MASTERS REVIEW COURSE PROGRAM

AIRPLANE DESIGN

Lecturer: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN

Two Main Sections in the Design of an Airplane:

1. Aerodynamics design feature
2. Structural design feature

General Design Requirements:

The major items considered by the designer may be summarized as follows:

1. Load required to be carried

2. Performance and other aerodynamic requirements
3. Type of material, structural and general arrangement
4. Weight
5. Powerplant

Before a design is commenced, a specification is drawn up giving the purpose for which the airplane is
required, the performance to be provided, and often stating the type of airplane and the powerplant to be
used. Thus the specification may fix items (1) and (5) completely and (2) and (3) in part. Of the remaining
items, that causing most trouble to designer is (4). The saving of weight is of paramount importance in
airplane design, and it is essential that the structure shall be as efficient as possible.

General Procedure:
Once the specification has been received or drawn up, and the type of airplane decided upon, the
design proceeds roughly as follows:

1. Aerodynamics Design Feature

a. Preliminary Weight Estimate
b. Selection of Airfoil Section for Wing and Determination of Wing Area and Planform
c. Estimate of Fuselage Dimensions and General Shape
d. Estimate of Sizes of Tail Surfaces
e. Preliminary Three – View Drawing
f. Provisional Personal Check
g. Detailed Weight Estimate
h. Balance Diagram and Determination of C.G. Position
i. Revision of Wing Area
j. Final Three View Drawing
k. Performance Estimate and Stability Calculation

2. Structural Design Feature

a. Determination of Design Loads
b. Layout and Stress Analysis of Structure

AERODYNAMIC DESIGN FEATURE

Preliminary Weight Estimate

In the absence of information on the weights of previous airplanes of similar types one method
commonly adapted in forming a preliminary estimate of the weight, is to determine the non-structural
weight – i.e., powerplant, fuel and oil, passengers and crew, baggage, instruments, etc. For most

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conventionalairplanes the structural weight is between 30% and 35% of the total weight, so that it is possible
to assume the non-structural weight as between 65% and 70% of the total weight.

TAKE-OFF WEIGHT BUILDUP

“Design take-off gross weight” is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission for which it
was designed. This is not necessarily the same as the “maximum take-off weight”. Many military aircraft can be
overloaded beyond design weight but will suffer a reduced maneuverability. Unless specifically mentioned,
take-off gross, or “WO” is assumed to be the design weight.
Equation below summarizes the takeoff-weight buildup.

WO = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty

The crew and payload weights are both known since they are given in the design requirements. The
only unknowns are the fuel weight and empty weight.

To simplify the calculation, both fuel and empty weights can be expressed as fractions of the total
takeoff weight, i.e., (Wf/Wo) and (We/Wo).

Thus,
Wo = Wcrew + Wpayload + (Wf/Wo)Wo + (We/Wo)Wo

This can be solved for Wo as follows:

Wcrew  Wpayload
Wo 
W   W 
1   f    e 
 Wo   W o 

EMPTY-WEIGHT ESTIMATION
EMPTY WEIGHT FRACTION VS WO
We A C
 AWoc K vs
Wo
Sailplane-unpowered 0.86 -0.05
Sailplane-powered 0.91 -0.05
Homebuilt-metal/wood 1.19 -0.09
Homebuilt-composite 0.99 -0.09
General aviation-single engine 2.36 -0.18
General aviation-twin engine 1.51 -0.10
Agricultural aircraft 0.74 -0.03
Twin turboprop 0.96 -0.05
Flying boat 1.09 -0.05
Jet trainer 1.59 -0.10
Jet fighter 2.34 -0.13
Military cargo/bomber 0.93 -0.07
Jet transport 1.02 -0.06

KVS = variable sweep constant

= 1.04 if variable sweep
= 1.00 if fixed sweep

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FUEL-FRACTION ESTIMATION
Wf  W 
 1.061  x 
Wo  Wo 

HISTORICAL MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT FRACTIONS

Wx
Wo
Warmup and takeoff 0.970
Climb 0.985
Landing 0.995

Airfoil Selection for Wing and Determination of Wing Area and Planform

In selecting an airfoil for an airplanes’ lifting surface (wing, tail or canard) the following considerations
are important:
1. Drag (for example to obtain the highest possible cruise speed)
2. Lift-to-drag ratio at values of CL important to airplane performance
3. Thickness (to obtain the lowest possible structural weight)
4. Thickness distribution (to obtain favorable span loading and/or high fuel volume)
5. Stall characteristics (to obtain gentle stall characteristics)
6. Drag-rise behavior (associated with item 1)

The wing area can be calculated as:

390W
S
C Lmax V S2
or:

2
W C Lmax VS

S 390

Where:


VS  f C L max 
S = gross wing area in ft²
VS = stall speed in mph
W = maximum design weight in lb
C L max = maximum coefficient of lift for the wing
W/S = wing loading in lb/ft

Typical values for C L max range from 1.4 for an unflapped wing to 2.0 for a wing with a simple flap.
Typical values for stalling speed are 40 mph for conventional tourer/training aircraft and 50 mph for high
speed (racer) types. A survey of the wing loadings of several ultra-light airplane show a variation from 5 to
16 lb/ft² with 7.5 and 10 being average values for unflapped and simple flapped wings, respectively. The
airplane weight can be assumed to be three times the useful load (i.e., occupant, baggage, fuel and oil).

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Wing Aspect Ratio

Wing aspect ratio (A) may be defined as:

b2 b S
A   2
S c c
Where:

b = wing span
= mean aerodynamic chord
A = 5-8 for ultra-light airplane

Sailplane equivalent aspect ratio =4.464(best L/D) 0.69

Propeller aircraft Equivalent aspect ratio

Homebuilt 6.0
General aviation-single engine 7.6
General aviation-twin engine 7.8
Agricultural aircraft 7.5
Twin turboprop 9.2
Flying boat 8.0

Equivalent aspect ratio  aM cmax

Jet aircraft
a c
Jet trainer 4.737 -0.979
Jet fighter(dog fighter) 5.416 -0.622
Jet fighter(other) 4.110 -0.622
Military cargo/bomber 5.570 -1.075
Jet transport 7.50 0

Typical Values For take-off Wing Loadings (psf)

Airplane Type (W/S)TO
Homebuilt 5 – 15
Single Engine – Propeller Driven 10 – 25
Twin Engine – Propeller Driven 20 – 45
Agricultural 15 – 30
Business Jets 40 – 80
Regional TBP 30 – 55
Transport Jets 80 - 120
Military Trainers – Jets 40 – 80
Military Trainers – Props 20 - 40
Fighters – Jets 70 – 140
Fighters – Props 40 – 70
Military Patrol, Bomb and Transport
Airplanes 70 – 120
Flying Boats, Amphibious and Float
Airplanes
Jets 50 – 90
Props 30 – 60
Floats 20 - 50
Supersonic Cruise Airplanes 80 - 120
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Wing Arrangements
Positioning of the wing along the fuselage is concerned with longitudinal stability and control and as
such involves some detailed calculation. In the early stage when many factors are still undecided it is
sufficient to position the wing so that the airplane center of gravity (position of which at this stage will have to
be approximate) and the wing quarter chord position lie in the same sectional plane. The vertical position of
the wing on the fuselage affects many factors:

A high wing allows a continuous structural path for the wing spar or box, provides for a good
downward visibility, and offers the highest aerodynamic efficiency. On the other hand, it increases the overall
depth of the fuselage cross section, increases the length of the main undercarriage (if it is wing mounted), and
makes the cockpit less accessible.

A low wing position generally allows a continuous wing structural path through the fuselage, provides
easy entry to the cockpit, and is more convenient for wing maintenance and inspection.

A mid-wing arrangement has minimum interference drag but causes a discontinuity in the wing
structural path at the body side.

The wing is normally set at a small angle (1° to 3°) to the longitudinal axis of the fuselage to ensure
minimum drag for the whole airplane during cruising flight.

The ailerons usually occupy approximately 9% of the total wing area and have a width of about 25% of
the wing chord, which for constant chord means that they occupy the outer 35% of the span.

The wing planform can be selected as:

From theoretical considerations and from pressure distribution tests, it can be demonstrated that the
ideal wing form is the elliptical because it has the smallest induced drag. But using the same theory and tests,
it was found that a rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 has only 5 percent greater induced drag than that of an
elliptical.
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 Between these two wing planforms, there is the tapered, which has roughly one percent more induced
drag than the elliptical.

Both the elliptical and tapered wings allow a lighter spar construction, but these advantages are of a
small importance when compared with the better stalling characteristics and simplified construction of a
rectangular wing.

The rectangular planform has the best stall characteristics. The stall begins at the root of the wing
progressing toward the tips, thus the ailerons remains effective while the center part of the wing is already
stalled.

Wing Sweep (Swept Back Wings)

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 Wing sweep is used primarily to reduce the adverse effect of transonic and supersonic flow.
Theoretically, shock formation on a swept wing is determined not by actual velocity of the air passing over the
wing, but rather by the air velocity in a direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the wing. At supersonic
speeds the loss of lift associated with supersonic flow can be replaced by sweeping the wing leading edge aft
 1 
of the Mach cone angle    arcsin  .
 M

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But It’s Not All Good News

Taper Ratio
Wing taper ratio, λ is the ratio between the tip chord and the centerline root chord. Most wings of low
sweep have a taper ratio of about 0.4 to 0.5. Most swept wings have a taper ratio of about 0.2 to 0.3. Taper
affects the distribution of lift along the span of the wing. As proven by the Prandtl wing theory early in this
century, a minimum drag due to lift, or “induced” drag, occurs when the lift is distributed in an elliptical
fashion. For untwisted and unswept wing, this occurs when the wing planform is shaped as an ellipse.

Twist
Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and to revise the lift distribution to approximate an ellipse.
Typically, wings are twisted between zero and five degrees.
“Geometric twist” is the actual change in airfoil angle of incidence, usually measured with respect to
the root airfoil. A wing whose tip airfoil is at negative (nose-down) angle compared to the root airfoil is said to
have “wash-out.” If a wing has “linear twist”, the twist angle changes in proportion to the distance from the
root airfoil.
“Aerodynamic twist” is the angle between the zero-lift angle of an airfoil and the zero-lift angle of the
root airfoil. If the identical airfoil is used from root to tip, the aerodynamic twist is the same as the geometric
twist.
On the other hand, a wing with no geometric twist can have aerodynamic twist if, for example, the
root airfoil is symmetric (zero-lift angle is zero) but the tip airfoil is highly cambered (zero-lift angle is nonzero).
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The total wing aerodynamic twist equals the wing geometric twist plus the root airfoil zero-lift angle, minus
the tip airfoil zero-lift angle.
When wing twist is used to reshape the lift distribution, the change in lift at some chord station along
the span is proportional to the ratio between the new airfoil angle of attack and the original one. Thus, the
effect on lift distribution depends upon the original angle of attack of the wing, which in turn depends upon
the lift coefficient at which the wing is flying.
In other words, any attempt to optimize the lift distribution by twisting the wing will be valid only at
one lift coefficient. At other lift coefficients, the twisted wing will not get the whole benefit of the twist
optimization. The more twist required to produce a good lift distribution at the design lift coefficient, the
worse the wing will perform at other lift coefficients. It is for this reason that large amounts of twist (much
over 5 deg.) should be avoided.

Wing Incidence
The wing incidence angle is the pitch angle of the wing with respect to the fuselage. If the wing is
untwisted, the incidence is simply the angle between the fuselage axis and the wing’s airfoil chordlines. If the
wing is twisted, the incidence is defined with respect to some arbitrarily chosen spanwise location of the wing,
usually the root of the exposed wing where it intersects the fuselage. Frequently the incidence is given at the
root and tip, which then defines the twist as the difference between the two.
Wing incidence angle is chosen to minimize drag at some operating condition, usually cruise. The
incidence angle is chosen such that when the wing is at the correct angle of attack for the selected design
condition, the fuselage is at the angle of attack for minimum drag.
For a typical, circular straight fuselage, this is approximately zero degrees angle of attack. For
passenger aircraft, the incidence angle must be carefully chosen to insure that the flight attendants do not
have to push the food carts uphill.
Wing incidence angle is ultimately set using wind tunnel data. For most initial design work, it can be
assumed that general aviation and homebuilt aircraft will have an incidence of about 2 deg., transport about 1
deg., and military aircraft approximately zero.
These values are for untwisted wings. If the wing is twisted, the average incidence should equal these
values.

Dihedral
Wing dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal when seen from the front.
Dihedral tends to roll the aircraft level whenever it is banked. This is frequently, and incorrectly, explained as
the result of a greater projected area for the wing that is lowered.
Actually, the rolling moment is caused by a sideslip introduced by the bank angle. The aircraft “slides”
toward the lowered wing, which increases its angle of attack. The resulting rolling moment is approximately
proportional to the dihedral angle.
Wing sweep also produces a rolling moment due to sideslip, caused by the change in relative sweep of
the left and right wings. For an aft-swept wing, the rolling moment produced is negative and proportional to
the sine of twice the sweep angle. This creates an effective dihedral that adds to any actual geometric dihedral.
Roughly speaking, 10 deg. of sweep provides about 1 deg. of effective dihedral. For a forward swept
wing, the sweep angle produces a negative dihedral effect, requiring an increased geometric dihedral in order
to retain natural directional stability.
In addition, the position of the wing on the fuselage has an influence on the effective dihedral, with the
greatest effect provided by a high wing. This is frequently, and incorrectly, explained as a pendulum effect.
Actually, the fuselage in sideslip pushes the air over and under itself. If the wing is high-mounted, the
air being pushed over the top of the fuselage pushes up on the forward wing, providing an increased dihedral
effect. The reverse is true for a low-mounted wing.
Due to the additive effects of sweep and wing position, many high-winged transports suh as the
Lockheed C-5 actually require a negative dihedral angle to avoid an excess of effective dihedral. Excessive
dihedral effect produces “Dutch roll”, a repeated side-to-side motion involving yaw and roll. To counter a
Dutch roll tendency, the vertical tail area must be increased, which increases weight and drag.
Unfortunately, as yet no simple technique for selecting dihedral angle takes all of these effects into
account. Like so many parameters in initial design, the dihedral angle must be estimated from historical data
and then revised following analysis of the design layout.

