated propulsion technology demonstrator MSM magnetospheric specification model
specific impulse MSU microwave sounding unit

Isp
ISS International Space Station MSV mechanisms of solar variability
ISTP International Solar Terrestrial Physics program MTF modulation transfer function
ISWE international space welding experiment MTPE Mission to Planet Earth
IVHM integrated vehicle health management NAFCOM NASA Air Force cost model
JANNAF Joint Army-Navy-NASA-Air Force NBS Neutral Buoyancy Simulator

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory NDE nondestructive evaluation
JSC Johnson Space Center NGST Next Generation Space Telescope

KB knowledge base NLO nonlinear optical
KSC Kennedy Space Center NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association
LAD liquid acquisition device NRA NASA Research Announcement
LaRC Langley Research Center NTC NASA Teleconference Center
LCF Laser Characterization Facility NTR nuclear thermal rocket
LDSP large-scale digital signal processing OBCS on-board computer system

LEEIF low-energy electron and ion facility OBVCU on-board bias and vent control unit
LEO low-Earth orbit tEA operations execution assistant

LIS lightening imaging sensor OISPS operator interactive signal processing system
LO local oscillator OLMSA Office of Life and Microgravity Science and

LOI lunar orbit insertion Applications
LOM laminated object manufacturing OMS orbital maneuvering system
LOPC laser optical particle counter OPAD optical plume anomaly detection
LOS line of sight ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
LWCS longwave clear-sky radiation OSSE observing system simulation experiments
MAC modal assurance criteria OTD Optical Transient Detector
MACAWS multicenter airborne coherent atmospheric wind OVRO Owens Valley Radio Observatory
sensor PCAM protein crystallization apparatus for mtcrogravity
maglev magnetically levitated PCTC Payload Crew Training Complex

MAMS multispectral atmospheric mapping sensor PDA polydiacetylene
MAPO magnetically actuated propellant orientation PDE pulse detonation engine

MET mission elapsed time PDT product development team
MGA multigraph architecture PEC Productivity Enhancement Complex
MGM mechanics of granular materials PEEK polyetherether ketone
MHD magnetohydrodynamics PGSC payload general support computer

MHTB multipurpose hydrogen test-bed PIVI pinhole ion velocity imager
MIC microprocessor POCC Payload Operations Control Center

MLI multilayer insulation PPPOA product and process plan of action
266
PSI phase shifting interferometry STUSTD solar thermal upper stage demonstrator
PSU Penn State University SVD singular value decomposition
PSW physical split window SXT Soft X-Ray Telescope
PTA propulsion test article TCM thermal conditioning module
PVT physical vapor transport TCS thermal control system
PWI plasma wave instrument TEl trans-Earth injection
PWR power THM traveling heater method
R&D Research and Development TLI trans-lunar injection
RBCC rocket-based combined cycle TLM telemetry
RBF radial basis function TLP tension leg platforms
RCS reaction control system TMA technology mirror assembly
RIMS retarding ion mass spectrometer TOMS total ozone mapping spectrometer
RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle TPS thermal protection system
RMF rotating magnetic field TRAYS thermal radiation analysis system
RMS remote manipulator system TRN thermal response number
ROSETA range over standard deviation experimental trend TSS- 1R Tethered Satellite System Reflight
analysis TTB technology test-bed
RP rapid prototyping 1"I'O Technology Transfer Office
RPI radio plasma imager TVS thermodynamic vent system
RRTT revolutionary reusable technology turbopump TWI The Welding Institute
RSM reference stress method UAH University of Alabama in Huntsville
RSRM reusable solid rocket motor USBI United Space Boosters Inc.
SAIC Science Applications International Corporation USML United States Microgravity Laboratory
SBIR Small Business Innovative Research USMP United States Microgravity Payload
SDT Science Definition Team UV ultraviolet
SEDS small expendable deployer system UVI ultraviolet image
SEE Space Environments and Effects program VEDM volume elements damage
SIF sensor interface VOF volume of fluid
SIFI'ER scintillation fiber VPPA variable polarity plasma
SINDA systems improved numerical differencing analyzer VR virtual reality
SLD semiconductor laser diodes VSLM virtual Spacelab module
SPIE Society for Photo-optical Instrumentation Engineers WIC wideband imaging camera
SRB solid rocket booster XTM x-ray transmission microscope
SRCF X-Ray Calibration Facility
SSC Stennis Space Center
SSE shooting star experiment
SSFF Space Station furnace facility
SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine
SST sea-surface temperature
SSTO single-stage-to-orbit
STEPS Station-tethered express payload system
STICS scanning thermal ion composition spectrometer
STTR Small Business Technology Transfer
267
Index of Contacts
Adams, Mitzi Fractal Analyses of Sunspot Magnetic Fields .................................................................................................... 21 I
Ahmed, Rafiq Testing of Low-Profile Composite Dome Under Internal Pressure .................................................................... 59
Baugher, Charles R. Germanium Directional Solidification in United States Microgravity Laboratory-2 ......................................... 136
Utilizing Controlled Vibrations in a Microgravity Environment to Understand and Promote

