AN INTRODUCTION TO

AERODYNAMICS
Course/Code: Aircraft Design and Performance – MECN 3350
Professor: Dr. Omar Enrique Meza Castillo
Lesson: 1.1.2
Objectives

■ To state the importance of aerodynamics in the study of aircraft

design.
■ To show knowledge of basic aerodynamic factors that affect airplane
performance.
BASIC PROPERTIES
 Mathematical System

■ A scalar is a quantity that represents only magnitude, e.g., time,

temperature, or volume. It is expressed using a single number,
including any units.
■ A vector is a quantity that represents magnitude and direction. It is
commonly used to represent displacement, velocity, acceleration, or
force.
■ Displacement (s) is the distance and direction of a body’s movement
(an airplane flies east 150 km).
■ Velocity (V) is the speed and direction of a body’s motion, the rate of
■ change of position (an airplane flies south at 400 knots)
1 knot = 0.514444 m/s
 Mathematical System

■ Speed is a scalar equal to the

magnitude of the velocity vector.
■ Acceleration (a) is the rate and
direction of a body’s change of
velocity (gravity accelerates bodies
toward the center of the earth at Vector B
32.174 ft/s2).
■ A force (F) is a push or pull exerted
on a body (1,000 lbs of thrust
pushes a jet through the sky). Vector A
Vector Addition
 Mathematical System

■ Mass (m) is the quantity of molecular material that comprises an

object.
■ Volume (v) is the amount of space occupied by an object.
■ Density (ρ) is mass per unit volume. It is expressed:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝝆=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
■ Weight (w) is the force with which a mass is attracted toward the
center of the earth by gravity.
■ Force (F) is mass times acceleration: 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
 Mathematical System
■ A moment (M) is created when a force is applied at some distance
from an axis or fulcrum and tends to produce rotation about that
point. A moment is a vector quantity equal to a force (F) times the
distance (d) from the point of rotation that is perpendicular to the
force. This perpendicular distance is called the moment arm.
M = Fd F Force

d Moment Arm
■ Work (W) is done when a force acts on a body and moves it. It is a
scalar quantity equal to the force (F) times the distance of
displacement (s).
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔
 Mathematical System

■ Power (P) is the rate of doing work or work done per unit of time.

𝑾
𝑷=
𝒕
■ Energy is a scalar measure of a body’s capacity to do work. There are
two types of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy. Energy
cannot be created or destroyed but may be transformed from one
form to another. This principle is called conservation of energy. The
equation for total energy is:
𝑻𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬
 Mathematical System

■ Potential energy (PE) is the ability of a body to do work because of

its position or state of being. It is a function of mass (m), gravity (g),
and height (h):

𝑷𝑬 = 𝐰𝐡 = 𝐦𝐠𝐡

■ Kinetic energy (KE) is the ability of a body to do work because of its

motion. It is a function of mass (m) and velocity (V):

𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝐦𝐕 𝟐
𝟐
 Newton’s Law of Motion
■ NEWTON’S FIRST LAW - THE LAW OF EQUILIBRIUM
■ “A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion tends to
remain in motion in a straight line at a constant velocity unless acted
upon by some unbalanced force.”
■ The tendency of a body to remain in its condition of rest or motion is
called inertia. Equilibrium is the absence of acceleration, either
linear or angular. Equilibrium flight exists when the sum of all
forces and the sum of all moments around the center of gravity are
equal to zero.
■ An airplane in straight and level flight at a constant velocity is acted
upon by four forces: thrust, drag, lift and weight. When these forces
exactly cancel each other out, the airplane is in equilibrium. See next
figure:
Newton’s Law of Motion