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Estimate of Fuselage Dimensions and General Shapes
The shape of the fuselage is largely dictated by the ergonomic considerations – this involves arranging
the fuselage lines to provide a comfortable but minimum volume around the pilot and the passenger seats.
Unless the designer is the only person to fly the airplane it is necessary to arrange these values to suit the
“standard man”. A cardboard scale model of the standard man shown below with pivoting parts will be found
to be very useful during layout of the cockpit.

The positioning of the instrument panel, controls, seat and cockpit floor involves personal preferences,
but there are several references available which may be helpful. These are quoted below adjacent to a layout
which has been used in the design of certain ultra- light airplane.

The dimensions of the cockpit layout can be varied but it is always advisable to arrange for the floor to be
lower than the pilot’s compressed seat to avoid leg tiring.

The standard man is 20 in. across shoulder, so that, allowing 2 in. each side for clearance and structure,
the minimum fuselage width is 24 in. for single seat and 44 in wide for side by side arrangements. Two large
people in a 44 in. wide cockpit would find the space rather cramped, or as the sales brochures describe it –
“friendly”.

The rear fuselage lines are dependent on the type of undercarriage used, and the structure required to
support the tail, together with the requirement for modest taper to avoid high drag. The position of the tail
surfaces is decided mainly by the control and stability requirements of the airplane, but as a rough guide the
position of the tail quarter chord is a distance of 2.5 to 3.0 times the mean wing chord behind the wing
quarter chord. At a later stage this may have to be adjusted to suit the results of the detailed stability and

10
control analysis. For tail-wheel undercarriages, the tail down angle must be sufficient to allow flight at high
wing incidence during landing; 15o is representative value.

Estimate of Sizes of Tail Surfaces (Empennage)

The tail surfaces basically ensure stability and provide control. Determination of their sizes involves a
detailed study of many factors (i.e. wing and tail section choice, interference effects, flap system, downwash,
c.g. and weight variations, and required response). A study of existing airplane can give some guidance in the
study stages before these details are known. Such a study will reveal that the fin and rudder area is
approximately 0.010S and that the tail plane and elevator area is approximately 0.20S for airplane with flaps
and 0.14S without flaps. A better parameter to use is the tail volume coefficient, defined as:

Horizontal Tail Volume Coefficient, V H

S xl
VH  H H
Sx c

V H xSx c
SH 
lH

Vertical Tail Volume Coefficient, V V

S xl
VV  V V
Sxb

V V xSxb
SV 
lV

Where:

SH x lH = horizontal volume

SV x lV = vertical tail volume

SH = horizontal tail area

SV = vertical tail area

c = wing MAC

b = wing span

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Tail airfoil section is usually symmetrical and for aesthetic reasons the plan of the tailplane is often chosen to
be similar to that of the wing.

TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT

Typical Values
VH VV
Sailplane 0.50 0.02
Homebuilt 0.50 0.04
General Aviation – Single Engine 0.70 0.04
General aviation – Twin Engine o.80 0.07
Agricultural 0.50 0.04
Twin turboprop 0.90 0.08
Flying Boat 0.70 0.06
Jet Trainer 0.70 0.06
Jet Fighter 0.40 0.07
Military Cargo/Bomber 1.00 0.08
Jet Transport 1.00 0.09

Tail Aspect Ratio and Taper Ratio

Horizontal Tail Vertical Tail
A λ A λ
Fighter 3–4 0.2 – 0.4 0.6 – 1.4 0.2 – 0.4
Sailplane 6 – 10 0.3 – 0.5 1.5 – 2.0 0.4 – 0.6
Others 3–5 0.3 – 0.6 1.3 – 2.0 0.3 – 0.6
T-tail --- --- 0.7 – 1.2 0.6 – 1.0

Estimate of Landing Gear Dimensions

The choice of a landing gear is justified by the following reasons:

1. A leveled position is more comfortable when entering or leaving the cockpit.

2. There is an improved forward vision from the cabin during ground runs.
3. The tricycle landing gear eliminates the ground loop; it gives better ground stability and permits full
braking which in turn reduces the landing distance.
4. The small wing incidence permits a faster acceleration, thus a reduction in take-off distance.
5. With a leveled taxiing position, the chances of damaging the tail with stones blown up by the propeller
are reduced.

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The propeller ground clearance is:
Seven inches (for airplane equipped with nose wheel type landing gears) and 9 inches (for airplanes
equipped with tail wheel type landing gears) with landing gear statically deflected and the airplane in the level,
normal take-off, or taxiing attitude, whichever is most critical.

Some General Considerations on Landing Gear Design

(a) Tail Wheel Type (Figure 5)

For tail wheel configurations the wheels are positioned in the side elevation such that:
1. The propeller, flaps, rear fuselage, and elevator have adequate ground clearance in the most adverse
conditions which will include a fully flat tire, or where possible a collapsed shock absorber units.

2. At the aircraft landing the main wheels touch down first. This attitude will depend upon choice of
section, wing planform, wing or body setting, and flap system, but will no be larger than about 15o.

3. The aircraft will not nose-over when brakes are applied.

The overturning coefficient is defined as:

Fh
k
Wa
a
tan  
h
a  h tan 
F
k
W tan 
F
  Arc tan
kW

The braking force (F) will be about 0.25W and for good design k should be less than 0.8.

Substituting given values in equation above yields:

 0.25W 
 min  tan 1    17.35
0

 0 . 8W 

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There is some latitude in these figures but an angle less than 16o is considered dangerous.

4. The tail load required to rotate the aircraft on take – off is not too large.

5. The tail wheel or skid is attached to the strong rear fuselage structure members required to react the
tail surface loads.

6. The c.g. should be located as shown in the front view (Figure 6).

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 (b) Nose Wheel Type (Figure 7)

The Main wheels position with respect to the C.G. is determined as follows:

1. Calculate the angle of attack α at C L max with flaps –up.

2. Locate the maximum aft C.G.

3. Draw a convenient scale side view of the airplane with the wing at the angle of attack α at
C L max
.
4. From the C.G. draw a vertical line, and from the tail skid a horizontal line.

5. At the intersection point “A”, locate the center point of the tire contact area.

6. Draw the landing gear with the tire and shock absorber completely deflected.

7. After the shock absorber deflection is calculated, the extended (unloaded) gear can be drawn.

8. See Figure 8 for clearance requirements.

The track and wheel base should be determined next. The relationship between the track and the
wheel base is dictated by the Turnover Angle which is determined as follows:

1. Draw a top view showing the desired nose wheel and tail wheel positions. Also the C.G. location.

2. Draw a side view showing the landing gear with shock absorbers and tires statically deflected and the
C.G. position.

3. Establish line AB and extend the line to a point C.

4. Through point C, draw a line perpendicular to line AB.

5. Through the C.G. (in the plan view) draw a line parallel to AB and obtain point D.

6. From point D measure the height of the C.G. (h) obtained from the side view and obtain point E.

15
 7. Trace line EC and measure angle β. This is the turnover angle and should be less than 600.

If the turnover angle is more than 60o, increase the track or base and try again.

The track of the main wheels may be set by arranging the leg mounting to be at a convenient position.
For the wheel arrangements, if the track is too small the aircraft will be sensitive to lateral loads on the tail
wheel and will be difficult to steer using differential main wheel braking. For tricycle arrangements a small
track may cause the aircraft to roll over during braking about a line joining the nose wheel and the brake main
wheel ground contact areas.

Representative values for track of tail wheel layout range from 40 to 45% of the fuselage length. For
nose wheel arrangements 25 to 30% of the span. The actual value used should provide an angle of at least 15o
between the normal ground line and a line from the main wheel to the wing tip (to cover the case of rocking
while moving near the ground)

For a tail wheel type airplane, the checking of the turnover angle should be made using the same procedure.
The angle β should not exceed 600.

The steerable nose wheel should have no angular movement θ such as the turning point falls inside the wing
tip as shown in Figure 10. Some airplanes have a large steer angle on the nose wheel which enables it to turn
around on one wheel. To check the position of the turning point, simply project the main wheel axis and the
nose wheel axis at the maximum steer angle until they intercept, as shown in Figure 10.

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Shock Absorber Travel
The shock absorber travel could be estimated with an approximate method described next:

The energy stored in the landing gear is represented by the cross-hatched areas in Figure 11 and expressed by:

S.E.  .L.S
Where:
η = Efficiency
L = maximum vertical load
S = Total deflection (Tire + Shock absorber)

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The efficiency of various types of shock absorbers are given in Table 1.

The total vertical energy of the airplane is given by the following equation:

Wv2
K.E. 
2g
Where:
W = Airplane gross weight
v = maximum descent velocity
g = gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/sec2

The airplane vertical energy will be absorbed by shock absorbers. Therefore:

K.E.  S.E.

Wv2
 .L.S
2g

Solving for.S :

v2
.S 
L
2g
W

The maximum descent velocity ”v” need not exceed 10 ft/sec according to CAR 3.243. The relation L/W = n is
the landing gear limit load factor. The minimum value of n is 2 (CAR 3.243); normally 3 is used for standard
aircraft. A very high value will be rather uncomfortable. Introducing all these values in the previous equation:

(10)2
.S   0.518 ft  6.22 in.
(2)(32.174)(3)
The term η.S represents the whole shock absorber, which can be separated in tire + strut. Then:

18
In Table 2, the most commonly used light airplane tires are listed. The tire maximum deflection can be
calculated by subtracting the flat tire radius from the nominal radius.

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Detailed Weight Estimate

I. Weight of the Wing

0.25
Ww W / S

 0.0004b  0.001c nmax 

W 
1  0.0004b  0.001c nmax 
Where:

Ww = wing weight in lb
W = all – up weight in lb
W/S = wing loading in lb/ft2
b = span in ft

c = mean chord in ft
nmax = maximum load factor multiplied by the ultimate factor (normally 1.5)

Notes:

Wing weight (a) reduces as wing loading is increased

(b) reduces as span loading is increased.
(c) reduces as aspect ratio is reduced.
(d) reduces as section thickness, sweepback of the structural members,
and discontinuities of the structure are reduced.
(e) reduces as the taper ratio is increased since the center of pressure of
each semi-span is moved closer to the body side.

II. Weight of Fuselage

Fuselage weight = f (SF. W)

WF = 0.4SF + 0.04W

Where SF = surface area of front fuselage in ft2

III. Weight of Undercarriage

Suggested value is 25 lb/tire plus 10% for accessories

IV. Engine Weight

W
Engine Weight = f (------)
P
Where W/P = power loading.

V. Weight of Propeller and Spinner (lb)

= 0.03D + 0.4

Where D is the propeller diameter in ft. which can be initially assumed to be:

D(ft) = 4 + 0.01P

Where P is the engine horsepower.

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VI. Weight of Fuel Tankage and Supply
= 10% W

VII. Weight of elevator, rudder, aileron, and flap operating system, together with wheel brake operating
mechanism.

= 2% W
VIII. Weight of instruments and their mounting

11 1b/instrument (minimum number of instruments allowed is 5)

IX. Battery Mounting

Lighting
Seat belts and harnesses = f (typed to be used) = 25 lb typical
Cushion and trim

X. Radio – optional equipment

XI. Weight of Pilot and Passengers = f (seat arrangement)

Acceptable Weight:

(a) Single seat types

100 – 225 lb

(b) More than one seat types

120 – 200 lb

XII. Baggage

= 10 lb / ft3

XIII. Fuel and Oil

= f (range and endurance)

Example: An aircraft less than 2,000 lb AUW will give approximately 25 miles per
gallon.

For 50 hp engine consumption is about 3 gallons/hour.

Fuel Weight = 6 lb/gallon

Ratio: 25 gallons of fuel: 1 gallon of oil
Oil Weight = 7.5 lb/gallon

XIV. Empennage

= 25%Ww

Balance Diagram and Determination of C.G. Position

The C.G. position is calculated simply by calculating the moments of each component with respect to
reference lines. The following procedure is recommended: (See Table 1)

1. Draw a side view of the airplane at a convenient scale. Indicate the C.G. of each component by a small
circle. It requires some practice to estimate by “eye ball” the position of the C.G. of some components.
As a general guide, the C.G. of wings lies at 40% of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord. The C.G. of Vertical

21
 and Horizontal Tails can be located at 50% of the fuselage length measured between the firewall and
the tail cone.

2. Enter the weight of each component in column ③ of Table 1.

3. Draw a vertical reference line at the spinner vertice and horizontal reference line in ground level. (See
figure 10)

4. Measure the horizontal and vertical distance of each component C.G. from their reference lines. Enter
these values in columns ④ and ⑤ of Table 1.
5. Multiply the weight of each component by its horizontal distance (column ③ x column ④) and enter
the result in column ⑤.
6. Multiply the weight of each component by its vertical distance (column ③ x column ⑥) and enter the
result in column ⑦.

7. Add column to obtain the sum of weights. Add column ⑤ to obtain the sum of horizontal moments.
Add column ⑦ to obtain the sum of vertical moments

8. Divide the sum of horizontal moments by the sum of weights to obtain the horizontal location of the
C.G.

9. Divide the sum of vertical moments by the sum of weights to obtain the vertical location of the C.G.

Table 1 EMPTY WEIGHT C.G.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Item Designation W x Wx y Wy
Weight Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Vertical
Arm Moment Arm Moment

1 Engine and Propeller

2 Nose gear
3 Instrument
4 Wing
5 Main Gear
6 Fuselage

22
7 Tailplane
8 Fin

ΣW ΣWx ΣWy

WX Wy
x y
W W

The most Rearward C.G. Position is the most critical for stability; therefore, this will be calculated first. The
most rearward C.G. position will occur under the following assumption:

No oil in the engine tank

Baggage overload
Pilot and Passenger (heavy) = 170 lb each
Airplane in climb, assume ½ fuel piled up in the rear half of the tanks

Notes: It is desirable to keep the C.G. at any condition ahead of the 30% of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord.

Table 2 MOST REARWARD C.G. POSITION

Item Description W x Wx y Wy

Empty weight
Pilot 170
Passenger 170
Baggage
No. of gallons of fuel
in the Rear of tanks

ΣW ΣWx ΣWy

WX Wy
x y
W W

The most Forward C.G. position should be calculated next.

