AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE:

STEADY FLIGHT
Course/Code: Aircraft Design and Performance – MECN 3350
Professor: Dr. Omar Enrique Meza Castillo
Lesson: 5.1.1
Objectives

■ To state the importance of aircraft performance at steady flight.

■ To solve problems about trust required using graphical and analytical
approaches.
■ To solve problems about range and endurance.
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction

■ The performance analysis is important to assess the capabilities of an

airplane as indicated in the previous module. Moreover, from the
point of view of an airplane designer, this analysis would give the
thrust or power required, maximum lift coefficient required etc. to
achieve a desired performance.
■ This analysis would also point out the new developments required, in
airplane aerodynamics and engine performance, to achieve better
airplane performance.
 Equations of Motion for Steady, Level Flight
■ Return to figure, which shows an
airplane with a horizontal flight path.
This airplane is in level flight; that is,
the climb angle 𝜃 and roll angle 𝜙; are
zero. Moreover, by definition, steady
flight is flight with no acceleration.

0 = 𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷
Illustration shows the case of a
horizontal flight path.
0 = 𝐿 + 𝑇 sin 𝜖 − 𝑊
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 Equations of Motion for Steady, Level Flight

■ Although the engine thrust line is inclined at angle 𝜖 to the free-

stream direction, this angle is usually small for conventional
airplanes and can be neglected. Hence, for this chapter we assume
that the thrust is aligned with the flight direction, that is, 𝜖 = 0. For
this case, previous equations reduce to, respectively,

𝑇=𝐷

𝐿=𝑊

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson Force diagram for steady, level flight
 Trust Required (Drag)

■ Returning to previous figure. Imagine this airplane in steady, level

flight at a given velocity and altitude, say, at 400 mi/h at 20,000 ft. To
maintain this speed and altitude, enough thrust must be generated to
exactly overcome the drag and to keep the airplane going this is the
thrust required to maintain these flight conditions. The thrust
required TR depends on the velocity, the altitude, and the
aerodynamic shape, size, and weight of the airplane.
■ Indeed, the thrust required is simply equal to the drag of the airplane
- it is the thrust required to overcome the aerodynamic drag.
■ A plot showing the variation of TR with free-stream velocity 𝑉∞ is
called the thrust required curve; such a curve is shown in next
figure. It is one of the essential elements in the analysis of airplane
performance.
 Trust Required (Drag)

Thrust required curve for the

Northrop T-38 jet trainer
with a weight of 10,000 lb at an
altitude of 20,000 ft.

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Graphical Approach

■ Consider a given airplane flying at a given altitude in steady, level

flight. For the given airplane, we know the following physical
characteristics: weight W, aspect ratio AR, and wing planform area S.
Equally important, we know the drag polar for the airplane, given by
equation:
2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿
■ where 𝐶𝐷,0 and K are known for the given airplane. To calculate the
thrust required curve, proceed as follows:
 Graphical Approach

1. Choose a value of 𝑉∞ .
2. For the chosen 𝑉∞ , calculate 𝐶𝐿 from the relation
1
𝐿=𝑊= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐿
2
2𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆

3. Calculate 𝐶𝐷 from equation

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿 2
 Graphical Approach

4. Calculate drag, hence 𝑇𝑅 , from

1
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
2
This is the value of 𝑇𝑅 corresponding to the velocity chosen in step 1.
this combination (𝑇𝑅 , 𝑉∞ ) is one point on the trust required curve.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for a large number of different values of 𝑉∞ , thus
generating enough points to plot the trust required curve.
𝑻𝑹 thrust required 𝑷𝑹 power required in Kilowatts 𝑽∞ flight velocity
𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑊 𝑇𝑅 𝑉 1 2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷 2𝑊
𝐶𝐿 𝑃𝑅 = = 𝑉∞ =
100 1000 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷 3/2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Graphical Approach

Thrust required curve for the

Gulfstream IV at the conditions for
Example 5.1, illustrating
the regions of velocity instability and
stability, and the direction of
decreasing angle of
attack with increasing velocity.
Altitude = 30,000 ft; W = 73,000 lb.
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
Graphical Approach

Drag versus velocity for the

Gulfstream IV for the conditions of
Example 5. 1 . Illustration of the
variation of the drag due to lift
and the zero-lift drag. Altitude=
30,000 ft; W = 73,000 lb.

