MSc Sustainable Energy Systems

EUB_7_133

Renewable Energy Technologies 1

Photovoltaics

Department of Urban Engineering

2012/13

Alan Dunn 1 01/07/2021

Contents
1. Nomenclature....................................................................................................................4
2. Introduction.......................................................................................................................5
3. Basic principles..................................................................................................................5
3.1. Atomic structure of silicon........................................................................................5
3.2. Doping.......................................................................................................................6
3.3. Band Gap...................................................................................................................7
3.4. The PV Effect.............................................................................................................8
4. Four generations of photovoltaics.....................................................................................9
4.1. First Generation: Silicon based..................................................................................9
4.2. Second Generation: thin film................................................................................10
4.3. Third Generation: breaking the efficiency limit.......................................................10
4.3.1. Tandem cells...................................................................................................10
4.4. Summary.................................................................................................................10
5. Performance of photovoltaic modules............................................................................11
5.1. Configuration of PV modules..................................................................................11
5.2. Standard Test Conditions........................................................................................11
5.3. Strings and arrays....................................................................................................12
5.4. Temperature dependence......................................................................................12
5.5. Design conditions....................................................................................................13
5.6. Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)..........................................................13
5.7. Calculation of Power Output for Non-Standard Conditions....................................14
6. Shading, Soiling and Reflection Losses.............................................................................15
6.1. Shading...................................................................................................................15
6.2. Soiling......................................................................................................................16
6.3. Incident Angle Modifier (IAM).................................................................................16
6.3.1. Physical Model of IAM.....................................................................................16
6.3.2. ASHRAE Model................................................................................................17
6.3.3. Martin and Ruiz Model....................................................................................17
7. Model of a PV Cell...........................................................................................................18
7.1. The standard single-diode model............................................................................18
8. Module Temperature......................................................................................................20
9. Environmental Impact and Safety....................................................................................20
10. References..................................................................................................................21
11. Modelling Procedure..................................................................................................22
(a) Irradiance and Weather..............................................................................................22
(b) Incident Irradiance..................................................................................................22

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 (c) Shading, Soiling, and Reflection Losses.......................................................................22
(d) Cell Temperature....................................................................................................22
(e) Module Output.......................................................................................................22
(f) DC and Mismatch Losses.............................................................................................22
(g) DC to DC Max Power Point Tracking...........................................................................22
(h) DC to AC Conversion...............................................................................................22
(i) AC Losses....................................................................................................................22
12. Solar cell single-diode model solution........................................................................23
12.1. Parameter extraction..............................................................................................23
12.2. Model solution........................................................................................................24
12.3. Example..................................................................................................................24

Alan Dunn 3 01/07/2021

1. Nomenclature
b eV Band gap

Greek
λ m Wavelength

Constants
c 299,792,458 m·s-1 Speed of light
h 6.63×10-34 J·s Planck’s Constant
e 1.602×10-19 C Elementary Charge
q 1.602×10-19 C Charge of the electron  
k 1.381×10-23  J∙K-1 Boltzmann’s constant

Alan Dunn 4 01/07/2021

2. Introduction

Figure 1 Taxonomy of PV systems [ CITATION DGS08 \l 2057 ]

Photovoltaic modules may be integrated in a buildings structure [ CITATION CIB00 \l 2057 ]

but will not be specifically covered in this module.

3. Basic principles
Although there are an increasing number of materials being used to construct PV cells we
shall examine the principles using the most common, silicon, which is used in about 80% of
all installations.

3.1. Atomic structure of silicon

The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of
positively charged protons in its nucleus; in the case of silicon this is
14. The number of protons is matched by an equal number of
negatively charged electrons orbiting around the nucleus in electron
shells, as shown in Figure 2. Each shell can only hold a fixed number of
electrons: the first 2, the second 8, the third up to 18 etc. In fact each
shell is made up of a number of subshells as shown in Table 1.

Shell Subshell Subshell max Shell max Figure 2 Electron

name name electrons electrons configuration of silicon
K 1s 2 2
2s 2
L 8
2p 6
M 3s 2 18
3p 6

Alan Dunn 5 01/07/2021

 3d 10
Table 1 Electron shells and subshells

Each shell corresponds to a particular energy level and there are no intermediate levels. If an
electron receives energy, by absorbing a photon, it can move up to the next shell. If it loses
energy by emitting a photon then it will drop back to a lower shell.

The outer shell, known as the valence shell, determines the element’s chemical properties –
how it combines with other atoms. If the valence shell is full, the element will be inert; if it is
not full, then it can combine with other atoms by sharing electrons.