The Most Forward C.G. occurs under the following assumption:

No baggage
No passenger
No fuel
Very light pilot = 120 lb
Maximum oil in the engine tank

Notes: For preliminary design purposes, the Most Forward C.G. position should be kept behind 15% of the
Mean aerodynamic Chord.

23
Table 3 MOST FORWARD C.G. POSITION

Item Description W x Wx y Wy

Empty weight
Pilot 120
Oil (max. in the engine
tank)

ΣW ΣWx ΣWy

WX Wy
x y
W W

And finally the C.G. position for airplane Gross Weight (All-Up Weight) is calculated. Obviously, it must fall
between the two extremes (Most Rearward C.G. & Most Forward C.G.).

Table 4 ALL –UP WEIGHT C.G. POSITION

Item Description W x Wx y Wy

Empty weight
Pilot 170
Passenger 170
Baggage (full)
Fuel (full)
Oil (full)

ΣW ΣWx ΣWy

WX Wy
x y
W W

REVISION OF WING AREA, ETC.

DESIGN OF THE WING

General Considerations
The first three-view, the preliminary weight estimate, and the arrangement of the balance diagram are
necessary steps in furnishing the data for the type of wing for the position relative to the fuselage, and for its
size. The preliminary three – view has more or less set the shape of the wing and determined whether it is to
be a monoplane, a full cantilever or an externally braced wing or, for example, a biplane with wings of
different proportions.

The preliminary weight is instrumental in determining the approximate wing area needed, so that with
at least this established it becomes a comparatively easy matter to select a suitable aspects ratio and thus be
able to fix the governing dimensions of span, chord, and taper.

24
 The balance diagram is necessary to locate the wing relative to the center of gravity; otherwise,
difficulty might be experienced later in obtaining suitable static longitudinal stability.

The wing planform may be changed considerably owing to certain requirements of landing gear
retraction, flap attachments, and the like. Suppose it is desired to retract the landing gear straight inboard
towards the fuselage without the necessity of swinging it back first and then inboard in order to retract the
gear fully into the wing without interfering with the front spar? Such retraction requires that the root portion
of the wing be somewhat forward of the leading edge of the mean geometric chord; or in other words, the
wing should have the leading edge swept back so that there are two original conditions that must be met by
the wing and the landing gear. The wing, for example, should be placed so that the 25 percent point of the
mean geometric chord falls directly under the center of gravity. The landing gear, on the other hand, must be
placed at a certain angle ahead of the center of gravity to prevent nosing over. These conditions for the wing
and landing gear must be kept, and unfortunately, these conditions may play havoc with original ideas of wing
planform and simple landing gear retraction.

The incorporation of flaps and ailerons often affects wing planform. For simpler operating mechanisms,
it may be desirable to have the hinge lines perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the airplane, or perhaps
it may be desirable to have a constant chord flap whose spanwise axis is perpendicular to the plane of
symmetry. Both of these more or less arbitrary conditions will affect the ultimate planform of the wing. It is a
good plan, therefore, to list at first all the various ideas that the designer wants to incorporate, and then make
preliminary sketches of possible solutions to determine whether the various ideas are compatible.

With this general picture in mind, the new designer should now consider the following features of wing
design.

Before the design of the wing may be begun it is necessary to study various features which affects its
final design. The more important features are considered here although it is impossible to point out all
possible effects of miscellaneous items such as landing lights, engine nacelles, landing gear, and fuel tanks.

DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (M.A.C)

a) RECTANGULAR WING

The M.A.C. will be equal to the chord (c).

If the wing tips are rounded as shown in Figure 11, the M.A.C. still be assumed equal to c.

25
b) TAPERED WING

The M.A.C. could be determined graphically as shown in Figure 12 and described next:

1. Locate point “A” at the middle of cr

(root chord)
2. Locate point “B” at the middle of ct
(tip chord)
3. Locate point “C” at a distance equal
to ct behind the trailing edge.
4. Locate point “D” at a distance equal
to cr forward of the leading edge.
5. Track lines A-B and obtain point
“E”.

The M.A.C. is the chord line traced at

point “E”.

c) RECTANGULAR CENTER PANEL AND TRAPEZOIDAL OUTER PANEL

26
 If the wing has a rectangular center section and tapered outer panels, the procedure is as follows:

1. Determine the M.A.C. of the rectangular and tapered panels separately (c1 and c2)

2. Determine the areas of the rectangular and tapered section as follows:

Area of Rectangle = A1 = a1cr

 c  ct 
Area of Trapezoid = A 2  a 2  r 
 2 

3. The M.A.C. of the entire wing will be :

c A c A
M.A.C.  1 1 2 2
A1  A 2

4.The distance from the Airplane Center Line to the M.A.C.

y A  y2A2 a a
y 1 1 y1  1 y2  2
A1  A 2 2 2

5.The distance from a spanwise reference line to the M.A.C.

x A  x 2A2
y 1 1
A1  A 2
6.The distance from a Reference Plane to the M.A.C. (See figure 13 – Front View)
z A z A
z 1 1 2 2
A1  A 2

d) ELLIPTICAL WING

1. Divide the wing in “n” strip of equal width (Δy).

2. Measure the mean aerodynamic chord of the strip (ci) and the distance form the airplane center line to
the strip mean chord (yi)

3. Prepare Table 1.

4. Add columns 2, 3, 5 and 7.

4. The M.A.C. of the wing will be:

27
 Σ 3
M.A.C. = ------------
Σ 2

Table 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strip Strip chord Distance to Distance to

Number 1 x 1 Ref Line 2 X 4 Ref Line 1 x 6

1 c1 c12 y1 c1y1 x1 c1x1

2 c2 c22 y2 c2y2 x2 c2x2
- - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
n cn cn2 yn cnyn xn cnxn

THE LANDING GEAR

The landing gear consists of the wheels, tires, brakes, shocks absorbers, struts, cowlings and, if
retractable, the retracting mechanisms.

General Considerations
The landing gear must, of course, take the shocks when landing or when going over an obstruction, and
so it incorporated two means of absorbing shocks loads - the tire which absorbs minor shocks. Not only must
the landing gear be able to take these shocks, but also it must be so placed that the airplane will be prevented
from nosing over when landing. In order to accomplish this, the front wheels of the conventional landing gear
are placed somewhat ahead of the center of gravity of the airplane.

While it may be desirable to have the landing gear reasonably far enough ahead of the center of
gravity of the airplane if placed too far forward there would be difficulty in taking off. In taking off the tail of
the airplane must be raised until the longitudinal axis of the airplane is practically horizontal. In this position,
the airplane accelerates quickly until it reaches climbing speed and is ready to take off. But, in order to reach
this horizontal attitude, there must be a lift on the horizontal tail surfaces produced by the relative wind on
these tail surfaces caused by the propeller slipstream and forward acceleration of the airplane. The lift
multiplied by the distance from the center of pressure on the horizontal tail surfaces to the point of contact of
the wheel with the ground, is the moment which must be equal to the moment produced by the weight of the
airplane times the distance from the center of gravity of the airplane to the point of wheel and ground contact.
When these moments are equal, the airplane starts to accelerate, the elevation, which have been depressed
up to this time, are gradually neutralized. Otherwise, too much lift would be created and the airplane would
nose over.

If the front wheels were quite far ahead of the center of gravity of the airplane, a greater moment
would have to be produced by the horizontal tail surfaces. Since the lift on the tail surfaces is proportional to
the square of the speed, it would be necessary to increase the speed to obtain the necessary lift. However, it
takes time to start at zero speed and accelerate up to a particular speed, and the longer it takes to accelerate,
the longer will be the take-off run.

Brakes are used to reduce the landing run. If the brakes were used immediately upon level landing,
the inertia of the airplane might be sufficient to nose over. It is necessary, therefore, to put the wheels farther
forward for a landing gear employing brakes than one without brakes.

28
 Landing introduces another problem in the disposition of the wheels. If the tail wheel is too close to
the front wheels, or the front wheels are too close together in relation to the span of the wings, the airplane
may ground loop, a phenomenon in which the airplane may pivot on the wheel, meanwhile dragging a wing
tip along the ground.

THE TRICYCLE GEAR

The present interest is the so-called tricycle landing gear. This reverses the location of the single wheel,
which in the conventional landing gear is the tail wheel and now becomes the nose wheel for the new type.

Whereas the center of gravity was slightly behind two wheels, it is now slightly ahead of the two
wheels and the nose wheel is placed as far as the particular design will permit.

Various tests have been made by the army, by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and
by a few commercial companies. The results of these test and investigation may be summarized as follows.
1. There should be greater passenger comfort since passengers are sitting in a cabin, which is level not
only when flying but also on the take-off.

2. There is better vision both for the pilot and for the passengers not only in landing but also on take-off.

3. The tricycle landing gear gives greater ground stability since the three wheels are likely to be more
evenly loaded at all times.

4. There should be no tendency to nose over since the nose wheel, being ahead of the center of gravity of
the airplane, would resist any nosing over. The nose wheel is therefore a definite nosing over
preventive.

5. Since the airplane cannot nose over, there is the possibility of landing at almost any angle of attack.
For the private flyer who may be a “dub” pilot, this is a very good feature since the landing technique
need not be well-high letter perfect. For transport airplanes, the possibility of landing at almost any
angle is advantageous in blind flying when the ground is not visible.

6. Also, because nosing over is unlikely, it is possible to have a shorter landing run since the brakes can be
applied to have a shorter landing run since the brakes can be applied as soon as contact with ground is
made. Moreover since the lift on the wings is less at the moment of landing due to the smaller angle of
attack, the load on the wheels will be greater, and the width brakes on all three wheels, the braking
will become more effective.
29
 7. The smaller angle of incidence of the airplane with the ground will permit the airplane to accelerate up
to take-off speed and practically “automobile” take-offs are possible and in much shorter time than for
the conventional landing gear.

8. The quicker take-offs and the shorter landing runs permit a shorter black-to-black speed which is an
important factor in economical commercial air transportation.

9. The airplane rests or wheels with the wings at a small angle of attack than the conventional landing
gear. The lift coefficient of the wings at small angles of attacks is small so that even at relatively large
wind speeds, the lift on the wings is not likely to be great enough to blow the airplane over.

Against these very favorable advantages of the tricycle landing gear, there should be balance these possible
disadvantages which may entirely or at least partially overcome by proper design.
1. If the two main wheels in the rear of the center of gravity are too far back, the load on the nose wheel
will be increased. This will necessitate a heavier nose wheel.

2. If the two main wheels are to near the center of gravity, the nose wheel will not have enough loads on
it and will therefore tend to bounce more easily when taxiing.

3. If the front wheel is located to close to the two main wheels, one of the following may occur.
(a) A sudden swerve of the airplane may be followed by turning over, at about a line connecting the
nose wheel with one of the two main wheels
(b) The front nose wheel may shinny unless there is friction damping.
(c) The airplane may have tendency to buck.

4. Unless the airplane can assume a greater angle of attack at take-off, the take –off run on muddy
ground may be long. The propeller thrust and the higher ground drag due to the mud seem to cause
the nose wheel to dig in at slow angles of attack. By raising the nose of the airplane the load on the
nose wheel is relieved.

5. With increase in propeller thrust, the load on the nose wheel increases since the propeller thrust line is
above the nose wheel. Unless the nose wheel is equipped with a larger “oleo” travel and a stronger
structure, for the sever shock load are likely to be transmitted to airplane structure, for the “oleo” or
shock absorber may be compressed long before any serious loads imposed.

30
 6. Difficulty may be encountered with the nose wheel in riding over obstacles. The tail wheel to behave
better under such circumstances.

7. The tail wheel has the advantage of protecting the tail surfaces. Unless a skid or special crash pad is
provided for the rear portion of the fuselage when the nose wheel type of the landing gear is used, the
rear portion of the fuselage may be damaged in case of unusual “tail low” landing.

8. The nose wheel causes more difficulty in retraction because of its location on the forward portion of
the fuselage and because of its longer shock absorber travel.

Wheel and Tire Sizes

The size of the wheels and tires in the conventional landing gear is determined by the static weight
equal of half the gross weight of the airplane per wheel. It is not necessary determine the load factors and
loads imposed by various landing conditions since the wheels and tires are originally designed with ample
margins of safety.

The size of the wheels for a tricycle landing gear depends upon their position relative to the center of
gravity. The two rear wheels may have from 85 to almost 100 percent of the load while the front wheel
may have from 10 to 25 percent of the gross weight of the airplane as the static load. Refer to Figure 15
and 18.

Size of Tail or Nose Wheel

The weight of the tail wheel for preliminary weight estimate and balance determination can be
estimated by assuming a static load of about one-fifth to one –twelfth the gross weight of the airplane and
then choosing the required nose or tail wheel, with the larger fraction for the nose wheel.

After the center of gravity has been found, the weight and size of the nose wheel or tail wheel may be
corrected by finding the correct static load on the wheel as follows:

 a 
Static load R1    x gross weight
ab

Wheel Position
Examination of the landing gears that the wheel without any load on it, as incorporated in the normal
landing gear, may toe-in; or the vertical centerline when viewed from the front is at the angle of several
degrees from the vertical, commonly known as the camber. These two features are of course accentuated
when the landing gear is in fully extended position due to the configuration of the particular members of the
level-landing position or the three –point landing position.
The wheels are given no toe-in for the normal conditions unless the configurations of the landing gear
should such as to cause an appreciable toeing –out in the fully contracted position.
31
 The camber given the wheels may be 1 and 2 degrees outward unless, again, the configuration of the
landing gear is such as to give an undesirable camber when in the fully contracted position.

Too much leeway either way may cause the tire to roll off when landing.

The position of the wheels with relation to the center of gravity is shown in the illustration for
conventional landing gear and the tricycle landing gear.

Tail Surfaces
The tail surfaces serve two functions. The fixed portions of the tail surfaces, together with the movable,
provide stability while the movable portion in conjunction with the fixed portion, provides for control.

General Requirements
It is very important that these tail surfaces be so located that they are not blanketed by the fuselage. If
the fuselage has a relatively large cross section for the greater part of its length and then tapers suddenly near
the tail post, it is very likely that the horizontal tail surfaces will be blanketed unless the aspect ratio of these
surfaces is high.