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach

◼ In this section we examine the thrust required curve from an

analytical point of view, exploring the equations and looking for
interesting relationships between the important parameters that
dictate thrust required (drag).
◼ For steady, level flight we have from equations:
𝐷 𝐷
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑊 = 𝑊
𝑊 𝐿
◼ Or
𝑊
𝑇𝑅 =
𝐿Τ𝐷
 Analytical Approach

◼ Examining previous equation, we

see that for an airplane with fixed
weight, TR decreases as L/D
increases. Indeed, minimum TR
occurs when L/D is maximum.
This fact is noted on the trust
required curve sketched in figure
The lift-to-drag ratio is one of the
most important parameters
affecting airplane performance. It
is a direct measure of the
aerodynamic efficiency of an
airplane.

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach

◼ The lift-to-drag ratio is the same as the ratio of 𝐶𝐿 to 𝐶𝐷

1 2
𝐿 2 ∞ ∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
𝜌 𝑉
= =
𝐷 1 2 𝐶𝐷
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
2
◼ Since 𝐶𝐿 and 𝐶𝐷 are both functions of the angle of attack of the
airplane 𝛼, then L / D itself is a function of 𝛼. A generic variation of
L/D with 𝛼 for a given airplane is sketched in next figure:
 Analytical Approach

𝛼 𝛼

Schematic of the variation of lift-to-drag ratio for a given airplane

as a function of angle of attack. Points 1, 2, and 3 correspond to
points 1, 2, and 3, respectively, in previous figure. Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 Analytical Approach

◼ Considering the airplane in

Example 5.1, with the
corresponding data in Table
5.1. The variation of L/D
with 𝑉∞ can easily be found
by dividing 𝐶𝐿 by 𝐶𝐷 , both
found in Table 5.1. The
results are plotted in figure,
where the values of (L/D)max
and V(L/D)max are also
marked.
Variation of L/ D with velocity for the Gulfstream IV at
the conditions For Example 5.1. Altitude= 30,000 ft; W = 73,000 lb.
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 Analytical Approach

◼ The drag (hence TR) for a given airplane in steady, level flight is a
function of altitude (denoted by h), velocity, and weight:
𝐷 = 𝑓 ℎ, 𝑉∞ , 𝑊
◼ This makes sense. When the altitude h changes, so does density 𝜌∞ ;
hence D changes. Clearly, as 𝑉∞ changes, D changes. As W changes, so
does the lift L; in turn, the induced drag (drag due to lift) changes,
and hence the total drag changes. It is sometimes comfortable and
useful to realize that drag for a given airplane depends only on
altitude, velocity, and weight. An expression for drag which explicitly
shows this relationship is easily obtained from the drag polar:
2
𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿
 Analytical Approach

2𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆
◼ Substituting in previous equation:
2
1 2 𝑊
𝐷 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷,0 + 4𝐾
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆
◼ Or
2
1 2 2𝐾𝑆 𝑊
𝐷 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷,0 +
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆
 Analytical Approach

◼ For a given airplane (with given S, 𝐶𝐷,0 , and K), previous equation
explicitly shows the variation of drag with altitude (via the value of
𝜌∞ ), velocity 𝑉∞ and weight W.
◼ Previous equation can be used to find the flight velocities for a given
value of TR. Writing previous equation in terms of the dynamic
1
pressure 𝑞∞ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 and noting that D = TR, we obtain
2
2
𝐾𝑆 𝑊
TR = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷,0 +
𝑞∞ 𝑆
2
𝑊
𝑞∞ 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷,0 − 𝑞∞ TR + 𝐾𝑆 =0
𝑆
 Analytical Approach
TRΤ𝑆 ± TRΤ𝑆 2 − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆 2
𝑞∞ =
2𝐶𝐷,0
1
◼ By replacing 𝑞∞ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2
2

2 TRΤ𝑆 ± TRΤ𝑆 2 − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆 2

𝑉∞ =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
TR TR 𝑊
◼ Using the relation 𝑆
=
𝑊 𝑆
1/2
TRΤ𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆 ± 𝑊 Τ𝑆 TRΤ𝑊 2 − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑉∞ =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
 Analytical Approach

◼ From previous equation 𝑉∞ for a

given TR depends on:
◼ Thrust-to-weight ratio TR /W .
◼ Wing loading W/S
◼ The drag polar, that is 𝐶𝐷,0 and
K.

At a TR larger than the minimum value, there ore !wo corresponding

velocities, the low velocity V2 and the high velocity V1.