The valence shell of pure silicon is not full and in its natural state will
share an electron from four adjacent silicon atoms forming a cubic
crystal lattice as shown in Figure 3. Above the valence band is the
conductance band which is empty at 0 oK, but if electrons in the valence
band absorb sufficient energy they can jump into the conductance band.
Figure 3 Structure of
In metals electrons move freely into the conductance band creating an monocrystalline silicon
electron cloud that can move through the solid transporting both
electrical charge and heat. Conversely, insulators have electrons locked in the valence shell
unable to move freely and therefore insulators do not conduct heat or electrical charge.

3.2. Doping
The ability of semiconductors to conduct charge, as you might expect, lies somewhere
between conductors and insulators. Natural semiconductors are to be found in Group IV of
the periodic table and include silicon and germanium. Others may be formed by binary
compounds of elements from adjoining groups. E.g. gallium arsenide (III-V), cadmium
telluride (II-VI).

The electrical properties of pure semiconductors may be modified by the process of doping.
Doping consists of introducing small quantities of another element into the crystalline
structure of the silicon. Doping silicon with group V elements such as phosphorus, which has
five electrons in its outer shell, introduces an extra valence electron in the lattice which can
become unbounded creating an electrically conductive n-type semiconductor.

Doping with a group III elements such as boron, which only has three electrons in the outer
shell, creates a broken bond in the lattice which is free to move and forms an electrically
conducting p-type semiconductor (Figure 4).

Alan Dunn 6 01/07/2021

Figure 4 Doping of silicon

If an n-type and p-type are placed together it will create a p-n junction. Electrons will diffuse
across the junction from the n-type material and fill the holes in the p-type material. As the
electrons migrate they will leave the phosphorus atoms in the n-type material with a positive
charge (+ve ion) and as they fill the holes the p-type material becomes negatively charged (-
ve ion). This build-up of charge creates a region depleted of charge carriers across which an
electric field opposes the flow of electrons and the flow will eventual stop.

Figure 5 Formation of electric field at p-n junction

3.3. Band Gap

The band gap, b is the difference in energy level between valence band and the conduction
band: electrons cannot exist in between these two levels. If an electron in the valence band
receives energy equal to, or greater than, the band gap it can jump into the conduction band
and mover through the crystalline structure. The energy of a photon depends upon its
wavelength – the shorter the wavelength the greater the energy.

The speed of light, c is the product of its frequency, f and wavelength, λ

c= λf 3-1

Alan Dunn 7 01/07/2021

The energy of a photon, E in Joules is
E=hf 3-2
Where h is Planck’s constant1.

Substituting for f from Equation 3 -1 to 3 -2 gives

hc
E= 3-3
λ

When dealing with photons it is usual to use units of electron volt (eV) rather than Joules.
Dividing by the elementary charge, e gives E in eV

hc
E= 3-4
λe

We can use Equation 3 -4 to find the and wavelength corresponding to a given band gap, b .

ch 1
λ= ∙ 3-5
e b
(Note: the wavelength is in metres.)

The band gap and corresponding wavelengths for various PV materials are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Band gaps for various PV materials

Example

What is the cut-off wavelength corresponding to a band gap of 1.11 eV?

ch 1 299,792,458 × 6.63× 10−34 −9

λ= ∙ = × 10 =1,117 nm
e b 1,11 ×1.602 ×10−19

How do holes move?

In the first row below the hole (white)

1
is on the left with two electrons (blue)
The values of constants used in this derivation may be found
on theinright.
the The
Nomenclature
electron at B jumps
into the hole at A leaving a hole
behind. In row two the .electron at C
Alan Dunn 8
jumps into the new hole at B. 01/07/2021
 3.4. The PV Effect
When electrons absorb a photon their electron bond is broken and they move from the
valence to the conduction band. The negatively charged electrons are pulled through the
electric al field into the n-region. The holes created in p-region remain in the valence band
and move in the opposite direction. If the PV is not connected to a load electrons will
accumulate at one terminal and holes at the other, creating the open circuit voltage.

If a load is connected, a current will flow with electrons leaving the cell, passing through the
load, and returning to the other terminal of the cell where they recombine with the waiting
holes.

Not all the electrons make it to the terminal. When they leave the depleted region and
diffuse through the n-region they may meet a boron atom with a missing electron (a hole)
and recombine. The electron will no longer generate a current and recombination reduces
the efficiency of the cell.

In Solar Resource we saw that solar radiation is distributed over a wide spectrum. Any
radiation at a wavelength having less energy than the band gap will not move electrons into
the conduction band and therefore will not generate electricity. In the example calculation
above radiation of a wavelength less than 1,117nm will not be converted to electricity.
Radiation of a shorter wavelength having energy greater than the band width will dislodge
electrons, but energy possessed by photons in excess to
the band with (1.11 eV for silicon) will simply heat the
cell.