The vertical tail surfaces are most likely to be blanketed not only by the fuselage but also by the
horizontal tail surfaces, especially when the airplane is at high angle of attack. In order to minimize this effect,
it would be desirable to get some of the vertical tail surfaces below the horizontal tail surfaces.

Aerodynamically, it would be nice to have a large aspect ratio for both the vertical and horizontal tail
surfaces, but unfortunately the greater the aspect ratio the more difficult it becomes to get an efficient
structure that will be rigid. Since the movable surfaces are a reasonably large proportion of the total area, the
fixed portion, which supports the movable surfaces, must contain all the necessary structure. If the aspect
ratio is too great for the area, there is relatively little depth with the result that fixed surfaces may deflect so
much under a load that the hinges of the movable surfaces bind.

The proportion of the movable surfaces to the whole depends upon the degree of control desired. A
large movable surface, for example, needs less angular deflection than smaller-sized surfaces. If the airplane
is to vary maneuverable, it is desirable to have relatively large movable surfaces. In any case it is necessary to
have sufficient control at the lowest and at the highest speeds the airplane will attain.

The elevator should be able to trim the airplane at the lowest, or stall speed, at which time the
elevator will usually have its maximum angular deflection upward. The elevator should also be able to trim
the airplane practically at zero lift, at which time the elevator may have its maximum angular deflection
downward.
32
 Control, however, is not measured only by the change in angle of trim of the airplane caused by a
definite angular deflection of the elevator (and the discussion here applies equally to the vertical tail surfaces)
but also by the hinge moments produced. If for the same angular deflection of the movable surface one has a
greater hinge moments than another, it should be obvious that the one with the smaller hinge moments can
be actuated far more quickly, and the response of the entire airplane will be quicker therefore.

The magnitude of these hinge moment is becoming an increasingly important problem. There are
several solutions available. In some cases, (for example, the aileron) it helps materially in reducing the hinge
moments to have a smaller chord so that the ratio of the chord of the movable surfaces to that of the entire
surfaces is 15 to 20 percent. This necessitates a large span in order to get the same total control but,
unfortunately, the rudder or elevator seldom has the ratio of its chord to the chord of the complete surfaces
less than 45 to 50 percent. In order to reduce the hinge moments, the surfaces may be partially
aerodynamically balanced either by having the hinge line of the movable surfaces somewhat in rear of its
leading edge, or by having the hinge line of the movable surface or tab attached near the trailing edge of the
main movable surface. This small surface has an angular deflection opposite to that required fir the main
movable surfaces.

If the tab is small or its setting fixed and changed only when the load conditions change the center of
gravity, then its purpose is for trim only, and is known as trimming tab. It takes the place of the adjustable
stabilizer.

If the tab can be controlled from the cockpit, it may be used to operate the larger surfaces and is then
called a control tab or a servo tab. Aerodynamic balance is generally used, even if trailing-edge tabs are
present. The design of this balance is very critical and is still the subject of much experimental work. For
greater effectiveness, a slot in front of the leading edge of the balance is provided. Although this slot helps to
increase the effectiveness of the movable surfaces, yet, more often than not, the relatively large gap caused
by the slot increases the parasite drag.

Great care should be taken in designing the leading edge of the aerodynamic balance so that it is not
too sharp and does not project too far above the upper contour of the fixed surface when the movable surface
is deflected. Such projections collect ice very quickly under icing conditions and may lead to unbalance of the
control surfaces, or jamming of the controls.

Airfoil Sections
Symmetrical airfoils are usually used for tail surfaces so that equal effectiveness per degree of
deflection may be obtained for both up and down movements.

The airfoil section used should have a thickness ratio of at least 8 or 9 percent and not more than 12
percent. Unless the tail surfaces are exceptionally large, the same airfoil is used from tip to root. The NACA
0009 and 0012 are recommended.

Horizontal Tail Surfaces

Location
The horizontal tail surfaces should be so located that any blanketing by the wing or the fuselage is
avoided. Partial blanketing usually exists, however, but certain features may be incorporated to limit the
effect of blanketing.

In some cases, the location of the horizontal tail surfaces is determined by clearance requirements for
the elevator, as shown in Figure 10, when the elevator is deflected downward through its total angular range
and with the tail-wheel assembly fully deflected.

Conventional airplanes of today located the tail surfaces about 2 ½ to 3 chord length (mean
aerodynamic chord of the wing) behind the center of gravity so that the observance of this rule will assure
reasonable static longitudinal stability.

33
Movement
Elevator is designed to have an equal angular movement up and down from neutral. About 30-degree
movement is considered maximum and, with efficient design, a 25-degree deflection down should be
sufficient.

The stabilizer may be adjusted through a small angular displacement either on the ground or in the air
from the cockpit (usually the later, if at all; since trimming tabs are displacing adjustable stabilizer).

If an adjustable stabilizer is used, a total of 6 to 8 degree movement (about 5 degrees up and 3 degrees
down) is usually used.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of the tail surfaces should be as high as possible in order to avoid blanketing of the
structure to which they are attached. Aspect ratios greater than 6 are seldom used unless they can be braced
adequately.

In proportioning the tail surfaces, it is not desirable to start with the aspect ratio because the fuselage
section increases the span of the tail surfaces seemingly beyond the desirable limit.

For correcting airfoil data from the given aspect ratio to that of the tail surfaces, the aspect ratio is
calculated on the basis of the square of the span length from tip to tip divided by the area including that
covered by the fuselage. In other words, exactly the same procedure is followed as in calculating the aspect
ratio of the wing.

Angle of Incidence
The incidence of the horizontal tail surfaces is determined by the amount of downwash from the wing,
its relative location with respect to the wing, and the moment required to obtain the required trim angle.

On small airplanes it has been customary to make the stabilizer adjustable through a limited angular
range, about 3 degrees up and 3 degrees down. The adjustment has been possible either on the ground or in
the air by means of a control located in pilot’s cockpit. The adjustment in the air preferable. On the large
transport airplanes. Variations in trim (the object of the adjustable stabilizer) are obtained by means of
trailing-edge tabs.

Dihedral
Normally horizontal tail surfaces are not given any dihedral, but is has been found that the
effectiveness of the horizontal tail surfaces can be increased considerably, particularly at high angles of attack,
by incorporating some dihedral in the horizontal tail surfaces. How large the dihedral angle should be
depends upon the downwash of the wing; for purposes of symmetry, the span line of the tail surfaces maybe
made parallel to the span line of the wings.

Area
Examination of airplane of all sizes reveals that the ratio of the horizontal tail surfaces to the effective
wing area varies from 15 to 20 percent. The greater the tail length is, in terms of the wing chord, the smaller
percentage area is required. Wings equipped with lift –increase device usually require that the percentage
area of the horizontal tail surface be greater than if the wings were not so equipped.

The elevator area varies from 35 to 45 percent of the horizontal tail surface area.

Construction
For ease in assembly and disassembly, the horizontal tail surfaces are attached to the top of the
fuselage, especially if tubular steel construction is used for both the tail surfaces and the fuselage. When
reinforced metal monocoque construction is used, the horizontal tail surfaces may be located nearer the
longitudinal centerline of the rear portion of the fuselage and still obtain the necessary rigidity.

34
Vertical Tail Surfaces

Location
The vertical tail surfaces are, almost without exception, located above the horizontal tail surfaces in
order to centralize control systems and simplify the supporting structure contained in the fuselage.

It is desirable to locate about half of the rudder below the axis of symmetry of the fuselage but this
may not be possible because of required clearance with the ground.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces should be between 2 and 3. It is difficult to state exactly
what the aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces may be, because the rear portion of the fuselage influences
the vertical tail-surface effectiveness.

Trailing-edge Tabs
Trailing –edge tabs on movable surfaces are popular at the present time. A tab on the aileron is used
to overcome engine torque. It may be used with the rudder for the same purpose as the offset fin and on the
elevator for the same purpose as the adjustable stabilizer.

Trimming tabs have a chord varying from 5 to 10 percent of the movable surfaces chord and
approaching 25 percent of the chord if used as servo control tabs. The aspect ratio should be as high as
possible, varying usually from as low as 5 to as high as 20.

Static Stability
Stability is the property of a body which, when the body is disturbed from a condition of equilibrium,
causes forces or moments which acts to restore it to its original condition.

Stability of an airplane means that the airplane tends to remain at the same attitude with respect the
relative wind.

A plane is statically in equilibrium if, when in flight, the sum of all forces acting in all directions equals
zero and the sum of all moments about any point equals zero. The first part of the forgoing statement may be
expressed as: The body is in equilibrium when the sum of the vertical forces is zero and the sum of the
horizontal forces is zero.

35
 ΣV = 0
ΣH = 0
ΣM = 0

As there are three axes of rotation, so there are three classes of stability-longitudinal or fore and aft
stability, lateral stability, and directional stability.

Longitudinal stability – stability with reference to disturbances in the plane of symmetry, i.e.
disturbances involving pitching and variation of the longitudinal and normal velocities.

Longitudinal Balance
In level flight the forces, which must be considered, are the weight, acting downward; the propeller
thrust, acting forward; the lift, acting upward; the total drag, acting backward; and the tail load, which may be
either upward or downward.

ΣM c.g. = 0

(D x b) - (L x e) + (T x a) ± (P x d) = 0

36
 ΣM c.g. = 0

-(D x b) - (L x e) - (T x a) + (P x d) = 0

In the conventional high wing monoplane shown in Fig. 21a, the thrust and drag both act to produce
stalling or positive pitching moment. The lift produces a negative or diving moment. The moment of the tail
load must be such as to be equal in magnitude to the difference of the plus minus moments and of the same
sign as the smaller. In order to ensure that the lift always produces a diving moment, the center of gravity
must be ahead of the most forward position of the center of pressure of the airplane. At high angles of attack,
for some airfoils the center of pressure moves forward to a position 25 percent of the chord back of the
leading edge, so that the center of gravity must be in front.

Whether the airplane is high-wing or low wing, the distribution of weights should be such that the
center of gravity will be on or close as possible to the thrust line. The purpose of this is to make the moment
due to the thrust, T x a, in Eqn. [ (D x b) – (L x e) + (T x a) + (P x d) = 0 ] either zero or a small as possible.
Changes in thrust or complete engine failure will then cause little or no change in the longitudinal balance.

If the center of gravity of a low –wing monoplane is located as shown below the thrust line and above
the line of action of the total drag, both thrust drag will cause a diving or negative moment. It is necessary
then that the horizontal tail surface have downward force acting on it as to produce a stalling moment.

Example: A monoplane weighing 3,000 lb, having a rectangular wing of 30 ft. span and 4.0 ft chord is flying at
100 mph at standard sea level conditions. The lift drag relation is CD = 0.015 + 0.050CL2. The center of gravity
of the airplane is 1.0 ft back of the leading edge of the wing, 0.98 ft above the thrust line, and 0.66 ft below
line of action of total drag. It is 9 ft from the center of gravity of the airplane to the center of pressure of the
tail. The center of pressure of the wing is 40% of the chord from the leading edge. What should be the tail
load?

Given:
W  3,000 lb
b  30 ft
c  4 ft
V  100 mph
SSLC
2
C D  0.015  0.050C L

37
Required:
P

Solution:
C.P.  0.40C  0.40 4 ft   1.6 ft
@ level flight:
1 1
L  W  C L V 2 S  C L V 2bc
2 2
CL 
2W

23,000   0.978
2 2
V bc  22 
0.002377 100 x  304
 15 
C D  0.015  0.050C L  0.015  0.050 0.978  0.0628
2 2

2
1 1  22 
D  T  CD V 2bc  0.0628  0.002377 100 x  30 4   192.67 lb
2 2  15 
M c . g .  0
 L(0.6)  D (0.66)  T (0.98)  P (9)  0
L(0.6)  D (0.66)  T (0.98)
P
9
(3,000)(0.6)  (192.67)(0.66)  (192.67)(0.98)
P  164.90 lb
9

Location of Center of Gravity Experimentally

This point is quite often the rear face of the propeller hub.

The center of gravity of an airplane is the point where the entire weight may be considered to be
acting. The determination of its location may be made in following manner.

The front wheels are placed on scales as is the tail wheel, as shown in Fig. 22. The sum of the weights
on the front wheels is W1, the weight on the rear wheel is W2. The distance b is the horizontal distance,
parallel to the longitudinal axis, from the line connecting the contact points of the two front wheels to the
point of contact of the tail wheel. If the tail is elevated, as in Figure 22b, measurement is made to the vertical
projection of the point of contact of the rear wheel. The distance a is the horizontal distance from the line
connecting the points of contact of the two front wheels to the vertical projection of some convenient point of
reference on the airplane.

38
 Figure 22. Location of C.G.

Datum line – the datum is an imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal measurement are taken for
balance purposes with the airplane in level flight.

Note:

W1 = Weight on the front wheel

W2 = Weight on the rear wheel
W = W1 + W2

M D . L .  0
W (c cos   d sin  )  W1 a  W2 (a  b)  0
W (c cos   d sin  )  W1a  W2 (a  b)

W (c cos   d sin  )  (W1  W2 )a  W2b

W (c cos   d sin  )  Wa  W2b

Dividing both sides by W cos  :

W2
c  d tan   sec  (a  b)
W

Example: From the following data, find the location of the center of gravity.

Tail is down Tail is up

θ = 12o 0o
a = 2 ft 2.7 ft
b = 19.1 ft 18.2 ft
W1=1,812 lb 1,876 lb
W2 =188 lb 124 lb

39
Solution:

Tail is down:
W2
c  d tan   sec  (a  b)
W
 1   18819.1 
c  d tan 12 0   0 
2
 cos 12   2,000 
c  0.213d  3.88 Eqn.1

Tail is up:
W2
c  d tan   sec  (a  b)
W
 1 
c  d tan 0 0   2 .7 
124 18.2
0 
 cos 0   2,000 
c  3.83 ft to the rear of the rear face of propeller hub

Substituting the value of c in Eqn. 1.

