AERODYNAMICS 2

CHAPTER 6

Fundamentals of Flight
Mechanics for Steady Flight
Definition of Angles and velocities in steady
symmetrical flight

XB,YB, ZB = body axes system (YB, not shown, is pointing into the paper), with XB, along some airplane reference line.
XS,YS, ZS = stability axes system (YS is pointing along YB) with XS pointing in the direction of the velocity vector
= the flight path angle, positive for ascending flight (climb) and negative for descending flight (glide or dive)
= airplane (reference) angle of attack
= pitch attitude angle
V = true airspeed
Vh = horizontal flight speed component (Vh = Vcos)
Vv = R.C. = vertical flight speed component or rate-of-climb:
Definition of Angles and velocities in steady
symmetrical flight

𝐿 𝑅 Assume,

𝑇
𝑇 =𝐷+𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝐷

Assume,

𝑊 𝐿=𝑊 cos 𝛾
Definition of Angles and velocities in steady
symmetrical flight

𝐿 𝑇 =𝐷+𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝑅
𝐿=𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝑇
= airplane lift
𝐷 = airplane drag
= resultant force
= airplane thrust
= airplane weight
= thrust orientation angle relative to
the body x-axis

𝑊
Definition of Angles and velocities in steady
symmetrical flight
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑅.𝐶.=𝑉 sin 𝛾

𝑉 𝑦=𝑅.𝐶 . 𝑉𝑥
Definition of Angles and velocities in steady
symmetrical flight
To write eqn. in terms of “power” multiply both sides by the airspeed

𝑇𝑉 =𝐷𝑉 + 𝑊𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ,
𝑅 . 𝐶 .=𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾
𝑇𝑉 =𝐷𝑉 +𝑊 (𝑅.𝐶 .) = power available from the propulsive system
= power required to overcome the drag at a given speed V
𝑃 𝐴𝑉 =𝑃 𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 +𝑊 (𝑅. 𝐶.) = climb power

𝑃 𝐴𝑉 − 𝑃 𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 Note that in steady symmetrical flight the power available equals to the sum of
𝑅 . 𝐶 .= the power required and the climb power.
𝑊
Unpowered Flight or Glide
𝐼𝑛 𝑡h𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ,𝑇 =0
+↑ ∑ 𝐹 𝑉 =0
𝐿 𝑅 −𝑊 =0
𝑅=𝑊
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ,
𝐷
𝑅=√ 𝐿2+ 𝐷 2
√ 2 2
𝐶 𝑅 𝑞𝑆= ( 𝐶 𝐿 𝑞𝑆 ) + ( 𝐶 𝐷 𝑞𝑆 ) =𝑊
√ 2 2
𝐶 𝑅 𝑞𝑆=(𝑞𝑆) ( 𝐶 𝐿 ) + ( 𝐶 𝐷 ) =𝑊
∑ 𝐹 𝑋 =0 +¿
𝑠 +↑ ∑ 𝐹 𝑍 = 0
𝑠
→

𝐷 −𝑊 sin 𝛾=0 𝐿−𝑊 cos𝛾=0

𝑊 𝐷=𝑊 sin 𝛾 𝐿=𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝐶 𝐷 𝑞𝑆=𝑊 sin 𝛾 𝐶 𝐿 𝑞𝑆=𝑊 cos𝛾
Unpowered Flight or Glide
Glide angle and Airspeed
It is generally most convenient to express the flight mechanics quantities: glide angle,
airspeed and rate-of-descent in the aerodynamic coefficients C L and CD

𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ,𝛾 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 , 𝑉

𝐿 𝐷
tan 𝛾 =
𝐿 √ 2
𝐶 𝑅 𝑞𝑆=(𝑞𝑆) ( 𝐶 𝐿 ) + ( 𝐶 𝐷 ) =𝑊
2

𝐷 𝐶𝐷 1 2
tan 𝛾= 𝐶𝑅 𝜌 𝑉 𝑆 =𝑊
𝐶𝐿 2

tan 𝛾 =
1
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷
𝑉=
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )( )
2 1
𝜌 𝐶𝑅

𝑊 𝑉=
√( )( )( )
𝑊 2 1
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿
cos 𝛾
Unpowered Flight or Glide
Rate of Descent, R.D.
𝑅 . 𝐷 .=𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 :
𝑉=
√(
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,
𝑊
𝑆 )( )( )
2 1
𝜌 𝐶𝐿
cos 𝛾