This creates a theoretical maximum efficiency for

photovoltaics called the Shockley–Queisser limit. As
shown in Figure 7 the limit is 33.7% for a single p-n
junction with a band gap of 1.34 eV using an AM 1.5 solar
spectrum.
Figure 7 Shockley–Queisser limit

4. Four generations of photovoltaics

Although the boundaries are blurred, the industry speaks of four generations of photovoltaic
cell currently in use.

4.1. First Generation: Silicon based

The earliest, and still the most common, type of photovoltaic cell is made from silicon
semiconducting p-n junctions.

a. Monocrystalline Silicon
A large, pure crystal is grown, cut into thin wafers and doped. The process is expensive
but the technology is well established.

b. Polycrystalline

Alan Dunn 9 01/07/2021

 Figure 8 Monocrystalline module Figure 9 Polycrystalline module

4.2. Second Generation: thin film

Second generation photovoltaics achieved a reduction in

cost through the development of thin film technologies.
Although less efficient than first generation they are cost
effective - if area is not restricted. These PVs may be grown
on flexible substrates which lead to interesting, aesthetically
pleasing applications. Three types:

a. Amorphous Silicon a-Si silicon is deposited on a

substrate copper, glass or plastic –cheaper – flexible,
lower efficiency.

b. Cadmium Telluride/Cadmium Sulfide (CdTe/CdS). Figure 10 Thin film technology

c. CIS and Copper Indium Gallium (di)Selenide (CIGS).

4.3. Third Generation: breaking the efficiency limit

Researchers are working in many different areas to overcome the Shockley–Queisser limit of
33% power efficiency for single band gap solar cells as discussed in Section 3.4. Most
attempts remain in the laboratory but two techniques are close to commercial use.

a. Nanocrystal dye sensitized

b. Concentrated 10 – 100 suns

4.3.1. Tandem cells

Common third-generation systems include multi-layer ("tandem") cells made of amorphous
silicon or gallium arsenide or even polymers. We have seen that a single junction cell can
only use a limited range of wavelengths – by stacking three junction made from different
materials with each turned to a different wavelength, more energy may be extracted.

Alan Dunn 10 01/07/2021

Figure 11 Tandem solar cell

4.4. Summary
Silicon Thin Film
Panel Type
Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous Silicon CIGS CdTe
Peak Power W/m2 160 140 120 100 50
Typical Efficiency/% 16 14 12 9.5 5
Area for 1 kWp 6.25 7.1 8.3 10 20
Table 2 Summary of PV performance data

5. Performance of photovoltaic modules

5.1. Configuration of PV modules

After manufacture cells are tested and matched in terms of current and voltage. Around 36 2
matched cells are then connected in series and encapsulated as shown in Figure 12. The
process of encapsulation means that the module efficiency is 1 – 2% less than the cell
efficiency

Figure 12 PV Module structure

5.2. Standard Test Conditions

Manufacturers publish data for PV modules measured under standard test conditions (STC)
as defined in [ CITATION IEC05 \l 2057 ] (Table 3)

2
A typical silicon cell has a voltage around 0.5 – 0.6 V and so 36 cells in series produces a
voltage of 18 – 21.6 V which is just right for charging 12 V lead acid batteries.

Alan Dunn 11 01/07/2021

 Irradiance G 1000 W·m-2
Air Mass AM 1.5 -
Cell Temperature Tc 25 oC
Ambient air temperature Ta 20 oC
Wind speed v 1.0 m·s-1
Table 3 Standard Test Conditions (STC)

The test data provided by manufacturers is shown in Table 4. Manufacturers will provide at
plot of current versus voltage (an I-V curve) measured under STC.

V oc 22.1 V Open Circuit Voltage

∆ V oc -(80±10) mV·K-1 Temperature coefficient of V oc
I sc 5.0 A Short Circuit Current
∆ I sc (0.065±0.015) %·K-1 Temperature coefficient of I sc
NOCT 47±2 o
C Normal Operating Cell Temperature
Pmax 85 W Peak Power
Table 4 Typical PV performance data

The short-circuit current, I SC occurs when the module terminals are shorted and there is no
load resistance.

The open circuit voltage, V OC occurs when the

terminals are disconnect from the load and no
current flows.

Peak power, Pmax occurs at a point along the I-V

curve when the product of current and voltage is
a maximum.