Equilibrium Level Flight

Figure Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008).
Banking Turn

Figure Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

 Newton’s Law of Motion
■ Trimmed flight exists when the sum of all moments around the
center of gravity is equal to zero. In trimmed flight, the sum of the
forces may not be equal to zero. For example, an airplane in a
constant rate, constant angle of bank turn is in trimmed, but not
equilibrium, flight. An airplane in equilibrium flight, however, is
always in trimmed flight.
■ An airplane does not have to be in straight and level flight to be in
equilibrium. Next figure shows an airplane that is climbing, but not
accelerating or decelerating, i.e., there are no unbalanced forces. It is
another example of equilibrium flight. Thrust must overcome drag
plus the parallel component of weight. Lift must overcome the
perpendicular component of weight.
Newton’s Law of Motion

Equilibrium Climbing Flight

Figure Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008).
 Newton’s Law of Motion
■ An airplane with sufficient thrust to
climb vertically at a constant true
airspeed can achieve an equilibrium
vertical flight condition. Thrust must
equal weight plus total drag, and lift
must be zero. See figure:

Figure Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008). Equilibrium Vertical Flight
 Newton’s Law of Motion
■ NEWTON’S SECOND LAW - THE LAW OF ACCELERATION
■ “An unbalanced force (F) acting on a body produces an acceleration
(a) in the direction of the force that is directly proportional to the
force and inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the body.”
■ In equation form:
𝑭 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝒂= 𝒂=
𝒎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
■ When an airplane’s thrust is greater than its drag (in level flight), the
excess thrust will accelerate the airplane until drag increases to equal
thrust.
 Newton’s Law of Motion
■ NEWTON’S THIRD LAW - THE LAW OF INTERACTION
■ “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction,”
■ This law is demonstrated by the thrust produced in a jet engine. The
hot gases exhausted rearward produce a thrust force acting forward.
See figure:

Action and Reaction

Figure Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008).
Simplified Aircraft Motion
Unbalanced Forces

Figure Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

 Properties of the Atmosphere

■ The atmosphere is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21%

oxygen, and 1% other gases, including argon and carbon dioxide.
Air is considered to be a uniform mixture of these gases, so we will
examine its characteristics as a whole rather than as separate gases.
■ Static pressure (PS) is the pressure particles of air exert on adjacent
bodies. Ambient static pressure is equal to the weight of a column of
air over a given area. The force of static pressure always acts
perpendicular to any surface that the air particles collide with,
regardless of whether the air is moving with respect to that surface.
■ As altitude increases, there is less air in the column above, so it
weighs less. Thus atmospheric static pressure decreases with an
increase in altitude. At low altitudes, it decreases at a rate of
approximately 1.0 inHg per 1000 ft.
 Properties of the Atmosphere

■ Air density (ρ) is the total mass of air particles per unit of volume.
The distance between individual air particles increases with altitude
resulting in fewer particles per unit volume. Therefore, air density
decreases with an increase in altitude.
■ Air consists of very many individual particles, each moving randomly
with respect to the others. Temperature (T) is a measure of the
average random kinetic energy of air particles. Air temperature
decreases linearly with an increase in altitude at a rate of 2 °C (3.57
°F) per 1000 ft until approximately 36,000 feet. This rate of
temperature change is called the average lapse rate. From 36,000
feet through approximately 66,000 feet, the air remains at a constant
−56.5 °C (−69.7 °F). This layer of constant temperature is called the
isothermal layer.
 Properties of the Atmosphere

■ Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. As humidity

increases, water molecules displace an equal number of air
molecules. Since water molecules have less mass and do not change
the number of particles per unit volume of air, density decreases.
Therefore, as humidity increases, air density decreases.
■ Viscosity (μ) is a measure of the air’s resistance to flow and
shearing. Air viscosity can be demonstrated by its tendency to stick
to a surface. For liquids, as temperature increases, viscosity
decreases. Recall that the oil in a car gets thinner when the engine
gets hot. Just the opposite happens with air: Air viscosity increases
with an increase in temperature.
 Properties of the Atmosphere