Microstructural Homogeneity During Floating-Zone Crystal Growth ....................................................... 137
Novel Directional Solidification Processing of Hypermonotectic Alloys .......................................................... 139
A Demonstration Experiment to Study the Effects of Spacecraft Vibrations on Thermal Diffusion ................. 140
Bean, Alan J. Advanced Docking Mechanism ........................................................................................................................... 43
Beckman, Richard H. Modular Rocket Engine Control Software Update ............................................................................................ 110
Bramon, Christopher Ceramics for Turbomachinery Systems .............................................................................................................. 242
Innovative Development of Joining/Fitting Technology for Advanced Composite Piping Systems .................. 244
Campbell, Jonathan W. Project ORION: Orbital Debris Removal Using Ground-Based Laser and Sensor Systems ............................. 228
Carrington, Connie Space Station Reboost Via Orbital Towing ........................................................................................................ 224
Carter, Daniel C. Protein Crystallization Apparatus for Microgravity ........................................................................................... 167
Christian, Hugh J. The Lightning Imaging Sensor on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission .................................................... 190
Clinton, Raymond Material Robustness Testing and Nondestructive Evaluation Methodology Assessment for Liquid
Rocket Engine Composite Nozzles .............................................................................................................. 89
Coffey, Victoria N. Ultra-Fast Measurements With the Pinhole Ion Velocity Imager ....................................................................... 214
Cole, Helen Polymer Waveguide Output Couplers ................................................................................................................ 127
Cooper, Anita Optical Plume Anomaly Detection--Engine Diagnostic Filtering System .......................................................... 98
Cooper, Ken Application of Rapid Prototyping Methods to High-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing ............................................... 71
Costes, Nicholas C. Mechanics of Granular Materials ....................................................................................................................... 159
Cramer, John M. Uni-Element Injector Testing ................................................................................................................................. 9
Pulse Detonation Rocket Engines ........................................................................................................................ 21
Craven, Paul D. Plasmaspheric Total Densities ............................................................................................................................ 215
Curreri, Peter A Particle Engulfment and Pushing at Solidifying Interfaces ................................................................................ 142
Fundamental Studies of Solidification Using Real-Time X-Ray Microscopy ................................................... 143
Curds, Leslie Solar Thermal Propulsion Flight Experiment ....................................................................................................... 15
268
Index of Contacts
Davis, John M. Self-Filtering Solar Telescopes ........................................................................................................................... 204
Delay, Thomas Innovative Development of Joining/Fitting Technology for Advanced Composite Piping Systems .................. 244
Derrickson, James H. The JACEE Measurement of the Cosmic Ray Proton and Helium Spectra ....................................................... 200
The Utilization of Direct Electron Pairs for the Energy Measurement of Ultrarelativistic
Cosmic Rays ............................................................................................................................................... 202
Dickerson,Thomas Transportation Elements for the Human Lunar Return Study ............................................................................ 229
Ding, Robert J. Friction Stir Welding ............................................................................................................................................ 86
Dischinger, Charles Computerized Prediction of Extravehicular Activity Task Feasibility ............................................................... 130
Earhart, Eric M. Experimental Determination of Preswirl Effects on Damping Seal Performance ............................................... 47
Effinger, Mike Ceramics for Turbomachinery Systems .............................................................................................................. 242
Emrich, Bill Nuclear Fission Propulsion .................................................................................................................................. 12
Fusion Propulsion ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Eng, Ron Technology Mirror Assembly Testing ................................................................................................................ 112
Fiorucci, Tony Automated Signal Processing System of High-Frequency Dynamic Measurements for Engine
Diagnostics ................................................................................................................................................... 54
Real-Time Condition Monitoring of Propulsion Systems Through High-Performance Computing ................... 69
Fisher, Mark E Low-Cost Booster Propulsion System Test Article ................................................................................................ 6
Fishman, Gerald J. Advanced Gamma-Ray Telescope ...................................................................................................................... 195
The Burst and Transient Source Experiment on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory ................................. 194
Frazier, Donald O. Integrated Optics in Films of Organic and Polymeric Materials ........................................................................ 162
Polydiacetylene Thin Films for Photonic Applications ...................................................................................... 164
Funkhouser, John O. Solid Rocket Motor Asbestos-Free Insulation ...................................................................................................... 26
Gallagher, Dennis L. Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration .................................................................................. 216
Gard, Melissa Y. Investigation of Jet Pump-Based Two-Phase Thermal Control System ............................................................... 74
Fabrication, Testing, and Analysis of a Flow Boiling Test Facility With Enhanced Surface
Characterization Capability ........................................................................................................................ 76
Gary, G. Allen Self-Filtering Solar Telescopes ........................................................................................................................... 204
Three-Dimensional Rendering and Image Analysis of Coronal Loops .............................................................. 209
269
MSFC
Research
andTechnology
1996
Gerrish, Harold P. Solar Thermal Propulsion Absorber/Thruster ........................................................................................................ 4
Gibson, Howard LH 2 Bearing Test Program Started at the Marshall Space Flight Center ............................................................. 84
Gillies, Donald C. Solidification of II-VI Compounds in a Rotating Magnetic Field ..................................................................... 145
Goodman, Steven J. A Convective-Stratiform Rainfall Classifier for Composite Radar Reflectivity Maps ...................................... 188
Gregg, Wayne Elastic-Plastic and Fully Plastic Fatigue Crack Growth ....................................................................................... 63
Guillory, Anthony R. Assessment of Biomass Burning on the Hydrologic Cycle of the Amazon ....................................................... 179
Hale, Joseph P. Applied Virtual Reality at MSFC ....................................................................................................................... 124
Hall, Howard D. Next Generation Space Telescope ...................................................................................................................... 116
Harris, Donald L. Measurement of Damping of Advanced Composite Materials for Turbomachinery Applications ...................... 48
Hastings, Leon Multipurpose Hydrogen Test-Bed ........................................................................................................................ 37
Cryogenic Fluid Management for the Aerospace Industry Technology Program ................................................ 39
Holladay, Jon B. Fault Tolerant Aerospace/Commercial Heat Exchanger ....................................................................................... 73
Investigation of Jet Pump-Based Two-Phase Thermal Control System ............................................................... 74
Characterization Capability ........................................................................................................................ 76
Hood, Robbie E. Sensing Sea Surface Winds with Passive Microwave Techniques ..................................................................... 184
Howell, Joe Magnetic Lifter ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Huege|e, Vinson B. Thin Membrane Fresnel Lens for Solar Thermal Propulsion ............................................................................... 11
Hunt, Patrick L. Investigation of Jet Pump-Based Two-Phase Thermal Control System ............................................................... 74
Characterization Capability .......................................................................................................................... 76
Hutt, John J. Uni-Element Injector Testing ................................................................................................................................. 9
Jarzembski, Maurice Remote Sensing of Aerosol Composition from CO 2 Lidar Backscatter ............................................................ 187
Jedlovec, Gary J. High-Resolution Infrared Atmospheric Remote Sensing and Applications ....................................................... 181
Johnson, C. Les Electrodynamic Tethers for Transportation and Power Generation ................................................................... 226
Atmospheric Tether Mission .............................................................................................................................. 227
Johnson, Steve Lidar Testing ....................................................................................................................................................... 119
Johnston, Nick Automated Fluid Interface System ....................................................................................................................... 45
270
Index of Contacts
Jones, William D. Replicated X-Ray Optics ................................................................................................................................... 117
Joy, Marshall Interferometric Imaging of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich Effect at 30 GHz ............................................................... 199
Kaufman, Billy Space Environments and Effects Program ......................................................................................................... 132
Kavaya, Michael J. Technology Development for Satellite-Based Laser Wind Sensing ................................................................... 120
Keller, Vernon W. Space Station Reboost Via Orbital Towing ........................................................................................................ 224
Kelley, Anthony R. Vehicle Health Maintenance and Analysis Using Advanced Statistical Methods
and Adaptive Techniques ............................................................................................................................ 109
Koczor, Ron Superconductor Interactions with Gravity ............................................................................................................ 21
Koelbl, Mary Beth Revolutionary Reusable Technology Turbopump ................................................................................................ 29
Kornfeld, Dale M. Microgravity Liquid Containment Vessel ........................................................................................................... 168
Koshak, William J. Solid-State Lightning Field Sensor .................................................................................................................... 191
Krienke, Rodney Soft Umbilical Test-Bed ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Lehoczky, Sandor L. Growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride Single Crystals ................................................................................... 146
Crystal Growth of Selected II-IV Semiconducting Alloys by Directional Solidification .................................. 147
Leopard, Joe L. Integrated Propulsion Technology Demonstrator ................................................................................................... 7
Leslie, Fred Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell Experiment .......................................................................................................... 193
Lessels, Robert J. Technologies Pour Into American Industries, Spurring Growth in Employment and New Products ................ 240
Maytag and NASA Team up to Do the Dishes ................................................................................................... 245
NASA Technology Helps American Horses Get a Jump on Their Competition ................................................ 246
NASA Technology Helps Inventor Clean Up ..................................................................................................... 248
NASA Technology Gives Montana Students a Helping Hand Into Industry and Amputees a Helping
Hand in Life ................................................................................................................................................ 249
Technology Transfer Alliance Industrial Outreach Effort Helping Louisiana Firm