An online[ CITATION Pho13 \l 2057 ] database

offers performance data for more than 48,000
PV modules – useful for comparisons.

Figure 13 I-V curve

5.3. Strings and arrays

For most applications multiple PV modules are required and we have the option of either
connecting them in series or in parallel, or a combination of both.

If they are connected in series they form what is known as a string. Each module will share
the same current but the voltage across the string will be the sum of the voltages across
each module. If they are connected in parallel the total current will be the sum of the
module currents and the voltage will be the same as a module.

Alan Dunn 12 01/07/2021

It is important that modules in a string are of the same type and ideally have their I_V curves
matched.

5.4. Temperature dependence

The short circuit current and the open circuit voltage are both dependent on the cell
temperature, making the power output also temperature dependent.

The published temperature coefficients (Table 4) indicate the degree of dependence which is
also shown in Figure 14. Notice that the short circuit current is the least affected, reducing
slightly with an increase in cell temperature. For practical purposes this dependence is often
neglected. Open circuit voltage is more strongly affected, increasing with an increase in
temperature.

Figure 14 shows that the current is

proportional to the solar irradiance, whereas
the voltage is only slightly affected.

Figure 14 Temperature and irradiance dependence of a PV

5.5. Design conditions

Variations in environmental operating conditions will affect the performance of the PV
module and should be taken into account when specifying the voltage/current ratings of the
DC system components. Currents and voltages may often exceed those quoted by the
manufacture for standard test conditions.

Maximum Voltage
This occurs when the modules are open
circuit and depends upon the cell
temperature. The sensitivity to
temperature change, the temperature
coefficient of V oc , is part of the
standard test and provided by
manufactures.

For example, for a typical a

monocrystalline cell, V oc = 0.6 V and ΔV oc = -2.1 mV·K-1. So, a 36 cell module operating at
0oC would have an open circuit voltage of:

V oc =n × ( V oc + ΔV oc × ΔT c )=¿

This compares with a V oc of 21.6 V under standard test conditions – an increase of nearly
9%.

Alan Dunn 13 01/07/2021

In fact, for design a multiplication factor of 1.15 is normally used corresponding to an
operating condition of -15oC.

Maximum Current
The maximum current produced by a cell
occurs under short circuit conditions and is
affected slightly by temperature, but more
significantly by the irradiance. Even in the UK
the irradiance can exceed the STC of 1000
W·m-2 if the sun is high in the sky, the sun is
not obstructed, and there is significant diffuse
radiation from surrounding cloud.
A design multiplication factor of 1.25 is
normally used for I sc .

 The above factors do not include the initial high output during the first few weeks of
operation, nor does it include allowances for fouling (10-15%).
 The above factors are for monocrystalline cells, other types of cell have different
characteristics. Peak values for V oc and I sc should be determined for individual
cases.

5.6. Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

Manufacturers publish the NOCT which is the temperature of the PV cell when operating
under the following standard conditions.

Irradiance 0.8 kW·m-2

Spectral distribution AM 1.5
Ambient temperature 20oC
Wind speed > 1 m·s-1

It is assumed that there is a linear relationship between cell temperature, T a an ambient

temperature, T a and irradiation, G give by:

T c =T a+ ( NOCT−20
0.8 )G
This equation may be used to predict the cell temperature when operating under non-
standard conditions. This is a very simplified approach and subject of predicting cell
temperature is discussed further in Section 8.

5.7. Calculation of Power Output for Non-Standard Conditions

Using hourly values of irradiance and ambient temperature for a typical day in each month,
the performance of a PV module may be determined. At each hour the output of the PV is
recalculated accounting for the deviation between STC and the actual air temperature and
irradiance. This is best demonstrated by way of an example

Alan Dunn 14 01/07/2021

Example
Determine the actual power delivered by the module below at an hour when the global
irradiance is 700 W·m-2 and the ambient temperature is 34 oC.

Module Data
Number of cells 34
Cell size 125mm x125 mm
I sc 3 A
∆ I sc negligible
V oc 20.4
∆ V oc -2.3 mV·K-1
Pmax 45.9 W
NOCT 43oC

Solution
Short-circuit current
Ignoring the temperature coefficient for I sc which is small:

G
I sc , act =I sc, STC ×
G STC
Where G = actual irradiance, kW·m-2

0.7
I sc , act =3.0× =2.10 A
1.0

Solar cell temperature

Calculate the cell temperature under actual operating conditions:

T c −T a= ( NOCT0.8−20 ) G T =34+( 43−20

c
0.8 )
×0.7=54.12

Open-circuit voltage
Adjusting for the temperature dependence of V oc

∆ V oc=−2.3× n ×∆ T ¿−2.3 ×34 × (54.12−25 ) /1000=−2.28 V

V oc =20.4−2.28=18.1V

Peak Power
Calculate the module Fill Factor under Standard Test Conditions:

Pmax 45.9
FF= = =0.75
I sc V oc 3.0 × 20.4

Assuming that the Fill Factor is independent of ambient temperature, T a and irradiance, G ,
the power output under the actual operating conditions is:

Alan Dunn 15 01/07/2021

Pmax =2.1 ×18.1× 0.75=28.5W

Efficiency
Cell efficiency is given by:
Pmax
η=
Ac G

So, under standard test condition the efficiency is:

45.9
η= =0.086
( 34 × 0.125 ×0.125 ) ×1000

Under the actual operating conditions:

28.5
η= =0.077
( 34 × 0.125 ×0.125 ) ×700

So the efficiency reduces from 8.6% to 7.7%

6. Shading, Soiling and Reflection Losses

The calculated incident radiation on the plane of the array (POA) may be further reduced by
shading, soiling by dirt and increased reflection loss with non-normal angles of incidence.

6.1. Shading
When deciding on the location and orientation of PV arrays careful consideration must be
given to shading from distant and nearby objects[ CITATION DGS08 \l 2057 ]. Analysis
requires the use of software such as EcoTect of IES<VE>3 to model potential obstructions
throughout the year.
A shadow not only reduces the area of module in direct sunshine but turns shaded cells into
resistors.

6.2. Soiling
Soiling (or fouling) is the build-up of dirt on the glazed face of the collector. Increased
collector tilt improves the self-cleaning properties of a module (providing it rains) and there
is research into surface treatments to enhance the self-cleaning properties.

In some climate zones snow may cover PV modules for extended periods, even when
significant solar radiation is available.

6.3. Incident Angle Modifier (IAM)

3
LSBU students can download Ecotect for free and buy a student licence for IES<VE> for £50
per annum.

Alan Dunn 16 01/07/2021

When solar radiation strikes a glass surface some is reflected and some passes through the
glass and is refracted and absorbed as it passes through the glass. The value of reflection,
refraction and absorption are all functions of wavelength and polarisation.

Some PV modules have grooved surfaces that will …

Module performance data is based on a zero angle of incidence (i.e. radiation normal to the
POA). Unless the PV array is mounted on a 2-axis tracker, the angle of incidence will vary
throughout the day as the sun moves through the sky. As the angle of incidence increases,
the radiation reaching the PV will decrease because of increased reflection from the glass
cover. A correction is normally only made to the beam radiation, but there is also an effect
on the diffuse radiation. An Incident Angle Modifier for beam radiation, IAM B may be
defined as:
τ (θ )
IAM B = 6-6
τ (0 )

Where τ ( 0 ) is the transmittance at normal incidence ( θ=0) and τ ( θ ) is the transmittance at

an angle of incidence of θ .

6.3.1. Physical Model of IAM

PV cover may be modelled as a simple air-glass interface using laws by Snell and Bouguer as
described Chapter 5 [ CITATION Duf91 \l 2057 ] and [CITATION DeS05 \l 2057 ].

Snell’s law defines:

n2 v 1 sin θ1
= =
n1 v 2 sin θ2
1-0.5*(A+B)

The refractive index of air, n1 =1.0003, which can be taken as 1. The angle of refraction, θ2
is therefore
−1
θ2=sin ( n2 sinθ 1 ) 6-7

A typical refractive index for glass is 1.526

The transmission coefficient for a single surface of glass is given by:

2 2
− ( KL/ cos θ2)
τ ( θ ) =e
[ (
1−
1 sin ( θ2−θ 1 ) tan ( θ2 −θ1 )
+
2 sin 2 ( θ2 +θ 1) tan 2 ( θ 2+θ 1 ) )] 6-8

Where typical values might be

K 4 m-1 Glazing extinction coefficient
L 0.002 m Glazing thickness

Alan Dunn 17 01/07/2021

The exponential term in Equation 6 -8 is Bouguer’s Law4 that predicts the absorption of
radiation in a partially transparent medium. The term in square brackets comes from
Fresnel’s Law for reflection. (See Spreadsheet Tab: IAM2)

6.3.2. ASHRAE Model

A simple approach was developed by [ CITATION Sou66 \l 2057 ] and adopted by ASHRAE.

IAM B =1−b 0 ( 1/cos θ−1 ) 6-9

Where
θ = incidence angle on the plane of the array.
b 0 is normally taken as 0.1 for a thermal collector, but PVSYST recommends 0.05 for PVs.