𝑉 𝑦=𝑅. 𝐷 . 𝑉 𝑥 𝐶𝐷 sin 𝛾 𝐶 𝐷
= sin 𝛾= , cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 cos 𝛾 𝐶 𝐿

𝑉 𝑅 . 𝐷 .=𝑉
𝐶𝐷
cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 𝑊 2 1
√( )( )( ) √( )( )( 𝐶 )
2
𝑊 2 𝐶𝐷
𝑅. 𝐷 .= cos𝛾 cos𝛾¿ 3
cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑆 𝜌 𝐿
3

𝑅 . 𝐷 .=
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )(
2 1
𝜌 𝐶 𝐿 3 /𝐶 𝐷 2)cos
3
𝛾
Unpowered Flight or Glide
Note that in many instances is so small that cos is satisfied.
Therefore, in a shallow glide:

𝑉=

𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )( )
2 1
𝜌 𝐶𝐿

𝑅 . 𝐷 .=
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )(
2 1
𝜌 𝐶 𝐿 3 /𝐶 𝐷 2 )
Unpowered Flight or Glide
Minimum glide path angle:
𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛾 =
𝐶𝐿
−1 1
𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan

( )
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Minimum rate of descent:

𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ ( )( )(
𝑊
𝑆
2
𝜌
1
(𝐶 𝐿3 / 𝐶 𝐷2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
Minimum speed/stalling speed:

𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑛=
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )( )
2 1
𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Unpowered Flight or Glide
Horizontal distance covered in a steady glide:
h
tan 𝛾=
𝑅
h
𝑅=
tan 𝛾
𝐶𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾=
𝐶𝐿

𝑅=h
( )
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷
Complete Airplane Drag Polars
For 𝐶 𝐷 =𝐶 𝐷 For 1
𝐶 𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷
max
0 𝑖
2
max 0
3 𝑖

𝐶
𝐶 𝐷=𝐶 𝐷 +𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐿2
𝐿
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑖
𝜋 𝐴𝑒
0 𝑖
𝐶𝐷 𝑖
=
𝜋 𝐴𝑒 𝐶 𝐷=𝐶 𝐷 +𝐶 𝐷
0 𝑖

𝐶 𝐿= √ 𝜋 𝐴𝑒 𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 =2𝐶 𝐶 𝐿= √ 𝜋 𝐴𝑒 𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 =4𝐶
𝐷 𝑖𝐷 0 𝐷 𝐷𝑖
0

𝐶 𝐿= √ 𝜋 𝐴𝑒𝐶 𝐷 0
𝐶 𝐿= √ 3 𝜋 𝐴𝑒 𝐶 𝐷 0

𝑪𝑳
𝟑
(√ 3 𝜋 𝐴𝑒 𝐶
¿ 𝐷)
√
3 𝜋 3𝐴𝑒 3 𝜋 𝐴𝑒 ( 𝐶 𝐷 0
3
)
 
=
0
2
𝟐 2 16 𝐶 𝐷
max
𝑪 𝑫 max (4𝐶𝐷 ) 0
0

max max
Sample Problems
1. The maximum lift-to-drag ratio for glider XYZ is 13.6. Calculate the minimum glide angle and the maximum range
measured along the ground covered by the glider in a power-off glide that starts at an altitude of 10,000 ft.

Given: Solution:
For For
𝐶𝐷¿ 1 h
tan 𝛾= tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐶𝐿 𝐶 𝐿 𝑅 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
1 10,000 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥 =
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 | 𝑚𝑎𝑥
tan ( 4.21 ° )
= 13.6 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =136,000 𝑓𝑡
= 10,000 ft 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan
−1
( 1
13.6 )
Required: 𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 =4.21°
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Sample Problems
2. The maximum lift-to-drag ratio for glider XYZ is 16.9. If drag is minimum, glider XYZ can reach a range of 30 km.
Determine the minimum glide path angle and the altitude at which the glider started the power-off glide.

Given: Solution:
For For
𝐶𝐷¿ 1 h
h tan 𝛾= tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐶𝐿 𝐶 𝐿 𝑅 𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐷
tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
1
h=( 30 𝑘𝑚 ) tan ( 3.39 ° )

= 16.9
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 | 𝑚𝑎𝑥
h=1.78𝑘𝑚=1,775𝑚
= 30 km 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan
−1
( 1
16.9 )
Required: 𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑛 =3.39 °
𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,h
 Sample Problems
3. The maximum lift-to-drag ratio of a certain aircraft is 7.7. While cruising at FL050, the aircraft experienced an engine
failure. If the nearest airport is 35,000 ft away from the ground position of the aircraft, will it be able to land safely?