3.83  0.213d  3.88

0.213d  3.88  3.83
3.88  3.83
d
0.213
d  0.23 ft above the thrust line of the propeller

Problems:
1. Find the location of the center of gravity, if, when θ = 2o, a is 7.0 ft, b is 35.2 ft, weight on the front wheels is
13, 246 lb, weight on rear wheel is 1, 022 lb, and when θ = 13o, a is 6.3 ft, b is 35.9 ft, weight on front
wheels is 12,490 lb, and the weight on rear wheel is 1,778 lb.
Ans. c  9.6 ft to the rear of the rear face of propeller hub
d  7.3 ft above the thrust line of the propeller

2. Find location of the center of gravity of an airplane weighing 8,000 lb equipped with a landing gear, if, when
θ = 0o, the distance a from reference point back to nose wheel is 2.7 ft, b is 22 ft, and the weight on the
nose wheel is 1,050 lb, and, when θ = 10o, a is 2.3 ft, b is 21.8 ft, and the weight on the nose wheel, which is
blocked up so that the leg is vertical, is 940 lb.
Ans. c  5.6 ft to the rear of the rear face of propeller hub
d  3.7 ft below the thrust line of the propeller

40
Wing Mounted Engine

41
Tail Mounted Engine

42
STRUCTURAL DESIGN FEATURE

Principal causes of airplane accidents:

(1) Forced landings in unsuitable locations, caused by motor failure, fuel exhaustion, or bad weather;
(2) Unskillful landings; unusual skill maneuvering for landing is necessary because of gusty air or small
or obstructed airports;
(3) “ Ground loops” caused by
a. Down-wind or cross-wind landings
b. Faulty arrangement of wheels or landing gear
c. Insufficient rudder control while taxiing.
(4) Unnecessarily violent maneuvers (dive, loops, rolls, spin, etc.)

(5) Unusual strong gusts of air, up – gusts, which break the wings or down-gusts, which break the tail
surfaces or throw the airplane against the ground.

In order to minimize the number of airplane accidents, promote a public inherent in flying, and
encourage defense industries related to aircraft or missiles, the various governments of the world have
evolved:

1. Rules in flying
2. Rules for the design of aircraft

The government agency in the U.S.A. which devices and enforces such rules is the Federal Aviation
Administration.
The U.S. Federal Regulation of the Federal Aviation Administration of primary importance on airplane
airworthiness is given in FAR 23: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic categories.

Procedure in Design
The design of an aircraft is an engineering problem involving:

1) The location of the various structural members in each part so that the loads can be carried by the
structure without structural disintegration.
2) An estimate of the loads to which the various parts of the aircraft are likely to be subjected when it is
used as intended.
3) A knowledge of the properties (strength and stiffness) of the material of which the airplane is to be
made and
4) Calculations to show that the design loads will not cause failure of the materials (“stress analysis”).

43
DEFINITION OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

General Load Classification

Loads which act on a structural system may be generally classified in accordance with their causes.
Those which are produced by surface contact are called surface loads. Dynamic and/or static pressures are
examples of surface loads. If the area of contact is very small, then the load is said to be concentrated;
otherwise, it is called a distributed load. (Sec Fig. 1.3.) Loads which depend on body volume are called body
loads. Inertial, magnetic, and gravitational forces are typical examples. Generally, these loads are assumed to
be distributed over the entire volume of the body. Loads also may be categorized as dynamic, static, or
thermal. Dynamic loads arc time-dependent, whereas static loads are independent of time. Thermal loads arc
created on a restrained structure by a uniform and/or non-uniform temperature change. Regardless of the
classification of the externally imposed loads, a structural member, in general resists these loads internally in
the form of bending, axial, shear, and torsional actions or a combination of the four.

Limit or Applied loads & Design loads

Because an airplane is designed to carry out a definite job, there result many types of aircraft relative
to size, configuration and performance. For example, a commercial transport like the Douglas DC-8 (shown in
the figure below) is designed to do a job of transporting a certain number of passengers safely, efficiently and
comfortably over various distances between airports.

On the other hand the Air Force Fighter type of aircraft such as the F-22 Raptor (shown in the figure
below) has a job of shooting down enemy aircraft or protecting slower friendly aircraft. To do this job
efficiently requires a far different configuration as compared to the DC-8 transport. Furthermore the Fighter
type airplane must be maneuvered far more sharply to do its required Job as compared to the DC-8 in doing
its required job.

That triangular cloud surrounding the F-22 Raptor (right) is called a Shockwave! We will also talk about this in
our AERODYN3 subject.

In general the magnitude of the air forces on an airplane depends on the velocity of the airplane and
the rate at which this velocity is changed in magnitude and direction (acceleration). The magnitude of the
flight acceleration factor may be governed by the capacity of the human body to withstand these acceleration
inertia forces without injury which is the situation in a fighter type of airplane. On the other hand the
maneuvering accelerations for the DC-8 are not dictated by what the human body can withstand, but are
determined by what is necessary to safely transport passengers from one airport to another.

44
 Designing the airplane structure for loads greater than the airplane suffers in the performance of its
required job obviously will add considerable weight to the airplane and decrease its performance or over-all
efficiency relative to the job it is designed to do.

To particularly insure safety in the air-transportation, along with uniformity and efficiency of design,
the government aeronautical agencies (civil and military) have definite requirements for the various types of
aircraft relative to the magnitude of loads to be used in the structural design of aircraft. In referring in general
to these specified aircraft loads two terms are used as follows:-

Limit or Applied Loads - The terms limit and applied refer to the same loads with the civil agencies
(C.A.A.) using the term limit and the military agencies using the term applied.

Limit loads are the maximum loads anticipated on the airplane during its lifetime of service. The
airplane structure shall be capable of supporting the limit loads without suffering detrimental permanent
deformations. At all loads up to the limit loads the deformation of the structure shall be such as not to
Interfere with the cafe operation of the airplane.

Ultimate or Design Loads - These two terms are used in general to mean the same thing. Ultimate or
Design Loads are equal to the limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety (F.S.) or Design Loads = Limit or
Applied Loads times F.S.

In general the over-all factor of safety is 1.5. The government requirements also specify that these
design loads be carried by the structure without failure.

Factor of Safety. The factor by which the limit load must be multiplied to establish the
ultimate load (normally 1.5 “unless otherwise specified”)

Limit Load Factor. The limit load factor is the load factor corresponding to limit loads.

Ultimate Load Factor. The ultimate load factor is the load factor corresponding to ultimate load.

Load Factor. The load factor is the ratio of specified load to the total weight of the aircraft. The specified load
may be expressed in terms of the following; aerodynamics forces, inertia forces or ground or water reaction.

Although aircraft are not supposed to undergo greater loads than the specified limit loads, a certain
amount of reserve strength against complete structural failure of a unit is necessary in the design of practically
any machine or structure. This is due to many factors, such as:-

(1) The approximations involved in aerodynamic theory and also structural stress analysis theory;

(2) Variation in, physical properties of materials;

(3) Variation in fabrication and inspection standards.

Possibly the most important reason for the factors of safety for airplanes is due to the fact that
practically every airplane is limited to the maximum velocity it can be flown and the maximum acceleration it
can be subjected to in flight or landing. Since these are under the control of the pilot it is possible in
emergency conditions that the limit loads may be slightly exceeded but with a reserve factor of safety against
failure this exceeding of the limit load should not prove serious from an airplane safety standpoint, although it
might cause permanent structural deformations that might require repair or replacements of small units or
portions of the structure.

Loads due to airplane gusts, are arbitrary in that the gust velocity is assumed. Although this gust
velocity is based on years of experience in measuring and recording gust forces In flight all over the world, it is
quite possible that during the lifetime of an airplane, turbulent conditions near storm areas or over mountains
or water areas might produce air gust velocities slightly greater than that specified in the load requirements,
thus the factor of safety insures safety against failure if this situation would arise.
45
The broad general category of external loads on conventional aircraft can be broken down into such
classifications (sources) as follows:

Air loads:
Due to Airplane Maneuvers. (under the control of the pilot)
Due to gust (not under control of pilot)
Control deflection
Component interaction
Buffet

Inertial loads:
Acceleration
Rotation
Dynamic
Vibration
Flutter

Landing loads:
Landing on Land (wheel or ski type)
Landing on Water
Vertical load factor
Arresting (Landing on Aircraft Carriers)
Spin-up
Spring-back
Crabbed
One wheel
Braking

46
Powerplant loads:
Thrust
Engine Torque
Gyroscopic
Vibration
Duct pressure

Takeoff loads:
Catapulting - assisted take off with auxillary short period thrust units
Aborting

Taxi loads:
Turning
Bumps

47
Special loads:
Hoisting airplane
Towing airplane
Beaching of hull type airplane
Fuselage pressurization
Weapons recoil
Bomb release

Accoustic loads

Thermal loads

Others
Jacking
Bird strike
Actuation
Crash

48
Air loads
Maneuver loads
The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually come from the generation of lift during high-g maneuvers.
Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a multiple of the standard
acceleration due to gravity g (32.174 ft/sec2). At lower speeds the highest load factor an aircraft may
experience is limited by the maximum lift available.
At higher speeds the maximum load factor is limited to some arbitrary value based upon the expected
use of the aircraft.

As defined by the V-n diagram, maneuvering speed, VA, is the maximum speed at which an aircraft in
symmetrical flight at the specified flight weight and configuration will stall (unload) before exceeding limit
load and sustaining possible structural damage.

Gust loads
The loads experienced when the aircraft encounters a strong gust can exceed the maneuver loads in
some cases.
When an aircraft experiences a gust, the effect is an increase (or decrease) in angle of attack.

All airplanes are subjected to vertical gusts in level flight. In magnitude, the gust load ranges from
being “annoying” to being so severe it may cause structural failure. For this reason the gust loads must be
taken into account when designing the airframe.

Control deflection loads

It can be deflected up or down to produce a change in the downforce produced by the horizontal tail.
The angle of deflection is considered positive when the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected upward. Such
a deflection increases the downforce produced by the horizontal tail causing the nose to pitch upward.

Inertial loads
The maximum loads on the components of an aircraft's structure generally occur when the aircraft is
undergoing some form of acceleration or deceleration, such as in landings, take-offs and maneuvers within the
flight and gust envelopes.

Weight and Inertia loads: Most of the loads resisted by structural elements are due to aircraft weight (actually
the aircraft‟s mass) and the fact that the airplane accelerates during flight. “Inertia loads” are a primary source
of loads for aircraft and arise because of accelerations created by engine thrust, maneuvers or gust conditions.
The concept of the “load factor” or “g-force” is used to describe inertia loads created by acceleration and
resisted by the structural components to keep it acting as a unit.

49
Table below lists typical limit load factors.
Typical limit load factors
npositive nnegative
General aviation – normal 2.5 to 3.8 -1 to -1.5
General aviation – utility 2.5 to 4.4 -1.8
General aviation – aerobatic 2.5 to 6.0 -3
Homebuilt 5 -2
Transport 3 to 4 -1 to -2
Strategic bomber 3 -1
Tactical bomber 4 -2
Fighter 6.5 to 9 -3 to -6

Airplane Categories are defined as:

1. Normal Category – airplanes in this category are intended for non-acrobatic non-scheduled passenger, and
non-scheduled cargo operation.

2. Utility – airplanes in this category are intended for normal operation and limited acrobatic maneuvers.
These airplanes are not suited for use in snap or inverted maneuvers.

Limited Acrobatic Maneuvers is interpreted to include steep turns, spins, stall (except whip stalls), lazy eights,
and chandelles.

Steep Turns – a flight maneuver in which the degree of bank varies from 45o to about 75o

Spin – a flight maneuvers if done intentionally and a flight condition if it occurs otherwise, which is the result
of a complete stall after which the airplane, still in stalled attitude, loses altitude rapidly, and travels
downward in a vertical helical or spiral path.

Stall – the condition of an airfoil or airplane in which it is operating at an angle of attack greater than the angle
of attack of maximum lift. It is a loss of flying speed and in many cases temporary loss of lift and control of the
airplane. A complete stall in normal flying is to be avoided at all times, but it sometimes occurs unintentionally,
because of inexperience piloting, and is sometimes done inadvertently by the experienced pilot.

Whip stall – a flight maneuver or condition, which is the result of a complete stall in which the nose of the
airplane whips violently and suddenly downward. In some cases the airplane slides backward a short distance
before the nose of the plane drops. Whip stalls cause severe strains on the engine mounts, and all surfaces.

Lazy Eight Flight – an advanced flight –training maneuver, which combines the dive, turn and the climb. It is a
maneuver in which the nose of the airplane describes a horizontal figure eight lying on its side upon the
horizon. An object on the horizon is selected and used as an axis for the maneuver, i.e the horizon divides the
halves and the selected object is the intersection of the two halves of the eight.

Chandelle – a flight training maneuver of the composite type, composite type, combining the climb and turn,
approach to a stall and recovery back to normal flight. The simple chandelle is really an exaggerated 180o
climbing turn in which the bank and climb are gradually increased until a maximum is reached, approximately
at the 90o point during the 180o turn. After reaching this point, recovery is started by gradually reducing the
climb and shallowing the bank until at the time of arriving at the 180o point of the turn, the plane is flying
straight and level at a speed just above the stalling point. The advanced “chandelle” is started by doing a slight
forward slip and pulling up and around; the initial bank remaining constant. The vertical flight path of the
airplane up to 90o point of the turn is on bias to the vertical plane and as the turn increased the bank only
seems to increase. At the 90o point of the turn, recovery to normal flight (180o change of initial direction) is
executed the same as with the simple “chandelle”. The main objective of this maneuver is to gain altitude at
the same time that the direction of flight is changed.

3. Acrobatic Category – airplanes in this category will have no specific restrictions as to type of maneuver
permitted unless the necessity therefore is disclosed by the required flight test.
50
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram

Condition I: Maneuvering Load Factors

(a) The positive limit maneuvering load factor “n” may be calculated as:
24,000
n  2.1  , where W is the gross weight in lb
W  10,000

Except that “n” need not be greater than 3.8 and shall not be less than 2.5 for Normal category.

Except that “n” need not be greater than 4.4 and shall not be less than 2.5 for Utility category.

Except that “n” need not be greater than 6.0 and shall not be less than 2.5 for Acrobatic category.