to Recycle Used Tires ................................................................................................................................. 250
Portable Seat Lift Benefits the Disabled ............................................................................................................ 251
Marshall Center Book Lists Patents Available for Licensing ............................................................................. 252
Computational Fluid Dynamics, Not Crystal Balls, Help in Predicting the Future at Marshall Space
Flight Center ............................................................................................................................................... 253
NASA Composites Technologies Available to Industry ..................................................................................... 255
271
Marshall Begins Testing Hybrid Rocket Motor Technology .............................................................................. 257
NASA Program May Revolutionize Rocket Propulsion and Air-Conditioning ................................................. 258
NASA Helps Invent Revolutionary X-Ray Instrument ...................................................................................... 260
Sometimes It Does Take a Rocket Scientist ....................................................................................................... 260
NASA, USBI Engineers Turn Into "Roads" Scholars ........................................................................................ 261
Space Shuttle Engine Technology Research Benefits Jet Engine Manufacturer ................................................ 263
Lester, Carl N. Environmentally Friendly Sprayable Ablator for the Solid Rocket Booster ........................................................ 88
Luvall, Jeffrey C. Remote Sensing of Urban Land Use and Effects on Climate ............................................................................. 176
The Use of the Thermal Response Number to Characterize Land Surface Energy Flux ................................... 178
Martin, Charles L. Solid Rocket Motor Asbestos-Free Insulation ..................................................................................................... 28
Martin, Jim Magnetically Actuated Propellant Orientation ..................................................................................................... 35
McElyea, Richard M. Expert System Software Assistant for Payload Operations Control Team ......................................................... 129
McRight, Patrick S. Tridyne Gas Reactor Sizing .................................................................................................................................. 40
Mims, Katherine K. Design of a Ceramic Matrix Composites Integrally Bladed Turbine Disk ........................................................... 57
Min, James B. A Combined Micromechanics, Fracture Mechanics, and Statistical Approach for Life Prediction
of CMC/MMC .............................................................................................................................................. 60
Montgomery, Edward Components for Beamed Energy Transportation ................................................................................................. 13
Moore, Ronald L. Coronal Heating ................................................................................................................................................. 206
Solar Flares ......................................................................................................................................................... 208
Myers, George TREETOPS Structural Dynamics and Controls Simulation System Upgrade ..................................................... 46
Nguyen, Dalton Insulation System for Ultra-High Temperature Applications ............................................................................... 77
Thermal Conditioning Module for Ultra-High Temperature Applications .......................................................... 80
Noever, David Space Aerogel ..................................................................................................................................................... 170
Nunes, Jr., Arthur C. Fricton Stir Welding ............................................................................................................................................. 86
The Reaction of Nitrogen with 2195 Aluminum-Lithium Alloy: Continued ....................................................... 87
O'Neil, Daniel A. The Virtual Research Center: An Experimental Intranet .................................................................................... 235
Orr, Jr., Matthew E Analytical Model Improvement Using Singular Value Decomposition With a One-Dimensional
Line Searching Technique ............................................................................................................................ 50
272
Index of Contacts
Ortega, Rene Life Prediction Methodology for Ceramic Matrix Composites ........................................................................... 62
Patrick, M. Clinton An OPAD System to Fly on DC-XA .................................................................................................................... 96
Powers, William T. A Gaseous Hydrogen Detector System Based Upon a Solid State Silicon Microsensor ..................................... 91
Gaseous Leak Imaging by Raman Radiation Capture .......................................................................................... 93
Nonintrusive Measurement of Fluid Flows in High-Pressure, High-Speed Cryogenic Regimes ...................... 102
Development of 8-Channel, 16-Bit Smart Card for Pressure Transducers ......................................................... 104
Long-Term/High-Payoff's OMS IVHM Tested First Pneumatic System with Fully Automated
Checkout ..................................................................................................................................................... 105
Pusey, Marc L. A Protein Crystal Growth Studies Cell (Year 3 of 3) ......................................................................................... 171
Quattrochi, Dale A. Remote Sensing of Urban Land Use and Effects on Climate ............................................................................. 176
Ramsey, Brian D. X-Ray Astronomy Research ............................................................................................................................... 196
Redmon, Jr., John Fabrication of Normal Incidence Mirrors by a Nickel Replication Process ....................................................... 115
Robertson, Franklin Interannual Variability in Tropical Radiation and Water Vapor .......................................................................... 173
Marine Boundary-Layer Clouds and Their Representation in a Climate Model ............................................... 174
Robertson, Tony Magnetohydrodynamics: H20TSTUF .................................................................................................................... 2
Magnetohydrodynarnics: Investigations of External MHD Slipstream Accelerator Technologies ........................ 3
Robinson, Michael B. Measurement of the Optical and Radiative Properties of High-Temperature Liquid Materials
by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy ............................................................................................. 150
A Study of the Undercooling Behavior of Immiscible Metal Alloys: The Absence of