■ Sound is caused by disturbances of the air that causes a sudden

compression or vibration. This creates a series of alternating
compressions and rarefactions which is transmitted to our ears as
sound. The compressions and rarefactions are transmitted from one
particle to another, but particles do not flow from one point to
another. Sound is wave motion, not particle motion. The local speed
of sound is the rate at which sound waves travel through a particular
air mass. The speed of sound, in air, is dependent only on the
temperature of the air. The warmer the air, the more excited the
particles are in that air mass. The more excited the molecules are, the
more easily adjacent molecules can propagate a sound wave. As the
temperature of air increases, the speed of sound increases.
 The Standard Atmosphere

■ The atmospheric layer in which most flying is done is an ever-

changing environment. Temperature and pressure vary with altitude,
season, location, time, and even sunspot activity. It is impractical to
take all of these into consideration when discussing airplane
performance. In order to disregard these atmospheric changes, an
engineering baseline has been developed called the standard
atmosphere. It is a set of reference conditions giving representative
values of air properties as a function of altitude.
■ Although it is rare to encounter weather conditions that match the
standard atmosphere, it is nonetheless representative of average zero
humidity conditions at middle latitudes.
The Standard Atmosphere

Sea Level Standard Atmospheric Conditions

 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere
■ We are now able to obtain p, T, and 𝜌 as
functions of h for the standard
atmosphere. The keystone of the
standard atmosphere is a defined
variation of T with altitude, based on
experimental evidence. This variation is
shown in Figure. Note that it consists of
a series of straight lines, some vertical
(called the constant-temperature, or
isothermal, regions) and some inclined
(called the gradient regions). Given T =
T(h) as defined by Figure, then p = p(h)
and 𝜌 = 𝜌( h) follow from the laws of
physics, as shown next.
Figure Adopted from: Anderson, J. D. (2016).
 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere
■ The pressure and density variations
with altitude are obtained from this
empirical temperature variation by
using the laws of physics. One of
these laws is the hydrostatic
equation:

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺

■ Where: ℎ𝐺 is the geometric height

above sea level.

Figure Adopted from: Anderson, J. D. (2016).

 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere
■ In the isothermal regions of the standard atmosphere, the pressure
and density variations are given by:
𝑝 𝜌
= = 𝑒− 𝑔𝑜 /𝑅𝑇 ℎ−ℎ1
𝑝1 𝜌1
■ In the gradient regions of the standard atmosphere, the pressure and
density variations are given by
−𝑔𝑜 /𝑎𝑅 − 𝑔𝑜 /𝑎𝑅 +1
𝑝 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇
= =
𝑝1 𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑇1

■ Where: 𝑔𝑜 is the gravity at sea level and 𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑎 ℎ − ℎ1 and 𝑎 is

the given lapse rate
 The General Gas Law

■ The General Gas Law sets the relationship between three properties
of air: pressure (P), density (ρ), and temperature (T). It is
expressed as an equation where R is a constant for any given gas
(such as dry air):
𝑃 = 𝜌RT
■ One method to increase pressure is to keep density constant and
increase temperature (as in a pressure cooker). If pressure remains
constant, there is an inverse relationship between density and
temperature. An increase in temperature must result in a decrease in
density, and vice versa.
 Altitude Measurement
■ Altitude is defined as the geometric height above a given plane of
reference. True altitude is the actual height above mean sea level.
Pressure altitude (PA) is the height above the standard datum
plane. The standard datum plane is the actual elevation at which the
barometric pressure is 29.92 inHg. Since the standard datum plane is
at sea level in the standard atmosphere, true altitude will be equal to
pressure altitude.
■ Density altitude (DA) is the altitude in the standard atmosphere
where the air density is equal to local air density. It is found by
correcting pressure altitude for temperature and humidity deviations
from the standard atmosphere. In the standard atmosphere, density
altitude is equal to pressure altitude. But as temperature or humidity
increase, the air becomes less dense, with the effect that the actual air
density at one altitude is equal to that of a higher altitude on a
standard day. A high DA indicates a low air density.
 Altitude Measurement
■ Density altitude is not used as a height reference, but as a predictor of
aircraft performance. A high DA will decrease the power produced by
an engine because less oxygen is available for combustion. It will also
reduce the thrust produced by a propeller or jet engine because
fewer air molecules are available to be accelerated. The reduced
power and thrust will reduce an airplane’s acceleration and climb
performance. A high DA also requires a higher true airspeed for
takeoff and landing and will therefore increase takeoff and landing
distances.
■ Over a typical day, static pressure and pressure altitude remain
virtually constant. However, as the sun heats the air, the reduced
density causes a dramatic increase in density altitude. This will have
a noticeable impact on aircraft performance. Next figure can be used
to determine density altitude from pressure altitude and temperature
(but does not take into account the effects of humidity).
 Altitude Measurement