(b) The negative limit maneuvering load factor “-n” may not be less than;

-0.4n for Normal and Utility category

-0.5n for acrobatic category

Design Maneuvering Speed, VA

VA  VS  n
Where:

VS = stall speed with flaps up

+n = positive limit maneuvering load factor

(a) Formula for + C N A maximum curve:

nW nW
 CN A  
q AS 1
VA 2S
2

Where n = positive limit maneuvering load factor.

1
CN A V 2
n 2
W
S
(b) Formula for  C N A maximum curve:

 nW  nW
 CN A  
q AS 1 V 2S
A
2
Where –n = negative limit maneuvering load factor.
1
 C N A V 2
n 2
W
S

51
Condition II: Load Factor due to Gust

Design Cruising Speed, VCdes

VCdes  0.9Vmax

VC may not be less than the following condition:

For Normal and Utility category:

W
VC knots  33
S

For acrobatic category:

W
VC knots   36
S

Where W/S is in lb/ft2.

Limit Gust Load

n  1  n
kUVa
n  1
W
575
S
Where:
k = gust alleviation factor
1
1 W 4 W
k    for  16 lb / ft 2
2 S  S
2.67 W
k  1.33  3
for  16 lb / ft 2
S
W 4
 
S
U = nominal gust velocity (= ±50 fps)

V = airplane speed up to VC in mph

CL
a = slope of lift curve per radian 
  o
αO = angle of attack for zero lift

∆n = load factor increment

Design Dive Speed, VD

For VD, the following apply:

For normal category:

VD  1.4VCmin

52
For utility category:

VD  1.5VCmin

For acrobatic category:

VD  1.55VCmin

Limit Gust Load Factor

n  1  n

kUVa
n  1
W
575
S
Where:

U = nominal gust velocity (= ± 25 fps)

V = airplane speed up to VD in mph

Example: Determine the limit factors at sea level required by FAR 23 and construct a V-n Diagram for an
airplane assuming the following data; gross weight = 2,000 lb, Bhpmax = 150, wingspan = 38 ft., design wing
area = 210 sq. ft., C Lmax  1.5 , estimated level high speed = 160 mph, lift curve slope = 4.25 per radian,
utility category.

Given:
Utility category
W = 2,000 lb
Bhpmax = 150
b = 38 ft.
S = 210 ft2
C Lmax  1.5
Vmax = 160 mph
a = 4.25/radian

Required:
Limit load factors and V-n diagram

Solution:
For positive limit maneuvering load factor, n:

24,000
n  2.1 
W  10,000

24,000
n  2.1 
2,000  10,000

n = 4.10

 W  2  1 
Vs     
 S    C L max 


53
  2,000  2  1 
Vs     
 210  0.002377  1.5 

VS  73.09 ft / sec  49.83 mph

VA  Vs  n

VA  49.83 4.10

VA = 100.90 mph

W
Vc min mph   38
S
2,000
VC min mph   38  117.27
210

VD  1.5VC min

VD  1.5117.27

VD  175.90 mph

Since the level high speed is estimated to be 160 mph and it may be desired to cruise at 90% of this
figure, the actual design cruising speed may well be made, higher than the minimum, permitted by FAR 23.
Accordingly it is proposed to make.

VCdes  0.9Vmax
 0.9 160 
VCdes  144 mph

For negative limit maneuvering load factor, n:

 n   0 .4 n
  0.4 4.1
 n  1.64

Gust Load Factor

KUVa
n  1
W
575
S

For this airplane,

W 2,000
  9.52 lb / ft 2
S 210
1
1 W  4
K  
2 S 
1
K   9.52  4
1

2
K  0.88

54
The regulation specify that the airplane must stand U = ± 50 fps up to speed Vc and U =± 25 fps up to speed VD.

At Vc = 144 mph

n  1
0.88501444.25  5.92
5759.52

n  1
0.88501444.25  3.92
5759.52
At VD = 175.90 mph

n  1
0.8825175.904.25  4.00
5759.52

n  1
0.8825175.904.25  2.00
5759.52
V F 1.4VS
or:
VF  1.8VFS
Note:
Use the higher value of VF .
VF  design flap speed
VS  computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the design weight.
VSF  VS ( L )  VS 0  computed stalling speed with flaps fully extended at the design weight
VS (invt .)  intersection of the C N A maximum curve and the  VD gust line

BASIC FLIGHT LAODING CONDITIONS

1. Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA)
2. Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA)
3. Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA)
4. Negative Low Angle of Attack (NLAA)
55
One of these four basic conditions will probably produce the highest load in any part of the airplane for any
flight condition.

All these conditions represent symmetrical flight maneuvers; i.e., there is no motion normal to the plane for
any flight condition.

The positive high angle of attack (PHAA) condition is obtained in a pullout at the highest possible angle
of attack on the wing. The lift and drag forces are perpendicular and parallel respectively to the relative wind.

The positive low angle of attack (PLAA) condition, the wing has the smallest positive angle at which the
lift corresponding to the limit-load factor may be developed.

The negative high angle of attack (NHAA) condition, occurs in intentional flight maneuver in which the
air loads on the wing are down or when the airplane strike sudden downwards while in level flight.

The negative low angle of attack (NLAA) condition occurs at the diving-speed limit of the airplane. This
condition may occur in an intentional maneuver producing a negative load factor or in a negative gust
condition.

LOAD FACTORS, n

Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA)

n  1  n

For maneuvering load factor increment:

 
 
 32,000   3.25 
n   0.77  
 W  9,200    W 0.435 
  
  p  
 

Where W/P is the power loading in lb/hp (suggested value is 12 to 24 lb/hp).

For gust load factor increment:

KUVa
n 
W
575
S
Note:
Use the higher value between the maneuvering load factor increment and gust load factor increment.

Where:

W = gross weight in lb
W/P = power loading in lb/hp
V = VL = airplane maximum level speed in mph
U = gust velocity (= 50 fps)
W/S = wing loading in psf
a = slope of lift-curve per radian

Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA)

n  1  n

56
Where:
∆n = gust load factor increment (where U = -50 fps)
V = VL =airplane maximum level speed in mph

Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA)

n  1  n

Where:
∆n = higher value between the maneuvering load factor increment and the gust load
factor increment
Note:
Use the highest value between the maneuvering load factor and gust load factor increment.

Where:
U = gust velocity (= 25 fps)
V = Vg = airplane gliding speed in mph
Vg = Vc + Kg (Vm + Vc)
Vg = Vc + 100mph or 1.5 Vc
1,850
K g  0.08  , Kg should not be less than 0.15.
W  3,000
Vm = terminal speed (power off)

W
Vm (fps)  29  
 SD 
SD = estimated total drag area in ft2

VC = cruising speed in mph

Note:
Use the lowest value of Vg.

Negative Low Angle of Attack (NLAA)

n  1  n

Where:
∆n = gust load factor increment
U = -25 fps
V = Vg = airplane gliding speed in mph

Summary of the Effect of Wing Loading

Item Effect of Wing Loading on Item
High W/S Low W/S
Stall speed High Low
Field length (take-off and
landing Long Short
Max. lift-to-drag ratio High Low
Ride quality in turbulence Good Bad
Weight Low High

57
Summary of the Effect of Wing Location on the Fuselage
Item Effect of Wing Location on Item
High Mid Low
Interference drag Poor Good Poor
Dihedral Effect Negative Neutral Positive
Passenger Visibility Good Good Poor for some
Landing Gear:
Wing mounted Long/heavy Short/light
Fuselage mounted Possibly draggy
Loading and easy easy Need stairs
unloading

Summary of the Effect of Wing Sweep

Item Effect of Increased Wing Sweep on item
Forward None Aft
Lift-curve Slope Low High Low
Pitch attitude in low
speed, level flight High Low High
Ride through
turbulence Good Poor Good
Asymmetric stall Best Good Poor
Lateral control at stall Best Good Poor
Compressibility drag Low High Low
Wing weight Highest Low High

Summary of the Effect of Monoplane/Bi-plane/Joined

Item Effect of Wing Configuration
Monoplane Bi-plane Joined
Cantilever Braced
Wing weight High Low Very Low Low
Profile Drag Low High Higher Moderate
Interference Drag Low High Higher High

Summary of the Effect of Aspect Ratio

Item Effect of Aspect Ratio on Item
High Low
Induced Drag Low High
Lift-curve slope High Low
Pitch attitude (approach) Low High
Ride in turbulence Poor Good
Wing weight High Low
Wing span Large Small

Summary of the Effect of Thickness

Item Effect of Thickness
Low t/c High t/c
Wing weight High Low
Wing drag:
Subsonic Low High
Supersonic Acceptable Very high
Wing fuel volume Poor Good
Maximum lift Poor Good
Up to 12 – 14 per cent
depends on airfoil
Summary of the Effect of Taper Ratio
58
 Item Effect of Taper Ratio
High Low
Wing weight High Low
Tip stall Good Poor
Wing fuel volume Good Poor

Summary of the Effect of Twist

Item Effect of Twist Angle (Washout)
Large Small
Induced drag High Small
Tip stall Good Poor
Wing weight Mildly lower Mildly higher

Summary of the effect of Wing Dihedral

Item Effect of Dihedral Angle
Positive Negative
Spiral stability Increased Decreased
Dutch roll stability Decreased Increased
Ground clearance of wing, nacelle, propeller
or landing gear Increased Decreased

Summary of the Effect of Wing Incidence Angle

Item Large iw Small iw
Cruise drag High Low
Cockpit visibility Good Watch out
Landing attitude in terms of
nose gear hitting runway first Watch out No problem

Typical Wing Spar, Rib and Stiffener Spacing

The actual structural arrangement of wing spars, ribs and skin stiffeners depends very much on the
type of airplane being designed and the loads to which it will be subjected.

Figure 4.49 defines the locations of major structural components for wings.

Wing Spar Locations: Most airplane use a so-called torque-box (wing-box) as the main carrying
component. The torque box should be located to take maximum advantage of the structural height available
within the airfoil contours. This will save weight. The torque box is normally closed off a front spar (F.S.), a rear
spar (R.S.) and an upper and lower skin. The spar locations are often constrained by requirements for high lift
devices.
Typical spar locations are:

Front spar: 15 – 30 percent chord

Rear spar: 65 – 75 percent chord

Multiple spar construction is often applied in the case of fighter wings. The F16 wing has 11 spars, 5
ribs and a machine-tapered skin without stiffeners.

Wing Rib Locations: To help stabilize torque skins and to serve as attachment points for leading edge
skins, trailing edge skins and/or flaps , ailerons and spoilers, wing ribs are used. Typical rib spacings are:

Light Airplanes: 36 inches

Transports: 24 inches
Fighters and Trainers: rib spacing vary widely.

Wing Stiffener Spacings: These vary widely and depend on the relative stiffness of the wing.
59
Examples of Wing/Fuselage Integration
Wings are normally joined to a fuselage in one of the following manners:

1. Wings are ‘bolted’ to a fuselage ‘carry-through ’section.

2. Wings, including the carry-through section are joined to the fuselage by a large number of ‘small’ bolts.

Typical Spar, Rib and stiffener Spacing

The actual arrangement of empennage spars, ribs and stiffeners depends on the type of airplanes
being designed and the loads to which it will be subjected.

Figure 5.16 defines the locations of major structural components for empennage surfaces.

Empennage Spar Locations: Most airplanes use a so-called torque-box to carry the main loads on
empennage surfaces. The torque-box should be located to take maximum advantage of the airfoil thickness
distribution, this will save weight. A torque-box is normally closed off by a front spar (F.S.), a rear spar (R.S.)
and an upper and lower skin. The rear spar location is often constrained by control surface size requirements.
The front spar location is not normally so constrained in the case of empennage surfaces.

Typical spar locations are:

Front spar: 15 – 25 percent chord

Rear spar: 70 – 75 percent chord

Multiple spar construction is often used in the case of fighter empennage surfaces.

Empennage Rib Locations: To help stabilize the torque-box of the empennage and to serve as anchors
for control surface attachment brackets, ribs are used. Typical empennage rib spacing is:

Light airplanes: 15 – 30 inches

Transports: 24 inches

Fighters and trainers: rib spacing varies widely.

Remember: wherever ‘point loads’ are expected a rib will be required. Examples of point loads are:
control surface loads, tail let loads (Beech Model 1900, see Figure 3.16b), intersections with other surfaces.