Crucible-lnduced Wetting and Nucleation ................................................................................................. 151
MSFC 105-Meter Drop Tube Undercooling and Nucleation Studies ................................................................ 152
Rogers, Mark N. Expert System Software Assistant for Payload Operations Control Team ......................................................... 129
Rothermel, Jeffry Remote Sensing of Winds Using Airborne Doppler Lidar ................................................................................. 185
Rupp, Charles C. Station Tethered Express Payload System .......................................................................................................... 225
Russell, Samuel S. Endoscopic Shearography Nondestructive Evaluation of Lined Pressure Vessels ............................................... 82
Schmidt, George Magnetically Actuated Propellant Orientation ..................................................................................................... 35
Schunk, Greg Interdisciplinary Thermal/Stress Analysis ............................................................................................................ 79
Seaford, Mark Base Heating Testing Improvements .................................................................................................................... 64
273
_O_oToTo]
Shapiro, Alan E Specialized Optical Coating Solutions for Astronomical Instruments ............................................................... 113
Self-Filtering Solar Telescopes ........................................................................................................................... 204
Spann, James F. Imaging the Aurora in the Far Ultraviolet .......................................................................................................... 218
Spencer, Roy W. Testing Global Warming Theory with Satellite Passive Microwave Observations ............................................ 182
Springer, Anthony Application of Rapid Prototyping Methods to High-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing ............................................... 71
Stinson, Helen C. MSFC Small Business Innovation and Small Business Technology Transfer Programs ................................... 242
Stone, Nobie H. Tethered Satellite System Reflight Electrodynamic Characteristics .................................................................. 219
Stucker, Mark Transportation Elements for the Human Lunar Return Study ............................................................................ 229
Szofran, Frank R. Bridgman Crystal Growth in Static Magnetic Fields ......................................................................................... 153
Thompson, Carey G. NASA Air Force Cost Model: A Parametric Cost Estimating Tool ................................................................... 234
Thompson, Tommy Large Optic Coating Facility .............................................................................................................................. 11 I
Trinh, Huu P. Tripropellant Effervescent Injector Study ............................................................................................................ 23
Advanced Gas/Gas Injector Technology .............................................................................................................. 24
Pintle Injector Study for Liquid Bipropellant Engines ......................................................................................... 26
"l_cker, E Kevin Propulsion Chemistry for CFD Applications ....................................................................................................... 65
Turner, James E. Advanced Reusable Transportation Technologies Project ................................................................................... 14
Tygielski, Philip A Complex-Shaped Composite Feedline for Liquid Hydrogen ........................................................................... 41
Tyler, Tony Automated Fluid Interface System ....................................................................................................................... 45
Vlasse, Marcus Containerless Processing of YBa2Cu307-d Superconductors ........................................................................... 154
Volz, Martin Crystal Growth by Physical Vapor Transport ..................................................................................................... I56
Wang, Ten-See Analysis of Flowfields Over Four-Engine DC-X Rockets ................................................................................... 66
Thermokinetics Characterization of Kerosene/RP- 1 Combustion ....................................................................... 68
Injector Spray Combustion Modeling .................................................................................................................. 69
Watson, Michael D. Polymer Waveguide Output Couplers ................................................................................................................ 127
Weir, Rae Ann Electromechanica/Actuator Testing at/PTD ....................................................................................................... 31
Weisskopf, Martin C. X-Ray Astronomy Research ............................................................................................................................... 196
274
Index of Contacts
West, Edward A. Specialized Optical Coating Solutions for Astronomical Instruments ............................................................... 113
Self-Filtering Solar Telescopes ........................................................................................................................... 204
Whitley, Michael Propulsion System Design Reliability Modeling ................................................................................................. 33
Witherow, William Diode-Laser Holographic Imaging System Applied to the Study of Fluids in Microgravity ............................ 157
Phase Shifting lnterferometric Analysis of Protein Crystal Growth Boundaries