Figure 15 ASHRAE Incident Angle Modifier

Notice that there is a discontinuity at θ=90o and some authors recommend that the
expression should not be used for θ>80 o. This not a serious problem as at such low angles
little electricity is being produced.

6.3.3. Martin and Ruiz Model

Another popular model of IAM is described in a series of papers [ CITATION Mar01 \l 2057 ],
[CITATION Mar02 \t \l 2057 ] and [CITATION Mar05 \t \l 2057 ]

It should be noted that the incident angle modifier is affected by the degree of soiling.

7. Model of a PV Cell
In section 5.5 we calculated the new maximum power and efficiency of a PV operating under
non-standard conditions. This is often sufficient for our modelling needs, however there are
times when we would like to generate the complete I-V curve under non-standard
conditions. Such a model is required for the software in a maximum power point tracker.
A variety of models are available based on equivalent circuits[ CITATION Cas02 \l 2057 ],
[ CITATION Gra11 \l 2057 ] and the simplest is present below.
4
Also known as the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law, or various combinations thereof.

Alan Dunn 18 01/07/2021

 7.1. The standard single-diode model
The performance of a PV cell may be simulated using the Shockley's simple "one diode"
model based on the equivalent circuit in Figure 16 below.[CITATION San13 \l 2057 ]

The power source generates a current I ph

proportional to irradiance. At a low
voltage the parallel diode will pass very
little current, but as the voltage rises
current through the diode will increase,
decreasing the current delivered by the
cell.

The series resistor R s is of the order of a

few milliohms and represents the voltage
drop as the charge carriers migrate
through the resistive semiconductor and
the electrical contacts.

The shunt resistor R sh models shunts at the emitter layer or cell border. Recombination
losses may be modelled by the addition of a second diode, but are not considered here.

Figure 16 PV Equivalent Circuit

Using Kirchhoff’s current law

I =I ph−I d−I sh 7-10

I A Load current supplied by the cell/module

I ph A Light-generated current in cell
Id A Diode current, represents the voltage-
dependent current lost to recombination

I d is modeled using the Shockley equation for an ideal diode:

V + I ∙ Rs
[ (
I d=I 0 exp
nVT )−1
] 7-11

WhereV + I ∙ Rs is the voltage across the diode, n is the diode ideality factor (dimensionless
and usually between 1 and 2 for a single junction cell),  I 0 is the saturation current, and V T is
the thermal voltage given by:

Alan Dunn 19 01/07/2021

 k Tc
VT=
q
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law the voltage drop around the left-hand loop must equal zero. So

V + I R s + I sh Rsh
Rearranging
V + I Rs
I sh = 7-12
R sh

Substituting equations 7 -11 and 7 -12 into equation 7 -10 gives the complete governing
equation for the single diode model
V + I ∙ Rs V + I ∙ Rs
[
I =I ph−I 0 exp
( nVT ) ]
−1 −
R sh
7-13

And the power, P is given by

P=IV
Where
 
V V Voltage at the terminals of the module
q 1.602×10-19 C Charge of the electron  
k 1.381×10-23  J∙K-1 Boltzmann’s constant
n - Diode quality factor, normally between 1 and 2
N cs - Number of cells in series.
Tc K Effective temperature of the cells

To use the equation five parameters must be known, all of which may be a function of cell
temperature:

I ph A Light-generated current in cell

I0 A Inverse saturation current
Rs Ω Series resistance
R sh Ω Shunt resistance
a Curve fitting parameter

Model parameters can be estimated from manufacturers’ data measured a standard test
conditions.[ CITATION Duf91 \l 2057 ][ CITATION Sch07 \l 2057 ].

To determine five parameters we need to know the current and voltage at five measured
points. However, manufacturers normally only publish three: open circuit, short circuit and
maximum power point.

PVSyst is a sophisticated tool for modelling the performance of solar systems. It uses the
single diode model and the manual[ CITATION PVs13 \l 2057 ] explains how the equations
are solved.

8. Module Temperature

Alan Dunn 20 01/07/2021

At the design stage it is necessary to predict the module temperature under installed
conditions as it strongly affects the output of the module.

We have seen that a PV module does not convert all the incident radiation into electricity.
The radiation that is not converted will heat the module, increasing its temperature until the
long-wave radiative and convective heat losses are equal to the radiant heat input. At this
point the module will reach an equilibrium temperature.

Factors that determine the module temperature include incident solar radiation, air
temperature, wind speed and direction, mean radiant temperature of the surroundings, the
geometry of the module installation, and the construction of the module itself.