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach
TR
= 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛
1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉T = 𝑉 𝐿/𝐷 =
R 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

𝐿 1
=
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
Analytical Approach
 Stalling Velocity and 𝑪𝑳 𝒎𝒂𝒙

◼ Consider that an airplane which has weight (W) and wing area (S), is
flying at an altitude (h). In the following equation it is observed that,
the flight velocity (V) is proportional to 1/𝐶𝐿 1/2 .
2𝑊
𝑉∞ =
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
◼ Thus, the value of 𝐶𝐿 required would increase as the flight speed
decreases. Since 𝐶𝐿 cannot exceed 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , there is a flight speed
below which level flight is not possible. The flight speed at which 𝐶𝐿
equals 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is called Stalling speed
2𝑊
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Stalling Velocity and 𝑪𝑳 𝒎𝒂𝒙

◼ Examining the previous

equation:
◼ Velocity 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 increases with
increasing altitude
◼ Velocity 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 increases with
increased wing loading W/S
◼ Velocity 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 decreases
with increased 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼

Schematic of lift coefficient versus angle of attack for an airplane,

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
including the high angle of attack region far beyond the stall.
The Fundamental Parameters: Thrust-to-weight Ratio,
Wing Loading, Drag Polar, and Lift-to-drag Ratio

◼ For steady, level flight, the lift-to-drag ratio is simply the reciprocal of
the thrust to-weight ratio:
−1
𝐿 TR
=
𝐷 𝑊

◼ For the restricted case of a given airplane (Gulfstream IV) in steady,

level flight, we have noted that the lift-to-drag ratio is a function of
velocity:
2 −1
𝐿 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 2𝐾 W
= +
𝐷 2 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆
 The Fundamental Parameters: Thrust-to-weight Ratio,
Wing Loading, Drag Polar, and Lift-to-drag Ratio

Figures Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫
1/2
◼ For 𝐿Τ𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 :
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉 𝐿 Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

1/2
3/2
◼ For 𝐶𝐿 ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
: 2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝐶 3/2
ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

1/2
◼ For 𝐶𝐿 1/2 ൗ𝐶𝐷 : 2 3𝐾 𝑊
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐶 1/2
ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿 𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆
 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Aerodynamic Relations Associated with
𝟑/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
Maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 ,𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 and 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Thrust Available and the Maximum
Velocity of the Airplane
◼ Propeller-Driven Aircraft

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞ 𝑇𝐴 =
𝑉∞
◼ Turboprop

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝐴 =
𝑉∞
 Thrust Available and the Maximum
Velocity of the Airplane
◼ Jet-Propelled Aircraft
◼ Subsonic speeds 𝑇𝐴 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉∞
𝑇𝐴
◼ Supersonic speeds = 1 + 1.18 𝑀∞ − 1
𝑇𝐴 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 1

𝑇𝐴 𝜌
◼ Effect of altitude on 𝑇𝐴 =
𝑇𝐴 0 𝜌0

Where 𝑇𝐴 0 is the thrust available at sea level and 𝜌0 is the standard

sea-level density.
 Thrust Available and the Maximum
Velocity of the Airplane
◼ Several relationships for the thrust variation with velocity (or Mach
number) are given in Module 3. 𝑇𝐴
= 𝐴𝑀∞ −𝑛
𝑇𝐴 𝑉=0
Where 𝑇𝐴 0 is the static thrust available (thrust at zero velocity) at
standard sea level, and A and n are functions of altitude, obtained by
correlating the data for a given engine.
◼ The altitude variation of thrust for a high-bypass-ratio civil turbofan
is correlated in 𝑚
𝑇𝐴 𝜌
=
𝑇𝐴 0 𝜌0
Where 𝑇𝐴 0 is the thrust available at sea level and 𝜌0 is the standard
sea-level density.
 Maximum Velocity

◼ In steady, level flight, the

maximum velocity of the
airplane is determined by the
highspeed intersection of the
thrust required and thrust
available curves.