and Convective Flows ................................................................................................................................. 158
Zoladz, Tom Real-Time Condition Monitoring of Propulsion Systems Through High-Performance

Computing .................................................................................................................................................... 69
275
Index of KeyWords
2-methyl-4-nitroaniline ................................................................ 164 composite materials ..................................................................... 143

active regions ....................................................................... 210, 211 composite pipe ..................................................................... 244, 245
actuator .......................................................................................... 45 composite ..................................................... 41, 42, 48, 49, 256, 257
adaptive optics ............................................................................... 14 compression-unloading ....................................................... 161,162
ADIS .............................................................................................. 55 contactless ................................................................................... 156
aerogel ......................................................................................... 170 containerless processing .............................................. 152, 154, 155

aerosols ................................................................................ 187, 188 containerless ........................................................................ 150, 151
air conditioning .................................................................... 258, 259 contamination .............................................................................. 132
air turbine starter .................................................................. 242, 243 convection .................................................... 153, 156, 157, 158, 193
air-sea interface ............................................................................ 184 coronal heating .................................................................... 206,207
alloys ............................................................................................ 151 coronal loops ............................................................................... 209
aluminum alloys .......................................................................... 143 corrosion ...................................................................................... 261
aluminum matrix ......................................................................... 142 cosmic rays .......................................................................... 201,202
Amazon ............................................................................... 179, 180 cost model .................................................................................... 234
amputee ............................................................................... 249, 250 cost ................................................................................................ 6,7
analytical model improvement ................................................ 50, 53 critical velocity ............................................................................ 142

ASAL ............................................................................................. 54 cryogenic fluid management ......................................................... 39
ASPS ............................................................................................. 55 crystal growth .............................. 146, 147, 148, 149, 153, 156, 157
atmosphere ................................................................................... 193 CTDB ...................................................................................... 55, 56
ATMS ................................................................................ 54, 55, 56 damping ............................................................................. 47, 48, 49
aurora ........................................................................................... 218 degenerative conditions ............................................................... 251
automation ....................................................................................... 7 differential energy spectra ................................................... 200, 201
AXAF .................................................................................. 197, 198 diffraction grating ........................................................................ 127
baroclinic ..................................................................................... 193 diffusion ....................................................................................... 140
battery powered ........................................................................... 252 direct electron pairs ..................................................................... 202
beamed energy ............................................................................... 13 directional solidification ...................................................... 137, 139
best inventions ............................................................................. 252 disabled ........................................................................................ 250
biomass burning ........................................................................... 179 dishwasher ................................................................................... 245

biomedical ................................................................................... 250 docking .................................................................................... 43, 44
blisk ......................................................................................... 48, 49 Doppler lidar ........................................................................ 185, 186
booster ................................................................................. 6, 7, 257 drop tube ...................................................................................... 152
capsule ......................................................................................... 225 Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ................................................. 173
capture berthing ....................................................................... 43, 44 Earth's environment ..................................................................... 215
carbon dioxide ..................................................................... 182, 183 Earth-to-orbit ................................................................................... 3
catalysts ......................................................................................... 40 ecology ........................................................................ 248,250, 258

ceramic turbine wheel .......................................................... 242, 243 economic impact .......................................................................... 261
charged particle detection ............................................................ 214 effects .......................................................................... 147, 148, 149
climate ................................................................................. 182, 183 El Nino ................................................................................ 173, 174
CLIPS ...................................................................................... 54, 55 electric field ......................................................................... 191,192
cloud condensation nuclei ........................................................... 175 electric propulsion ........................................................................... 3
coatings ........................................................................................ 261 electro-optic ......................................................................... 191,192
combustion diagnostics ........................................................... 10, 11 electrodynamic ............................................................ 220, 221,226
276
Index of KeyWords
electromagnetic interaction ......................................................... 202 geophysical .................................................................................. 193