Empennage Stiffener Spacings: These vary widely depending on the airplane type. The relative
empennage skin stiffness determines the number and type of stiffeners needed:

60
Definition of Terms:
V1 = Take-off decision speed (formerly denoted as critical engine
failure speed)

V2Min = minimum take-off safety speed

V2 = Take-off safety speed

VA = Design Maneuvering Speed

VB = Design Speed for Maximum Gust Intensity

VC = Design Cruising Speed

VD = Design Diving Speed

VDF/MDF = Demonstrated Flight Diving Speed

VF = Design Flap Speed

VFC/MFC = Maximum Speed for Stability Characteristics

VFE = Maximum Flap Extended Speed

VH = Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power

VLE =Maximum landing gear extended speed

VLO =Maximum landing gear operating speed

VLOF = Lift-off Speed

VMC = Minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative

VMO/MMO = Maximum operating limit speed

VMU = Minimum unstick speed

61
VNE = Never-exceed speed

VNO = Maximum structural cruising speed

VR = Rotation speed

VS = Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable

VS0 = Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration

VS1 = Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration

VTOSS = Take-off Safety Speed for Category A Rotorcraft

VX = Speed for best angle of climb

VY = Speed for best rate of climb

Conversions (exact conversions can be found in

British Standards BS350/2856)
Multiply by to get
Inch (in) 25.40 millimetres
Feet (ft) 0.3048 metres
Feet (ft) 3.048 × 10−4 kilometres
Statute mile (mi) 1.609 kilometres
Nautical mile (nm) 1.852 kilometres
Nautical mile (nm) 1.1508 statute miles
Square foot (ft2) 9.290 × 10−2 square metres
Cubic foot (ft3) 28.317 (2.832 × 10−2) litres (cubic metres)
Cubic inch (m3) 1.639 × 10−5 cubic metres
US gallon (US gal) 3.78542 litres
Imp. gallon (Imp. gal) 4.546 litres
Foot/second (ft/s) 0.3048 m/s
(ft/s) 1.097 km/h
(ft/s) 0.6818 mph
Knot (nm/hr) (kt) 1.689 ft/s
(kt) 1.151 mph
(kt) 1.852 km/h
(kt) 0.5151 m/s
Mile/hour (mph) 1.467 ft/s
(mph) 1.609 km/h
(mph) 0.8684 kt
(mph) 0.4471 m/s
Slug (slug) 14.59 kg
Pound (lbf) 4.448 N
Pound/Sq. in (lbf/in2) 6895 N/m2
Pound/Sq. ft (lbf/ft2) 47.88 N/m2
Slug/cubic ft (slug/ft3) 515.4 kg/m3
Foot pound (ft. lbf ) 1.356 Nm ( joules)
Foot lb/s (ft. lb/s) 1.356 Joules/s (watts)
Horsepower (hp) 550 ft.lb/s
(hp) 33 000 ft.lb/min

Some useful constants (standard values)

Gravitational force at SL = 9.8066 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2
Air pressure at SL ( P0 ) = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
= 2,116.8 lb/ft2

62
Air temperature at SL (To) = 15.0◦C (conversions)
= 288.150K (0K = 0C + 273.19)
(where −273.190C is absolute zero temperature)
= 59.00F (0C = (0F − 32) (5/9))
= 518.670R (0R = 0F + 459.7)
(where −459.70F is absolute zero temperature)
(where: 0C is degrees in Centigrade, 0K = Kelvin, 0F = Fahrenheit,0R = Rankine)
Air density at SL (ρo) = 1.22492 kg/m3 = 0.002378 slug/ft3
Air coeff. of viscosity SL (μo) = 1.7894 × 10−5 kg/m-s = 1.2024 × 10−5 lbm/ft-s
Air kinematic viscosity SL (νo) = 1.4607 × 10−5 m2/s = 1.5723 × 10−4 ft2/s

Specific gravity at 00C (lbm/ft3, kg/m3):

Water = 1.000 (62.43, 1,000)
Seawater = 1.025 (63.99, 1025)
Jet fuel JP1 = 0.800 (49.9, 800)
JP3 = 0.775 (48.4, 775)
JP4 = 0.785 (49.0, 785)
JP5 = 0.817 (51.0, 817)
Kerosene = 0.820 (51.2, 820)
Gasoline = 0.720 (44.9, 720)
Alcohol = 0.801 (50.0, 801)

Board Problems

VII/1983: The following data are that of a normal category airplane, symmetrical wing loading condition I:
Positive High Angle of Attack.

Airplane data:
Weight = 7,500 lb
Wing area = 187.6 ft2
Maximum level speed =136 ft/sec
Power loading = 23.1 lb/hp
Gust velocity = 30 ft/sec
Slope of lift curve = 4.28 per radian


 0.982
0
Required:
(a) Maneuvering load factor increment
(b) Gust load factor increment
(c) Limit load factor

Solution:
(a) For maneuvering load factor increment
 
 
 32,000   3.25 
n   0.77  
 W  9,200    W  0.435 
  
  P  
 32,000   3.25 
n   0.77   
 7,500  9,200   23.10.435 
n  2.23

63
(b) For gust load factor increment
kUVm
n 
W
575
S
W 7,500
  39.98 lb / ft 2
S 187.6
2.67
k  1.33  3/4
W 
 
S 
2.67
k  1.33   1.162
39.983 / 4
V 136
V  e   138.49 ft / sec
 0.982
0
 15 
(1.162)(30)138.49 x ( 4.28)
 22 
n   0.613
(575)(39.98)

(c) For limit load factor

n  1  2.23  3.23

I/1984: The positive limit maneuvering load factor (+n) for the airplane categories, as provided for in the U.S.
Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 23 for Airworthiness Standards need not be less than the following
values.
(a) For normal category airplane the value is:
(1) 2.5 (2) 3.8 (3) 4.4 (4) 6.0 (5) 6.3

(b) For utility category airplane the value is:

(1) 2.5 (2) 3.8 (3) 4.4 (4) 6.0 (5) 6.3

(c) For aerobatic category airplane the value is:

(1) 2.5 (2) 3.8 (3) 4.4 (4) 6.0 (5) 6.3

II/1984: The negative limit maneuvering load factor (-n) for the same airplane categories, in accordance with
FAR 23, need not be less than the following values:
(a) For normal category airplane the value is:

(1) -0.3n (2) -0.4n (3) -0.5n (4) -0.6n

(b) For utility category airplane the value is:

(1) -0.3n (2) -0.4n (3) -0.5n (4) -0.6n

(c) For aerobatic category airplane the value is:

(1) -0.3n (2) -0.4n (3) -0.5n (4) -0.6n

64
III/1984: Given is a normal category airplane weighing 2,500 lb with symmetrical wing loading condition I:
Positive High Angle of Attack.

Required:
(a) Positive limit maneuvering load factor
(b) Negative limit maneuvering load factor
Solution:
(a) For positive limit maneuvering load factor

24,000
n  2 .1 
W  10,000

24,000
n  2 .1   4.02
2,500  10,000
For normal category airplane, n should not be greater than 3.8. Therefore n = 3.8.

(b) For negative limit maneuvering load factor

 n  ( 0.4)(  n)  ( 0.4)(3.8)  1.52

I/1985: A utility category airplane having a weight of 2,100 kg force is under a symmetrical wing loading
condition at positive high angle of attack.

Solve for:
(a) Positive limit maneuvering load factor
(b) Negative limit maneuvering load factor

Solution:
(a) For positive limit maneuvering load factor

24,000
n  2 .1 
W  10,000

24,000
n  2 .1   3.74
( 2,100 x 2.205)  10,000

(b) For negative limit maneuvering load factor

 n  0.4(  n)  ( 0.4)(3.74)  1.496

II/1985: For an acrobatic category airplane with 2,100 kg force weight subjected to symmetrical wing loading
condition at positive angle of attack.

Solve for:
(a) Positive limit maneuvering load factor
(b) Negative limit maneuvering load factor

Solution:
(a) For positive limit maneuvering load factor

24,000
n  2 .1 
W  10,000
24,000
n  2 .1   3.74
( 2,100 x 2.205)  10,000
65
(b) For negative limit maneuvering load factor

 n  0.5(  n)  ( 0.5)(3.74)  1.87

III/1985: A normal category airplane with a weight of 2,100 kg force, wing area of 30 square meters, and
airspeed of 70 meters per second is subjected to a 30-foot/second gust at sea level. The slope of the wing lift
coefficient curve is 0.075 per degree angle of attack.

Required:
(a) Wing loading (kg force per square meter)
(b) Gust load factor

Solution:
(a) For wing loading

W 2,100
  70 kg f / m 2
S 30

(b) For Gust load factor

n  1  n

kUVm
n  1
W
575
S
W
 70 kg f / m 2  14.35 lb / ft 2
S

1
1 W 4
k  
2 S 

1 1
k   14.354  0.973
2

180
(0.973)(30)(70 / 0.447 )(0.075 x )
n  1   3.38
(575)(14.35)

I/1986: For an acrobatic category airplane, the positive limit maneuvering load factor as provided for in the
U.S. Federal aviation Regulation Part 23 for Airworthiness Standards, need not be less than (1) 2.5 (2) 3.8 (3)
4.4 (5) 6.3 (6) None of the above

II/1986: For a Utility category airplane with wing loading of 110 lb per square meter and wing area of 25
square meters, the airplane weight is (1) 1,025 kg force (2) 1,250 kg force (3) 1,560 kg force (4) 1,875 kg force
(5) 2,105 kg force (6) 2,310 kg force

Solution:
W
 110lb / m 2
S
W  110lb / m 2 xS
W  (110lb / m 2 )(25m 2 )
W  2,750 lb / 2.2  1,250 kg force

66
V/1987: Compute for the propeller tip speed, VC. Is the speed a critical propeller tip speed? Why?

Given:
D = 10.5 ft
N = 1,634 rpm
V = 227 mph

Solution:
VC  VTIP  V2  (ND ) 2

Where:
VC is in ft/sec
V∞ is in ft/sec
N is in revolutions per second
D is in ft

22 2
)  ( )(1,634 / 60)(10.5)  958.05 ft / sec
2
VC  VTIP  ( 227 x
15


M TIP  M  1  ( ) 2
J

Where:

22
227 x
V 15  0.298
M   
Va  1,116.75

22
227 x
V 15
J   1.164
ND (1,634 / 60)(10.5)

 2
M TIP  0.298 1  ( )  0.858
1.164

Note: If the propeller noise is to be kept to an acceptable level, a practical limit of tip Mach number is 0.85 to
0.90.

VI/1987: Compute for the diameter required for a wooden two-bladed propeller. Assume sea level condition.

Given:
BHP = 850

V(mph) = 224

N(rpm) = 1,634

Solution:
1
303  BHP  4
D ( ft )   
1
 V mph )  
( N rpm )  ) 2

67
 1
303  850  4
D 1    10.46 ft
 224 
(1,634) 2

Note: The same formula may be used to calculate the diameter of 3-bladed propeller by using only 70 percent
of the value for the brake horsepower.

VII/1988: A 2,500 lb plane is cruising at a velocity of 80 knots when it encounters an updraft gust wind of 25
ft/sec. If the lift coefficient of its 150 ft2 wing had a change of 2.5 with a corresponding change in its relative
angle of attack of 20O, determine the gust load factor.

Given:
W = 2,500 lb
V = 80 knots x 1.151 = 92.08 mph
U = 25 ft/sec
S = 150 ft2
ΔCL = 2.5
Δα = 20 deg. x π/180 deg =0.349 radian

Required:
n (gust load factor)

Solution:
kUVm
n 1
W
575
S

W 2,500
  16.67 lb / ft 2
S 150

2.67
k  1.33  3
W 4
 
S 
2.67
k  1.33  3
 1.006
16.67 4

C L 2 .5
m   7.163 / radian
 0.349

(1.006)( 25)(92.08)(7.163)
n  1  2.73
(575)(16.67)

VIII/1988: Airplane data are given as follows:

Gross weight, W = 2,500 lb

Wing area, S = 185 ft2
Engine Power, P = 185 hp
Maximum level speed, V = 170 mph
Slope of lift curve, m = 4.34 per radian

For symmetrical wing loading condition, at condition positive high angle of attack, determine the maneuvering
load factor.

68
Solution:

For maneuvering load factor increment:

 
 
 32,000   3.25 
n   0.77  
 W  9,200    W  0.435 
  
  P  

 
 
 32,000  3.25   3.67
n   0.77  
 2,500  9, 200 
  2,500 
0.435 

  
  185  

For maneuvering load factor:

n = 1 + Δn

n = 1+ 3.67 = 4.67

IX/1988: The parasite parts of an airplane have the following data:

Parts Aπ(m2) C Dπ AπCDπ(m2)

Engine and exhaust 0.2300 0.18 0.0414
Fuselage 0.7040 0.20 0.1408
Cabin shield 0.2400 0.25 0.06
M.L. gear wheel 0.0176 0.30 0.00528
M.L. gear struts 0.0480 0.22 0.01056
Horizontal tail 3.1500 0.01 0.0315
Vertical tail 1.4600 0.01 0.0146
∑AπCDπ =0.30414 m2

Wing area, S = 17.03 m2

Wing drag coefficient, CDw = 0.015

Assume 12% interference drag and standard sea level conditions.

Determine:
a. Total airplane drag coefficient
b. Total airplane drag at 100 mph
c. Total airplane horsepower at 100 mph

Solution:

C D A 0.30414
C DO    0.018
S 17.03

C D int .  0.12C Do  (0.12)(0.018)  0.00216

C D  C Do  C D int .  C Dw

69
 C D  0.018  0.00216  0.015

C D  0.0352

1
D  CD V 2 S
2

1
D  (0.0352) (1.225)(100 x 0.447 ) 2 (17.03)  733.63 N  164.93 lb
2

DV (164.93)(100)
HP    43.98
375 375

Questionnaires:
1. A piece of formed sheet metal or extrusion riveted to a larger piece of thin sheet metal to give it
rigidity and stiffness.
a. Spar
b. Strut
c. Stiffener
d. Bulkhead
2. A design airplane intended to be certified as a commuter category under FAR part 23 has the following
specifications: design gross weight is 3,100 lb, wing span is 34 ft, MAC is 4.75 ft, and maximum lift
coefficient is 1.35 with flaps retracted. What is the required positive limit maneuvering load factor?
a. 3.8
b. 3.93
c. 2.1
d. 4.4
3. The maximum anticipated loads in the entire service life-span of a flight vehicle is called:
a. Ultimate loads
b. Limit loads
c. Design loads
d. Imposed loads
4. The 16-ft wing of an airplane is subjected to a lift which varies from zero at the tip to 360 lb/ft at the
fuselage according to ω = 90x1/2 lb/ft where x is measured from the tip. Compute the resultant and its
location from the wing tip.
a. 3,840 lbs & 5.6 ft
b. 3,840 lbs & 9.6 ft
c. 3,040 lbs & 5.6 ft
d. 3,040 lbs & 9.6 ft
5. In the stress strain diagram, the constant of proportionality E stands for?
a. Hooke’s Law
b. Modulus of Rigidity
c. Modulus of Turbidity
d. Young’s Modulus
6. A common wing design structure especially for large commercial aircraft that uses the wing as fuel
storage.
a. dry wing design
b. fuel wing design
c. wet wing design
d. central fuel storage
7. One hand fire extinguisher must be located on the following except?
a. pilot compartment
b. galley
c. lavatory
d. baggage compartment