It should be noted that the module rarely reaches an equilibrium temperature as the climate
variables are constantly changing and change is not instantaneous because of the thermal
capacity of the module. Other real-world complexities which are rarely considered:

- There will be a difference between cell temperatures on the same module.

Differences of up to 2 K between centre and corner cells have been reported.
[ CITATION Fai08 \l 2057 ]
- Different modules in a array may be at different temperatures owing to the
mounting geometry.

Faiman published a module temperature model that has been widely adopted.[CITATION
Fai08 \l 2057 ] The model uses a modified form of the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation used to
analyse flat-plate solar collectors.
G
T c =T a+ 8-14
U +U '1 v
'
0

Values of U '0 and U '1 are found by fitting data. Faiman found the values to be fairly constant
for the seven collector types he studied and proposed the following values:

U '0 =24.9± 1.0 W ∙m −2 K−1

U '1=7.0 ± 0.55 W ∙m −2 K−1

Example
What will be the temperature of a PV module when the irradiance is 700
W·m-2, the ambient temperature is 26oc and the wind speed is 4 m·s-1?
G 700
T c =T a+ =26+ =39.2o C
' '
U +U 1 v
0
24.9+7 × 4

9. Environmental Impact and Safety

A common misconception is that more energy is expended in the manufacture and
installation of PVs than the energy generated in their lifetime. This may have been true with
early PVs, but modern efficient production technologies have dramatically improved the
energy payback time (EPT).
A Japanese team found the EPT of thin film CdS/CdTe PV modules to be 1.7–1.1 years and
the life-cycle CO2 emissions were estimated at 14–9 g-C/kWh, which was less than that of
electricity generated by utility companies.[ CITATION Kaz01 \l 2057 ]

Alan Dunn 21 01/07/2021

A European study found silicon PV systems to have energy pay-back times of 1.5-2 years for
South-European locations and 2.7-3.5 years for Middle-European locations. Thin film
technologies were found to have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1.5 years for
Southern Europe.[CITATION Als06 \l 2057 ]

10. References
Alsema, E. A., & de Wild-Scholten, M. J. (2006). Environmental impacts of PV electricity
generation - a critical comparison of energy supply options. 21st European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,. Dresden.
Castañer, L., & Silvestre, S. (2002). Modelling photovoltaic systems using PSpice. Chichester:
Wiley.
CIBSE. (2000). TM 25 Understanding building integrated photovoltaics. London: Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers.
De Soto, W., Klein, S. A., & Beckman, W. A. (2006). Improvement in the validation of a model
for photovoltaic array performance. Solar Energy 80, 78-88.
DGS. (2008). Site surveys and shading analysis. In DGS, Planning and installing photovoltaic
systems (pp. 129-150). London: Earthscan.
Duffie, J. A., & Beckman, W. A. (1991). Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes (2nd ed.). New
York: Wiley.
Faiman, D. (2008). Assessing the outdoor operating temperature of photovoltaic modules.
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Application, 16(4), 307-315.
Gray, J. L. (2011). The Physics of the Solar Cell. In S. Hegedus, & A. Luque, Handbook of
Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley.
IEC. (2005). 61215 Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules – Design
qualification and type approval. Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission,.
Kazuhiko, K. (2001, March). A life-cycle analysis on thin-film CdS/CdTe PV modules. Solar
Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 67(1-4), 279–287.
Martin, N., & Ruiz, J. M. (2001). Calculation of the PV modules angular losses under field
conditions by means of an analytical model. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70,
25-38.
Martin, N., & Ruiz, J. M. (2002). A New Model for PV Modules Angular Losses Under Field
Conditions. International Journal of Solar Energy , 22(1) 19-31.
Martin, N., & Ruiz, J. M. (2005). Annual Angular Reflection Losses in PV Modules. Progress in
Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 13 75-84.
Photon. (2013, September 30). Solar Module Database. Retrieved 9 30, 2013, from
Photon.info: http://www.photon.info/photon_site_db_solarmodule_en.photon
PVsyst. (2013, 9 30). PV Module - model description. Retrieved 9 30, 2013, from PVsyst 6
Help: http://files.pvsyst.com/help/index.html
Sandia National Laboratories. (2013). Retrieved 5 30, 2013, from PV Performance Modeling
Collaborative: http://pvpmc.org/
Sandia National Laboratories. (2013). Single Diode Equivalent Circuit Models. Retrieved 5 28,
2013, from PV Performance Modelling Collaborative: http://pvpmc.org/modeling-
steps/module-iv-curve/diode-equivalent-circuit-models/
Schumacher, J., Eicke, U., Pietruschka, D., & Catani, A. (2007). Exact Analytical Calculation of
the One-diode Model Parameters from PV Module Data Sheet Information. 22nd
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference. Milan.
Souka, A. F., & Safwat, H. H. (1966). Determination of the optimum orientations for the
double-exposure, flat-plate collector and its reflectors. Solar Energy, 10, 170-174.