electromechanical actuator ........................................................ 8, 31 Georgia ................................................................................ 260, 261
electronic ..................................................................................... 146 germanium ................................................................................... 136
emulsion chambers ...................................................................... 200 global climate change .................................................................. 178
engine efficiency .......................................................................... 264 global temperature ............................................................... 182, 183
engine .............................................................................................. 6 global warming .................................................................... 182, 183
engulfment ................................................................................... 142 giovebox ...................................................................................... 141
equine .......................................................................................... 248 granular materials ................................................................ 159, 160
ERBS ................................................................................... 173, 174 graphite/epoxy ......................................................................... 41, 42
estimating .................................................................................... 234 graphite ............................................................................................ 4
expert system ................................................................................... 7 gravitational ................................................................................. 147
extravehicular activity ................................................................. 130 growth .................................................................................. 153, 157
feedline .................................................................................... 41, 42 GUI .............................................................................................. 235
feedsystems ............................................................................. 41, 42 handicapped ................................................................................. 250
Fermi acceleration ....................................................................... 208 hard x rays ................................................................................... 208
fiberglass .............................................................................. 255,256 heat energy ................................................................................. 2245
finite element ........................................................................... 50, 51 heating and cooling patterns ........................................................ 176
fission ............................................................................................ 12 High-Resolution Infrared Sounder .............................................. 173
flight experiment ..................................................................... 15, 16 highway ............................................................................... 261,262
float-zone ............................................................................. 137, 138 HIRS .................................................................................... 173, 174
fluid dynamics ..................................................................... 253,254 holography ................................................................................... 157
fluids preparation system ............................................................. 171 horse ............................................................................ 246, 247,248
fluids .................................................................... 140, 141,157, 158 human factors .............................................................................. 124
food service ................................................................................. 241 human lunar return ...................................................................... 229
foot restraint ........................................................................ 130, 131 human modeling .......................................................................... 131
force-deformation behavior ......................................................... 159 humidity ............................................................................... 182, 183
foreshortening ................................................................................ 46 Huntsville, AL ............................................................................. 176
fractal anaylsis ............................................................................. 212 hydrogen ........................................................................................ 40
fractal dimension ......................................................... 211,212, 213 hydrologic cycle .................................................. 173, 174, 179, 180
fresnel ............................................................................................ 11 hydrology ..................................................................................... 179
fuel savings .................................................................................. 264 hydrostatic bearing .............................................................. 258, 259
furnace facility ............................................................................... 43 hypermonotectic alloys ................................................................ 139
fusion ............................................................................................. 13 imaging sensor ..................................................................... 19t3, 191
g-jitter .......................................................................................... 140 imaging ........................................................................................ 217
G2 ........................................................................................ 129, 130 immiscible ................................................................................... 151
galaxy clusters ............................................................................. 200 index of refraction ....................................................................... 170
gamma-ray astronomy ......................................................... 194, 195 informed maintenance ..................................................................... 8

gas core .......................................................................................... 12 infrared ........................................................................................ 181
gelcasting ............................................................................. 242, 243 injector ............................................................................................. 9
general circulation models ........................................... 178, 182, 183 integral flange ...................................................................... 244, 245
geometric ....................................................................................... 46 integrated optics ........................................................................... 127
geophysical parameters ............................................................... 181 interaction ............................................................................ 220, 221
277
. _ _r@_elel'_l@']
interface demarcation .......................................................... 136, 137 microflares ................................................................................... 207
interferometry .............................................................. 141,171,199 microgravity experiment .............................................................. 160

International Space Station .......................................... 130, 224, 226 microgravity processing .............................................................. 163
internet ................................................................................. 235,236 microgravity ........ 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,142, 158, 167, 168
intranet ................................................................................. 235,236 microstructural homogeneity ....................................................... 137
ionosphere ................................................................................... 227 microstructum .............................................................................. 139
ionospheric .......................................................................... 219, 220 microwave ............................................................................ 199, 200

isolation ......................................................................................... 43 MM5 ............................................................................................ 178
ISS ............................................................................................... 224 modal ................................................................................. 50, 51, 53
job bank ....................................................................................... 240 modeling ........................................................................................ 46

laser radar ............................................................................ 185, 186 monopropellants ............................................................................ 40
lasers ........................................................................................ 13, 14 multibody dynamics ...................................................................... 46
launch assist ................................................................................... 19 multibody ....................................................................................... 46
launch operations ............................................................................. 7 multispectral scanner ................................................................... 181
launch ................................................................................ 17, 18, 19 neutral buoyancy .......................................................................... 13 l
lead detection ................................................................................... 8 neutron stars ................................................................................ 194
lidar ...................................................................................... 187, 188 nonlinear optical .................................................................. 162, 164
light scattering ............................................................................. 170 nonlinearities ................................................................................. 46
lightning imaging ................................................................ 190, 191 nonplanar coupling ...................................................................... 127
lightning ....................................................................... 190, 191,192 nuclear thermal .............................................................................. 12
liquid rocket engine ....................................................... 9, 11, 21, 26 nucleation .................................................................................... 152
LIS ....................................................................................... 190, 191 nursing homes .............................................................................. 252