Figure Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008).

Definition of the Standard Atmosphere

Figure Adopted from: Anderson, J. D. (2016).

Definition of the Standard Atmosphere

Figure Adopted from: Anderson, J. D. (2016).

AIRCRAFT TERMINOLOGY
Major Components of an Airplane

Figure Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

 Major Components of an Airplane

■ For any airplane to fly, one must lift the weight of the airplane itself,
the fuel, the passengers, and the cargo. The wings generate most of
the lift to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the airplane must
be pushed through the air. The air resists the motion in the form of
aerodynamic drag. Modern airliners use winglets on the tips of the
wings to reduce drag. The turbine engines, which are located
beneath the wings, provide the thrust to overcome drag and push the
airplane forward through the air. Smaller, low-speed airplanes use
propellers for the propulsion system instead of turbine engines.
 Major Components of an Airplane

■ To control and maneuver the aircraft, smaller wings are located at

the tail of the plane. The tail usually has a fixed horizontal piece,
called the horizontal stabilizer, and a fixed vertical piece, called the
vertical stabilizer. The stabilizers' job is to provide stability for the
aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The vertical stabilizer keeps the
nose of the plane from swinging from side to side, which is called
yaw. The horizontal stabilizer prevents an up-and-down motion of
the nose, which is called pitch.
 Aircraft Rotations
Body Axes

Figure Adopted from: NASA. (2020). https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/short.html

 Major Components of an Airplane

■ At the rear of the wings and stabilizers are small moving sections that
are attached to the fixed sections by hinges. In the figure, these
moving sections are colored brown. Changing the rear portion of a
wing will change the amount of force that the wing produces. The
ability to change forces gives us a means of controlling and
maneuvering the airplane. The hinged part of the vertical stabilizer is
called the rudder; it is used to deflect the tail to the left and right as
viewed from the front of the fuselage. The hinged part of the
horizontal stabilizer is called the elevator; it is used to deflect the tail
up and down. The outboard hinged part of the wing is called the
aileron; it is used to roll the wings from side to side. Most airliners
can also be rolled from side to side by using the spoilers. Spoilers are
small plates that are used to disrupt the flow over the wing and to
change the amount of force by decreasing the lift when the spoiler is
deployed.
 Major Components of an Airplane

■ The wings have additional hinged, rear sections near the body that
are called flaps. Flaps are deployed downward on takeoff and landing
to increase the amount of force produced by the wing. On some
aircraft, the front part of the wing will also deflect. Slats are used at
takeoff and landing to produce additional force. The spoilers are also
used during landing to slow the plane down and to counteract the
flaps when the aircraft is on the ground. The next time you fly on an
airplane, notice how the wing shape changes during takeoff and
landing.
■ The fuselage or body of the airplane, holds all the pieces together.
The pilots sit in the cockpit at the front of the fuselage. Passengers
and cargo are carried in the rear of the fuselage. Some aircraft carry
fuel in the fuselage; others carry the fuel in the wings.
BASIC AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
 Airfoil
■ The cross-sectional shape of a wing or other streamlined surface is
called an airfoil.