Alan Dunn 22 01/07/2021

Click on RefWorks to access a supplementary online bibliography.
Background Reading: http://pveducation.org/
11. Modelling Procedure
The PV Performance Modelling Collaborative[CITATION Sca13 \l 2057 ] proposes a series of
steps for modelling a PV system. This is an excellent website for PV modelling – very practical
and with a wide selection of algorithms.

(a) Irradiance and Weather

Definition of irradiance and weather data for the performance model

(b) Incident Irradiance

Transposition of irradiance into direct and diffuse components
Translation of irradiance to the Plane-of-Array (POA)

(c) Shading, Soiling, and Reflection Losses

Evaluation of the loss of irradiance due to shading, soiling, and reflection losses

(d) Cell Temperature

Calculation of cell temperature from irradiance, ambient air temperature and wind speed

(e) Module Output

Calculation of the I-V curve for the specific irradiance and temperature conditions

(f)DC and Mismatch Losses

All series strings of modules must operate at the same current and all parallel string must
operate at the same voltage. If all modules are not operating identically some module will
not be operating at the maximum power point (MPP). Reasons why modules may not be
operating identically include:
 Inherent performance difference
 Heterogeneous irradiation
 Differential wiring losses

(g) DC to DC Max Power Point Tracking

Adjusting the DC voltage to maximize output power from the array

(h) DC to AC Conversion
Most modern inverters operate with a conversion efficiency of 95%, but this does vary with
DC voltage, AC output power and sometimes temperature.

(i) AC Losses

Alan Dunn 23 01/07/2021

For domestic applications these losses will be negligible, but for larger systems where power
must be transferred a significant distance or raised in voltage through a transformer before
being connected to the grid, the losses must be accounted for.

Alan Dunn 24 01/07/2021

12.Solar cell single-diode model solution
In Section 7 a single diode model was developed that may be used to generate I-V curves
and predict the power produced by a cell or PV module.

V + I ∙ Rs V + I ∙ Rs
I =I ph−I 0 exp[ ( a )
−1 − ]
R sh
12-15

In order to use the equation five parameters must be quantified:

I ph A Photo current
Io A Diode reverse saturation current
Rs Ω Series resistance
R sh Ω Shunt resistance
a Modified ideality factor

12.1. Parameter extraction

These five parameters are determined using information provided under test conditions and
available from manufacturers’ literature following the method of [CITATION DeS05 \l 2057 ]

First known condition: short circuit

At short circuit conditions the load resistance is zero and the diode current is very small: so
the light current is equal to the short circuit current, I =I sc, and the voltage is zero, V =0.
Substituting into Equation 12 -15 gives:

I sc =I ph−I 0 exp [ ( I a∙ R )−1]− IR R

sc s sc

sh
s
12-16

Second known condition: open circuit

At the open circuit condition the current is zero I =0 and V =Voc , so Equation 12 -15
becomes

[
0=I ph−I 0 exp ( Va )−1]− VR
oc oc

sh
12-17

Third known condition: maximum power

At maximum power I =I mp and V =V mp which when substituted into Equation 12 -15 gives:

[
I mp=I ph−I o exp (V mp + I mp ∙ R s
a ) V +I R
]
−1 − mp mp s
R sh
12-18

Fourth known condition: derivative at maximum power is zero

d ( IV ) dI
dV |
mp
=I mp −V mp
dV | =0mp
12-19

Where

Alan Dunn 25 01/07/2021

 −I o V +I mp Rs
1
mp
a
e −
dI a R sh
dV | = 1+ I R e
mp o s
V mp +I mp Rs
a
R
+ s
12-20

a R sh
Fifth known condition: derivative of the current at I sc
−I o I Rs
1
sc
a
e −
dI a Rsh 1
dV |I= I sc
=
1+
I o Rs
e
I sc R s
a
+
Rs
=
Rsh
a R sh

12.2. Model solution

The final equation is implicit, there is no analytical solution and it must be solved using
numerical methods.

12.3. Example
A PV module with 36 cells in series and an area of 0.427 m 2 has the following measured
characteristics at reference conditions:

I sc 2.9 A
V oc 20 V
I mp 2.67 A
V mp 16.5 V
μ I ,sc 1.325x10-3 A∙K-1
μV , oc -0.0775 V∙ K-1

Alan Dunn 26 01/07/2021