litter ............................................................................................. 248 offshore oil platform .................................................................... 244
longwave clear-sky radiation ....................................................... 173 OMS propellant ........................................................................... 224
LWCS .................................................................................. 173, 174 on-orbit consumable transfer ......................................................... 45
magnetic field ...................................................... 153,207, 209, 210 optical bistability ......................................................................... 164
magnetic mirror ............................................................................. 13 optical interconnecdon ........................................................ 127, 128
magnetic ........................................................................................ 19 optical properties ......................................................................... 150

magnetograph ...................................................................... 204, 205 optical switching .................................................................. 162, 163
magnetohydrodynamics ................................................................ 2,3 optics ........................................................................................... 260

magnetosphere ..................................................................... 216, 217 orbital debris removal .................................................................. 228
management ......................................................................... 235,237 orbital maneuvering system ......................................................... 224

manned space flight ..................................................................... 229 orbiter .......................................................................................... 224
marine boundary layer ......................................................... 174, 175 orthotic ......................................................................................... 250
materials processing .................................................................... 140 oxide superconductors ................................................................. 155

materials ...................................................................................... 147 oxygen ........................................................................................... 40
medicine ...................................................................................... 260 parametric .................................................................................... 234
mercury cadmium telluride .................................................. 145, 146 particle pushing ........................................................................... 142
metal alloys .................................................................................. 143 patents .......................................................................................... 253
metal matrix composite ............................................................... 142 payload operations ............................................................... 129, 130
meteorology ................................................................................. 180 pharmaceutical ............................................................................. 260
MHD turbulence .......................................................................... 208 phase shifting interferometry ....................................................... 158
278
Index of Key Words
photodeposition ........................................................................... 165 roads .................................................................................... 261,262
phthalocyanines ................................................................... 162, 163 rocket engines .............................................................................. 257

physical vapor transport ............................................................... 162 rocket ....................................................................................... 12, 15
pinhole camera ............................................................................. 215 rotating magnetic field ......................................................... 145,146

plasma .......................................................... 2, 3, 132, 214, 215,216 rubber ................................................................................... 250, 251
plasmasphere ............................................................... 215, 216, 217 satellite Doppler lidar .......................................................... 185, 186
polarimeter ........................................................................... 196, 197 satellite ......................................................................... 182, 183, 184
polydiacetlenes ............................................................ 164, 165, 166 SBIR ............................................................................................ 242
polymer ................................................................................ 127, 245 sea surface wind .......................................................................... 184
polymerization ............................................................................. 164 sea-surface temperature ............................................................... 173

porousity ...................................................................................... 170 seal ................................................................................................. 47
porphyrins .................................................................................... 163 SEDS ........................................................................................... 224
precipitable water ................................................................ 179, 180 sensor ....................................................................................... 43, 44
precipitation ................................................................................. 188 silicon nitride ....................................................................... 242, 243
predict .......................................................................................... 253 Small Business Innovation Research ........................................... 242
pressurization ................................................................................. 40 Small Business Technology Transfer .......................................... 242

private industries .......................................................................... 246 Small Expendable Deployer System ........................................... 224
project .................................................................................. 235,236 soft x rays ............................................................................ 206, 207

propellant loading ............................................................................ 7 solar corona ................................................................................. 207
proportional counter .................................................................... 196 solar flares ................................................................... 208, 211,213
propulsion systems ...................................................................... 229 solar telescopes .................................................................... 204, 205
propulsion ........................ 2, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 40, 41,258, 259 solar thermal propulsion .............................................. 15, 16, 37, 39
prosthetic ..................................................................................... 249 solar thermal .................................................................................. 11
protein crystal growth .................................................. 167,1 71,172 solar x rays ................................................................................... 209
protein crystals ............................................................ 158, 159, 167 solar ................................................................................. 4, 204, 205
PVT ..................................................................................... 156, 157 solid core ....................................................................................... 12
racing ........................................................................................... 248 solid/liquid interface .................................................................... 143

radar ............................................................................................. 188 solidification ................................ 137, 142, 143, t44, 145,146, 147
radiation ....................................................................................... 132 solute layer .................................................................................. 143
radiometer .................................................................................... 184 space environments ...................................................................... 132
rainfall .......................................................................... 188, 189, 190 space science ............................................................................... 215
Raman spectroscopy ...................................................................... 10 Space Shuttle ....................................................................... 224, 257

reboost ......................................................................................... 224 Space Station ............................................................................... 225
reconnection ................................................................................ 208 space transportation ................................................... 13, 14, 15, 229
recovery ....................................................................................... 225 spacecraft mating ...................................................................... 43,44
recycling .............................................................................. 250, 251 spacecraft ..................................................................................... 219

reduced gravity ............................................................................ 153 Spacelab ....................................................................................... 129
reentry .......................................................................................... 225 spinoff .................................................................................. 252, 253

remote sensing ..................................... 181,184, 185, 186, 187, 188 SST ...................................................................................... 173, 174
resin ............................................................................. 255,256, 257 storms .................................................................................. 190, 191
resins .................................................................................... 261,262 structural development ................................................................ 25 !