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Velocity
◼ For steady, level flight, 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐴 . For flight at 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the thrust available
is at its maximum value. Hence,
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥

◼ Replacing 𝑉∞ with 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑇𝑅 with 𝑇𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 the high velocity is:
1/2
2
𝑇𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Τ𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆 + 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑇𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Τ𝑊 − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
◼ Examining the previous equation:
◼ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 increases as 𝑇𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Τ𝑊 increases.
◼ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 increases as W/S increases.
◼ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 decreases with 𝐶𝐷,0 and/or k increases.
 Maximum Velocity

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Velocity

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Velocity

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Velocity

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Velocity

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Power Required

𝑑 𝐝𝐫
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐅. 𝐝𝐫 = 𝐅.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑉

𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞
 Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach

𝑊
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝑉∞
𝐶𝐿 Τ𝐶𝐷

2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷 2
𝑃𝑅 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 3

𝐶𝐿 3/2
𝑃𝑅 ∝
𝐶𝐷

◼ Hence, minimum power required occurs when the airplane is flying

such that 𝐶𝐿 3/2 ൗ𝐶𝐷 is a maximum value.
 Analytical Approach
◼ In particular at minimum 𝑃𝑅 we have 3/2 3/4
1. 𝐶𝐿 1 3
=
𝐶𝐷 4 𝐾𝐶𝐷,0 3/2
𝑚𝑎𝑥

2. Zero-lift drag equals one-third of the drag due to lift.

3. The velocity at which 𝑃𝑅 is a minimum occurs at
1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝐶 3/2
ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

4. This velocity is less than that for minimum 𝑃𝑅 where 𝐶𝐿 Τ𝐶𝐷 is a

maximum. Indeed, 𝑉 𝐶 3/2 ൗ𝐶 = 0.76 𝑉 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Analytical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Rate of Climb
◼ In this Module we consider steady (unaccelerated) climb. In
equations of previous Module 𝑑𝑉∞ Τ𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑉∞ 2 Τ𝑟1 = 0 and
𝑉∞ cos 𝜃 2 Τ𝑟2 = 0. The latter two statements imply 𝑟1 → ∞ and 𝑟2 →
∞, that is, flight along a straight path. This also implies that bank
angle 𝜙 is zero. The equations of motion become,

𝑇 cos 𝜖 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝐿 + 𝑇 sin 𝜖 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃 = 0
◼ Furthermore, for simplicity, we assume the trust line is in the
direction of flight, that is, 𝜖 = 0. The previous equations become,
𝑇 −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃 = 0
Rate of Climb
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

𝜃
𝜃
 Rate of Climb

◼ In particular, the vertical component is, by definition, the rate of

climb of the airplane; we denote the rate of climb by R/C. From
diagram,
𝑅 Τ𝐶 = 𝑉∞ sin 𝜃

𝑉∞ 𝑇𝑉∞ −𝐷𝑉∞ 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Wsin 𝜃 = 𝑉∞ sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 Τ𝐶 = =
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
◼ Combining equations and doing son algebraic manipulations we get:
−1
𝑇 1 2 𝑊 𝑊 2𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑉∞ sin 𝜃 = 𝑉∞ − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 −
𝑊 2 𝑆 𝑆 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2
Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Graphical Approach
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
Graphical Approach

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Analytical Approach
◼ By assuming in the drag relation that cos 𝜃 = 1 , the previous
equation becomes,
−1
𝑇 1 2 𝑊 𝑊 2𝐾
𝑉∞ sin 𝜃 = 𝑉∞ − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 −
𝑊 2 𝑆 𝑆 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2

◼ Given 𝑉∞ , the corresponding R/C can be calculated, and the climb

angle can be found from:
𝑅 Τ𝐶
sin 𝜃 =
𝑉∞
−1
𝑇 1 2 𝑊 𝑊 2𝐾
sin 𝜃 = − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 −
𝑊 2 𝑆 𝑆 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2
 Maximum Climb Angle
◼ For a jet-propelled airplane:
𝑇 1
sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝑊 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇
sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
𝑊

1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = cos 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆
◼ Finally, the rate of climb that correspond to the maximum climb angle
is given by Τ
𝑅 𝐶 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Maximum Range of Climb
◼ For a jet-propelled airplane:
1/2
𝑇Τ𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆 3
𝑉 𝑅Τ𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 1+ 1+ 2
3𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇Τ𝑊 2

3
𝑍 ≡1+ 1+ 2
𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑇Τ𝑊 2
𝑚𝑎𝑥

1/2
𝑇Τ𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑍
𝑉 𝑅Τ𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
3𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0
 Maximum Range of Climb
◼ For a jet-propelled airplane:

1/2 3/2
𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑍 𝑇 𝑍 3
𝑅 Τ𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1− − 2
3𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑊 6 2 𝑇Τ𝑊 2 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑍
 Maximum Range of Climb
◼ For a propeller-driven airplane:
1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉 𝑅Τ𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

1/2
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃 2 𝐾 𝑊 1.155
𝑅 Τ𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝑊 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

Maximum Range of Climb
Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson
 Maximum Range of Climb