Given: Solution:
For
h
FL050 tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 h
=

|
𝐶𝐿 𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 7.7
= 5,000 ft 𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥 = h
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 |𝑚𝑎𝑥

Required: 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =5,000 𝑓𝑡 ( 7.7 )

𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =38,500
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
For At 𝐶 𝐷 =𝐶 𝐷 For :
0 𝑖

h 𝐶 𝐷=2 𝐶 𝐷
tan 𝛾 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = For :
0

𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶 𝐷=2 ( 0.010 )

1 h 0 .010=0.022 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐷=0.02
𝑅.𝐷. =

|
√
𝐶𝐿 𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥
0.010 For :
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶 𝐿=
0.022
𝑅𝑚 𝑎𝑥 = h
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 |𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶 𝐿=0.6742
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 | 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷

Required:
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =500𝑚 ( 33.71 ) 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 | =
0.6742
0.02
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =16,855𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 | 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=33.71
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
For

𝑉𝑅 =𝑚𝑎𝑥
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )( 𝐶 )
2
𝜌
1

√
𝐿𝑅
𝑅.𝐷.
𝑚 𝑎𝑥

𝑉𝑅 =𝑚 𝑎𝑥
( 574
𝑁
𝑚
2 )( 1.225 𝑘𝑔 )(
2

3
1
0.6742 )
𝑚
𝑚
𝑉 𝑅 =3 7.28
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠
Required:
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
h
𝑅 . 𝐷 .=
𝑡
h
𝑡=
𝑅 .𝐷.
𝑅.𝐷. 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑤h𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
For

Required:
𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )(
2
𝜌
1
( 𝐶 𝐿3 / 𝐶 𝐷2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
At 1 For :
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶
0
3 𝐷 𝑖 𝐶 𝐷=4 𝐶 𝐷 0
For : 𝐶 𝐷=4 ( 0.010 )
1
𝑅.𝐷. 0 .010=
3
( 0.022 𝐶 𝐿 )
2
𝐶 𝐷=0.04

√
For:
3 ( 0.010 )
𝐶 𝐿=
|
3 3
0.022 𝐶𝐿
2
=
𝐶𝐿
2
𝐶 𝐿=1.1677 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝐷
𝐶 𝐿3
|
3
1.1677
Required: =
𝐶 𝐷2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.04 2

|
3
𝐶𝐿
2
=995.24
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
For For

√
h
𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( )( )(
𝑊
𝑆
2
𝜌 )
1
( 𝐶 𝐿3 / 𝐶 𝐷2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛
500 𝑚
𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =

√
𝑅.𝐷. 𝑚

( 𝑚 )( 1.225 𝑘𝑔 )( 995.24 )
𝑁 2 1 0.97
𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 574 𝑠
2
𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =5 15.27 𝑠
3
𝑚 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 =8 .59𝑚
𝑚
𝑅 . 𝐷 .𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0.97
𝑠
Required:
Sample Problems
4. A glider weighs 3,550 N and has a wing loading of 574 N/m2. Its drag equation is CD=0.010+0.022CL2. After being
launched at 500 m in still air, find(a) the greatest distance it can cover and (b) the greatest duration of flight possible over
level ground. In both cases, find the corresponding flight speeds. Ignore the effect of density changes of the atmosphere and
use SSLC.
Given: Solution:
For

𝑉𝑡 =𝑚 𝑎𝑥
√( 𝑊
𝑆 )( )( )
2
𝜌
1
𝐶𝐿

√
𝑅.𝐷.
𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉𝑡 =𝑚 𝑎𝑥
( 574
𝑁
𝑚
2 )( 1.225 𝑘𝑔 )(
2

3
1
1.1677 )
𝑚
𝑚
𝑉 𝑅 =2 8.33
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠
Required:
Practice
5. A glider is performing unpowered descent from an altitude of 8,000 ft. If the pilot wishes to achieve maximum range,
what should be the glide angle (in deg., nearest hundredths)? The glider’s drag equation is 0.011 + 0.04CL 2.

Given: Solution:

Required:
 - END -
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