resupply ......................................................................................... 45 structure ....................................................................................... 167
279
SI_FP_ ........................................................................................... 242

videoconferencing ............................................................... 260, 261
Sun ............................................................................................... 210 virtual reality ....................................................................... 124, 126
sunspot magnetic fields ....................................................... 211,213 waste extraction ........................................................................... 241
supernova shock wave acceleration ............................................. 201 waveguide .................................................................................... 127
Technology Transfer Alliance ...................................................... 240 wind ..................................................................................... 185, 186
teleoperations ............................................................................... 126 x ray ..................................................................................... 194, 260
test ............................................................................... 50, 51, 52, 53 x-ray optics .......................................................................... 197, 198
tether .................................... 219, 220, 221,224, 225,226, 227, 228 x-ray transmission microscope .................................................... 143
thermal buoyancy ........................................................................ 140 zirconia ........................................................................................ 142
thermal efficiency ........................................................................ 245
thermal energy responses .................................................... 176, 177
thermal ................................................................................... 14, 176
thermosphere ............................................................................... 227
thin films ...................................................................... 162, 163, 164
thin membrane ............................................................................... 11
third-order nonlinearities ............................................................. 162
three-dimensional rendering ........................................................ 209

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder .......................................... 173
TOVS ................................................................................... 173, 174
towing .......................................................................................... 224
training ......................................................................... 124, 125, 126
transparent insulator .................................................................... 170
trash ..................................................................................... 248, 249
traveling heater method ............................................................... 145
tree topology .................................................................................. 46
TREETOPS ................................................................................... 46
Tridyne ..................................................................................... 40, 41

TRN ..................................................................................... 178, 179
tungsten ........................................................................................... 4
turbine .................................................................................. 263, 264
turbomachinery ........................................................ 48, 49, 242, 243
turbopump ..................................................................................... 47
Twomey effect ............................................................................. 175
ultraviolet ..................................................................................... 218
umbilicals ...................................................................................... 43
undercooling ................................................................................ 152

upper stage ............................................................................... 15, ! 6
urban heat island .......................................................................... 176
UV ....................................................................................... 204, 205
veterinary ..................................................................................... 246
vibration isolation ........................................................................ 141
video guidance ............................................................................... 44
280

Research and Technology 1996 Annual Report of The Marshall Space Flight Center

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Research and Technology 1996 Annual Report of The Marshall Space Flight Center

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Annual Report of the

National Aeronautics and

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

As the world around us changes, new and complex

As we move toward the goal of increasingly accessible space

J_Wa:ne L_.tl lesC_

This publication can be found on the Internet at: http://techtran.msfc.nasa.gov/96R&T/index.html.

Beyond Our Boundaries viii

Components for Beamed Energy Transportation Edward Montgomery 13

Solar Thermal Propulsion Flight Experiment Leslie Curtis 15

Superconductor Interactions with Gravity Ron Koczor 21

Propulsion and Fluid Management

Structures and Dynamics

Technology Mirror Assembly Testing Ron Eng 112

Next Generation Space Telescope Howard D. Hall 116

Lidar Testing Steve Johnson 119

Polymer Waveguide Output Couplers Michael D. Watson 127

Growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride Single Crystals Sandor L. Lehoczky 146

Crystal Growth of Selected II-IV Semiconducting Alloys by Directional

Measurement of the Optical and Radiative Properties of High-Temperature

A Study of the Undercooling Behavior of Immiscible Metal Alloys: The Absence

Bridgman Crystal Growth in Static Magnetic Fields Frank R. Szofran 153

Containerless Processing of YBa2Cu307-d Superconductors Marcus Vlasse 154

Crystal Growth by Physical Vapor Transport Martin Volz 156

NASA Technology Gives Montana Students a Helping Hand Into Industry

Abbreviations and Acronyms 265

Index of Contacts 268

At Marshall, three interrelated areas of focus--space

NASA's space transportation efforts build on current tech-

NASA has two strategic roles in these endeavors. The first is

The ASTP and RLV programs are complementary space

The scientific research that will be accomplished once the

An artist's conceptofthe X-33 RLV,a futureSpace

approached with the same practical strategies

The Marshall Center is steeped in tradition.

AXAFH1 mirror andalignment

temperatures in which we would like to rocket. They plan to use a microwave

Low-Cost Booster feedlines, the pressurization system

representative of a booster with a 220-1b Integrated Propulsion MSFC, through a cooperative

" changes very well, but exact magnitudes

RGORE8._xidizer-rich swirl injection element.

FISUnE9.--Ultraviolet Images of combustion zone at first window position (x=O.5 in).

Another nuclear thermal engine concept

Fusion Propulsion based main propulsion systems may begin

The current program goals of the BET are

Solar Thermal Propulsion

One of the space transfer technologies of

functions are controlled in flight by the

The successful space demonstration of

Sponsor: Advanced Space Transportation

University/Industry Involvement: Univer-

There will be a Sun-centering detector

Area' Storage' (DeslgnOptl°n)_X -_/45deg

PrisaysrytP°wer R_DeaSeg#_Ct_jO)ut _'_+_'_ _-_---/_-_'_"_-_ Total_A

" : (HRV) / at 1.000 mph J :

: -" _ RousabIeVohicIo(A-HRV) L atl,2OOmph j i

: ' ' I=r_ age i i Maglev Accelerator --/

,.--_ I_Fuvele';Clend I -o''" -- % . ( "_ _ -_ _ Approximately

/_ccelerator _x / _-- 0.5 mile

•" k _ 4 i :. Reusable Vehicle (A-HRV) L at 600-1,200 mph J ::

I1_Ii ii i iii i i iii i l i l l i i ill l i I I I I I III I I III III I I III I I I I I I I I I l I_I

105 _ Maglev Advanced