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Range
◼ By definition, range is the total distance (measured with respect to
the ground) traversed by an airplane on one load of fuel. We denote
the range by R. We also consider the following weights:
◼ 𝑊𝑜 -gross weight of the airplane including everything; full fuel load,
payload, crew, structure, etc.
◼ 𝑊𝑓 -weight of fuel; this is an instantaneous value, and it changes as
fuel is consumed during flight.
◼ 𝑊1 -weight of the airplane when the fuel tanks are empty.
◼ At any instant during the flight, the weight of the airplane W is
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊𝑓
◼ Since 𝑊𝑓 is decreasing during the flight, W is also decreasing. Indeed,
the time rate of change of weight is, 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊𝑓
= = 𝑊𝑓ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Range
◼ Range is intimately connected with engine performance through the
specific fuel consumption. For a propeller-driven/reciprocating
engine combination, the specific fuel consumption is defined by

𝑊𝑓
𝑐≡−
𝑃
◼ For a jet-propelled airplane, the thrust specific fuel consumption is
defined by
𝑊𝑓 𝑐𝑉∞
𝑐𝑡 ≡ − =
𝑇 𝜂𝑝𝑟
 Range
◼ The range of the airplane is obtained integration between s = 0,
where the fuel tanks are full and hence 𝑊 = 𝑊0 , and s = R, where the
fuel tanks are empty and hence 𝑊 = 𝑊1 .
𝑑𝑠
𝑉∞ = → 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊𝑓 Τ𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑊𝑓
𝑐𝑡 = − → 𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑇 𝑐𝑡 𝑇
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊𝑓
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝑇
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑠 = − =− 𝑑𝑊 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝑇 𝑐𝑡 𝑇 𝑐𝑡 𝑇 𝑊
 Range
◼ In steady, level flight, 𝐿 = 𝑊 and 𝑇 = 𝐷 . Hence the previous equation
can be written as:
𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊
𝑅 𝑊1 𝑊0
𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑑𝑊 𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑑𝑊 𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑊0 𝑑𝑊
𝑅 = න 𝑑𝑠 = − න =න = න
0 𝑊0 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊 𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1 𝑊

◼ Equation is frequently called the Breguet range equation

𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1
Range for Propeller-Driven Airplanes

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
𝑐 𝐷 𝑊1

1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉 𝐿 Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

𝐿 𝐶𝐿 1
= =
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾
Range for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

2 2 𝐶𝐿 1/2 1/2 1/2

𝑅= 𝑊0 − 𝑊1
𝑐𝑡 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷

1/2
2 3𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝐶 1/2
ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿 𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

1/2 1/4
𝐶𝐿 3 1
=
𝐶𝐷 4 3𝐾𝐶𝐷,0 3
𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Range for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Range for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

 Endurance
◼ By definition, endurance is the amount of time that an airplane can
stay in the air on one load of fuel. The flight conditions for maximum
endurance are different from those for maximum range, discussed in
the previous section. Also, the parameters for endurance are different
for propeller-driven and jet-propelled airplanes. Let us consider
these matters in more detail.
𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝑑𝑊𝑓
= −𝑐𝑡 𝑇 → 𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑡 𝑇
◼ Since 𝐿 = 𝑊 and 𝑇 = 𝐷 in steady, level flight, the previous equation
can be written as

𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝐿 1 𝑑𝑊𝑓
𝑑𝑡 = − =−
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝐷 𝑐𝑡 𝑊
 Endurance
◼ Integrating previous equation from t = 0, where W = 𝑊0 , to t = E,
where W = 𝑊1 , we have

𝑊1 𝑊0
1 𝐿 𝑑𝑊𝑓 1 𝐿 𝑑𝑊𝑓 1 𝐿 𝑊0 𝑑𝑊𝑓
𝐸 = −න =න = න
𝑊0 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊 𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1 𝑊

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝐸= 𝑙𝑛
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1
Endurance for Propeller-Driven Airplanes
3/2
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐶𝐿
𝐸= 2𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝑊1 −1/2 − 𝑊0 −1/2
𝑐 𝐶𝐷

1/2
2 𝐾 𝑊
𝑉𝐶 3/2
ൗ𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷,0 𝑆

3/2 3/4
𝐶𝐿 1 3
=
𝐶𝐷 4 𝐾𝐶𝐷,01/3
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Endurance for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝐸= 𝑙𝑛
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1
 Endurance for Jet-Propelled Airplanes

Figure Adopted from: @John D Anderson

References

■ Anderson Jr. John D. (2012). Aircraft Performance and Design. Boston,

MA: McGraw-Hill Higher education.