Wing - Airfoil

■ An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain lift from the air through

which it moves. Thus, it can be stated that any part of the aircraft that
converts air resistance into lift is an airfoil.
 Airfoil Terminology
■ Chord: Chord is defined as
the distance between the
leading edge which is the
point at the front of the
airfoil and has maximum
curvature and the trailing
edge which is the point at
the rear of the airfoil with
maximum curvature along
the chord line.
■ Chord line: Chord line is
defined as the straight line
connecting the leading and Airfoil parts
trailing edges.
Figure Adopted from: http://wwwaeroforum.blogspot.com/2015/03/air-foilterminology-air-foil-isprimary.html
 Airfoil Terminology

■ Upper surface: Upper surface is also known as suction surface which

is associated with high velocity and low static pressure.
■ Lower surface: Lower surface is also known as pressure surface
with higher static pressure.
■ Aerodynamic center: The pitching moment is independent of lift
coefficient and angle of attack (AOA) at this center.
■ Center of pressure: The pitching moment is zero at this center.
■ Angle of attack (AOA): The angle formed between a reference line
on a body and the oncoming flow.
■ Pitching moment: The moment or torque produced the
aerodynamic force on the airfoil.
 Airfoil Terminology

Airflow over a wing section

Effect on increasing angle of attack

Figure Adopted from: https://www.waybuilder.net/free-ed/skilledtrades/Aviation/AvAirframes/02AeroAssemRig/02AeroAssemRig.htm
 Types of Airfoil

Figure Adopted from: https://www.cfinotebook.net/notebook/aerodynamics-and-performance/principles-of-flight

Figure Adopted from: https://www.lavionnaire.fr/VocableWings.php Figure Adopted from: https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4305/p115.htm
 Dihedral and Anhedral Angle
■ Dihedral Angle: Upward inclination of the wing to the plane through
the lateral axis.

■ Anhedral Angle: Downward inclination of the wing to the plane

through the lateral axis.

Figures Adopted from: Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008).

 Wing
■ The wing provides the principal lifting
force of an airplane. Lift is obtained
from the dynamic action of the wing
with respect to the air. The cross-
sectional shape of the wing is known
as the airfoil section. The airfoil
section shape, planform shape of the
wing, and placement of the wing on
the fuselage depend upon the airplane
mission and the best compromise
necessary in the overall airplane
design. Figure illustrates the shapes
and placements often used.

Figure Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

Examples of Wing Planform

Figures Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

 Wing Geometry Definitions
■ The Wing area (S) is the projected area of the planform and is
bounded by the leading and trailing edges and the wing tips.
■ Wingspan (b) is the length of a wing, measured from wingtip to
wingtip. It always refers to the entire wing, not just the wing on one
side of the fuselage.
■ The root chord (cr) is the chord at the wing centerline and the tip
chord (ct) is measured at the wingtip.
■ The average chord (c) is the average of every chord from the wing
root to the wingtip.
■ Taper is the reduction in the chord of an airfoil from root to tip.
Taper ratio (λ) is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord.
■ Aspect ratio (AR) is the ratio of the wingspan to the average chord.
Wing Geometry Definitions
Wing Geometry Definitions
For the special case of a rectangular wing

Figures Adopted from: NASA. (2020).

References

■ Anderson Jr. John D. (2012). Aircraft Performance and Design.

Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Higher education.
■ Weismüller Michael. (2012). Retrieved from http://tuprints.ulb.tu-
darmstadt.de/2934.
■ Aerotoolbox, A. (2020, March 22). Aerodynamic Lift, Drag and
Moment Coefficients. Retrieved April 9, 2020, from
https://aerotoolbox.com/lift-drag-moment-coefficient/
■ Abbott, I.H. and Von Doenhoff, A.E. (1959) Theory of Wing Sections:
Including a Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications, Mineola.
■ Kundu, A. K. (2010). Aircraft design (Cambridge Aerospace Series).
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
References

■ Naval Aviation Schools Command. (2008). Fundamentals Of

Aerodynamics.
■ NASA. Parts of Airplane. Retrieved June 06, 2020, from
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/airplane.html
■ Anderson, J. D. (2016). Introduction to flight. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill Education.
■ D., A. J. J. (2012). Aircraft Performance and Design. Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill Higher education.