70
8. The most efficient way to create lift on a fixed wing is to use?
a. wing taper
b. wing tip
c. elliptical wing
d. vortex generator
9. It is also known as asymmetric blade effect.
a. critical mass effect
b. P-factor
c. C-Factor
d. engine inoperative
10. The C.G of an aircraft must be located at?
a. aft of its Center of pressure
b. forward of its center of pressure
c. forward of its center of pressure
d. forward the aerodynamic center
11. In biplane wing design, stagger means?
a. longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to each other
b. lateral offset of the two wings relative to each other
c. vertical offset of the two wings relative to each other
d. angle between two wings relative to each other
12. In biplane wing design, decalage means.
a. longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to each other
b. lateral offset of the two wings relative to each other
c. vertical offset of the two wings relative to each other
d. angle between two wings relative to each other
13. During take-off roll V1 stands for?
a. initial speed
b. take off speed
c. decision speed
d. cruise speed
14. Under FAR part 23, the Gust velocity at 50,000 ft is?
a. 20 fps
b. 25 fps
c. 15 fps
d. 30 fps
15. Assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable
stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine the
minimum thickness of each plate.
a. 6.5 mm
b. 7.22 mm
c. 7.85 mm
d. 8.32 mm
16. It is the measure of the intensity of an internal load acting on a cross section of an object.
a. Force
b. Stress
c. Strain
d. Pressure
17. A simply supported beam, 3 meters in length is acted upon by an upward uniformly distributed load
along its entire length with a magnitude of 8 KN/m. What is the maximum shear imposed on the beam
by the load?
a. 12 KN
b. 24 KN
c. 6 KN
d. 8 KN
18. The test pilot of a design airplane observed that if the airplane is acted upon by a strong updraft, the
airplane oscillates vertically. The airplane is:

71
 a. Dynamically stable
b. Statically stable
c. Statically and dynamically unstable
d. Statically and dynamically stable
19. This condition occurs at the diving speed limit of the airplane, it may occur in an intentional maneuver
producing negative load factor or negative gust condition.
a. Negative low angle of attack
b. Negative high angle of attack
c. Positive low angle of attack
d. Positive high angle of attack
20. This condition is obtained in a pullout at the highest possible angle of attack of the wing. The lift and
drag forces are perpendicular and parallel respectively to the relative wind.
a. Positive low angle of attack
b. Positive high angle of attack
c. Negative low angle of attack
d. Negative high angle of attack
21. Where is fuselage station No. 137 located?
a. 137 centimeters aft of the nose or fixed
reference line
b. 137 inches aft of the zero or fixed
reference line
c. aft of engine
d. 137 inches aft of the engine firewall
22. One way of reducing radar detection in most military aircraft is?
a. reducing RCS
b. Flying at higher altitudes
c. using composite materials
d. using enamel paints
23. A type of design that uses skin as the primary source of structural strength.
a. Monocoque
b. semi-monocoque
c. cantilever
d. semi-cantilever
24. It is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or handling abilities of an
aircraft.
a. engine inoperative
b. left engine
c. critical engine
d. ETOPs
25. A 500 kg load is acting in the center of a 300 ft long beam. What are the values of the reactions at both
ends of the beam?
a. 250, 250 kg
b. 300, 200 kg
c. 100, 400 kg
d. 200, 300 kg
26. Vso stands for
a. stalling speed clean configuration
b. stalling speed landing configuration
c. stalling speed specific configuration
d. minimum landing speed
27. For a given aircraft at a given condition, the limit load is constant. The ultimate load is dictated by the
factor of safety. Choose which of the following statements are CORRECT in relation to the factor of
safety and ultimate load.
a. As the factor of safety increases, the ultimate load decreases
b. As the ultimate load increases, the factor of safety decreases.
c. As the factor of safety increases, the ultimate load increases.

72
 d. The factor of safety is constant at 1.5 therefore, ultimate load is also constant.
28. Where is the buttock line or buttline of an aircraft?
a. a width measurement left or right of, and parallel to, the vertical centerline
b. a width measurement left of, and perpendicular to, the vertical centerline
c. a height measurement left or right of, perpendicular to the horizontal centerline
d. none of the choices
29. As a rule of thumb in designing an aircraft, the designer must not allow ___________________.
a. the left wing to stall first
b. the canard wing to stall late
c. the rear wing or tail to stall first
d. the vertical stabilizer to stall only
30. It is type of deformation in which the material does not anymore return to its original shape.
a. plastic deformation
b. yield deformation
c. elastic deformation
d. fracture
31. Which of the following is not a primary control surface?
a. Aileron
b. Elevators
c. Flaps
d. Rudder
32. Determine the resultant of the concurrent force shown.
a. 422 lbs
b. 486 lbs
c. 512 lbs
d. 499 lbs

33. Are kinds of designs that incorporate various techniques to mitigate losses due to system or
component failures which includes redundancy and multiple load paths?
a. fail safe design
b. fail proof design
c. safe life
d. reliable design
34. The primary purpose of wing dihedral is to improve?
a. longitudinal stability
b. lateral stability
c. vertical stability
d. overall stability
35. Vmu stands for?
a. maximum upstick speed
b. minimum upstick speed
c. maximum upturn speed
d. minimum upturn speed
36. The following are phases of design except?
a. Conceptual
b. Preliminary
c. Detailed
d. Specific
37. During takeoff in a space ship, an 80-kg astronaut is subjected to an acceleration equals to 5 times the
pull of the earth's standard gravity. If the takeoff is vertical, what force does he exert on the seat?
a. 4704 N
b. 5000 N
c. 3500 N
d. 4325 N

73
38. A simply supported beam, 3 meters in length is acted upon by an upward uniformly distributed load
along it entire length with a magnitude 8 KN/m. What is the maximum bending moment imposed on
the beam by the load?
a. 9 KN-m
b. 36 KN-m
c. 18 KN-m
d. 6 KN-m
39. A design airplane has a weight of 2,200 lb and a wing area of 90 ft2. It is to be certified as acrobatic
category under FAR part 23. What is the negative limit maneuvering load factor in which the airplane
must be designed for?
a. 2.1
b. 3.8
c. 2.5
d. 3.0
40. It is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points, in which the
members are subjected to only axial loads.
a. Beam structure
b. Monocoque structure
c. Semi-monocoque structure
d. Truss structure
41. In aircraft zoning, zone 400 is?
a. Left wing
b. Right wing
c. Engine
d. Doors
42. Which of the following is an advantage of conventional landing gear arrangement?
a. good pilot field of view
b. lighter than modern design
c. reduced ground looping tendency
d. less affected by P-Factor
43. It is responsible for the asymmetrical relocation of the propeller's center of thrust when an aircraft is at
a high angle of attack.
a. Critical engine
b. Aerodynamic Twisting
c. P-Factor
d. Dutch Roll
44. A common variation on the biplane where one wing (usually the lower) has not more than half the
surface area of the other.
a. Parasol
b. Sesquiplane
c. Gull Wing
d. Cabane
45. Which of the following flaps is commonly found on the leading edge
a. Krueger Flaps
b. Fowler Flaps
c. Slotted Flaps
d. Spoiler
46. What force is required to punch a 20 mm diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The shear
strength is 350 MN/m2
a. 345 Kn
b. 550 kN
c. 221 kN
d. 566 kN
47. Which of the following wing geometry and/or design is best to reduce the adverse effect of supersonic
and transonic flow.
a. Wing dihedral

74
 b. swept back
c. anhedral
d. taper
48. Which of the following statement is true
a. during straight level unaccelerated flight lift = drag.
b. during straight level unaccelerated flight lift = thrust.
c. during straight level unaccelerated flight lift = weight.
d. during straight level unaccelerated flight, summation of forces = 0
49. Which of the following wing design has the best aerodynamic efficiency?
a. Rectangular
b. Tapered
c. Elliptical
d. Sweptback
50. A stone is thrown vertically upward and return to earth in 10 sec. What was its initial velocity and how
high did it go?
a. 122.6 m
b. 134.6 m
c. 111.6 m
d. 104.6 m
51. A stone is dropped down a well and 5 sec later, the sounds of the splash is heard. If the velocity of
sound is 1120 ft/sec (341.376 m/s), what is the depth of the well?
a. 254 ft
b. 353 ft
c. 287 ft
d. 422 ft
52. When a load is applied to a member normal to its axis and the member is held fixed at another section,
at any section between the load and reaction the particles on one side of the section tend to move in a
transverse direction with respect to the other side; that is, they tend to slide by each other. This set up
internal stresses in the member called:
a. Shear stress
b. Bending stress
c. Torsional stress
d. Tensile stress
53. Which statement is true regarding a cantilever wing?
a. No external bracing is needed.
b. It has nonadjustable lift struts.
c. It requires only one lift strut on each side.
d. all of the choices
54. A 6,300 lb airplane is in a steady glide with flight path at an angle of 20O below the horizontal. What is
the LIFT and DRAG of the airplane?
a. L = 5920 lb, D = 2155 lb
b. L = 5209 lb, D = 2551 lb
c. L = 6120 lb, D = 3250 lb
d. L = 5155 lb, D = 2920 lb
55. The swept back wing design is primarily intended to increase the critical Mach number of a supersonic
aircraft but also useful in:
a. Reducing induced drag
b. Increasing directional stability
c. Improving L/D ratio
d. Reduce parasite drag
56. Normally designed to provide restraint against rotation and all translations; therefore, reactive forces
and moments are developed along the directions where movements are not permitted.
a. Fixed support
b. Hinge support
c. Roller support
d. Wedge support

75
57. Which of the following category is not covered by FAR Part 23?
a. Normal
b. Utility
c. Commuter
d. Transport
58. It reduces the force required to move the primary control surfaces.
a. Servo Tab
b. Trim Tab
c. Anti-servo tab
d. FBW
59. Which of the following is not an advantage of conventional landing gear arrangement?
a. good pilot field of view
b. lighter than modern design
c. better propeller clearance
d. automatic positive angle of attack
60. Which of the following can be sued to prevent Dutch roll?
a. Dihedral
b. Wing Swept
c. Yaw dampers
d. Low Wing design
61. Moving the upper wing forward relative to the lower one is called
a. Negative Stagger
b. Positive Stagger
c. Decalage
d. Cabane
62. It is the ability of an aircraft to maintain its flight path without the help or being controlled by the pilot.
a. Stability
b. Maneuverability
c. Controllability
d. Operability
63. Which of the following is not a primary control surface?
a. Aileron
b. Elevators
c. Flaps
d. Rudder
64. The following are phases of Aircraft design except?
a. Detailed design
b. Preliminary design
c. conceptual design
d. specific design
65. The CG of a helicopter is ideally located at?
a. Aft location of its Main rotor hub
b. Directly in the line of axis of the hub
c. forward the hub
d. near the tail
66. A 6,300 lb airplane is in a steady glide with flight path at an angle of 20O below the horizontal. What is
the LIFT and DRAG of the airplane?
a. L = 5155 lb, D = 2920 lb
b. L = 5920 lb, D = 2155 lb
c. L = 6120 lb, D = 3250 lb
d. L = 5209 lb, D = 2551 lb
67. Longitudinal (fore and aft) structural members of a semi-monocoque fuselage are called___.
a. spars and ribs
b. spars and stringers
c. longerons and stringers
d. bulkhead and formers

76
68. The velocity-load factor diagram is also known as the ______________.
a. flight limits
b. flight envelope
c. flight operations minimums
d. aircraft diagram
69. A design airplane intended to be certified as a commuter category under FAR part 23 has the following
specifications: design gross weight is 3,100 lb, wing span is 34 ft, MAC is 4.75 ft, and maximum lift
coefficient is 1.35 with flaps retracted. What is the required positive limit maneuvering load factor?
a. 2.1
b. 3.8
c. 4.4
d. 3.93
70. Buffeting is the intermittent application of forces to a part of an airplane. It is caused by_______.
a. incorrect rigging of flaps
b. incorrect rigging of ailerons
c. an unsteady flow from turbulence
d. all of the choices
71. It is an axis in the cross section of a beam (a member resisting bending) or shaft along which there are
no longitudinal stresses or strains.
a. Axial axis
b. Neutral axis
c. Lateral axis
d. Vertical axis
72. The Federal Aviation Regulations are under what CFR?
a. 12 CFR
b. 14 CFR
c. 15 CFR
d. 13 CFR
73. ATA 28 is?
a. Hydraulic Power
b. Fuel
c. Flight Controls
d. Landing gears
74. VY stands for?
a. best rate of climb speed
b. best angle of attack speed
c. best angle of climb speed
d. best landing speed
75. VS0 stands for
a. stalling speed clean configuration
b. stalling speed landing configuration
c. stalling speed specific configuration
d. minimum landing speed
76. To counter torque of the helicopter main rotors, the following design can be used except?
a. tail rotor
b. tandem rotor
c. coaxial rotor
d. meshing rotor
77. What is the standard weight per liter of JP-4?
a. 1.58
b. 1.76
c. 1.85
d. 1.95
78. The standard weight of female passengers during winter is?
a. 188 lbs
b. 141 lbs

77
 c. 150 lbs
d. 165 lbs
79. The standard weight of the pilots is?
a. 188 lbs
b. 141 lbs
c. 150 lbs
d. 165 lbs
80. Canard which is a French word meaning?
a. Goose
b. Wings
c. Flaps
d. Direction
81. A given truss structure had been found to have three unknowns, which of the following best describes
the solution.
a. the problem is unsolvable
b. we must make 3 independent equations
c. use method of joint
d. It is a type of indeterminate structure
82. A transverse load on a member tends to make the member rotate about an axis at a section away from
that where the load is applied and normal to the axis of the member. If the member is restrained from
rotating at any section other than that at which the load is applied, internal tension stresses are set up
at one side of the member and compression at the other. At any section where such stresses are
present the member is said to be subjected to:
a. Torsion
b. Shear
c. Bending
d. Compression
83. It is the ratio of the lateral to the longitudinal deformation.
a. Euler’s ratio
b. stress to strain ratio
c. Poisson’s ratio
d. fines ratio
84. It is a measure of the intensity of load acting on a definite plane passing through a given point in the
material.
a. Shear
b. Torque
c. Stress
d. Strain
85. Structural members designed to support loadings applied perpendicular to their axes. They are long,
straight bars having a constant cross-sectional area.
a. Shafts
b. Plates
c. Beams
d. Bulkhead
86. The maximum take-off weight of commuter category under FAR 23 is?
a. 12,500 lbs
b. 19,000 lbs
c. 22,000 lbs
d. 17,500 lbs
87. During climb, the airplane accelerates at 48 ft/s2. If the weight of the airplane is 3,800 lb, what is the
load factor?
a. 1.27
b. 2.44
c. 1.5
d. 2.5

78
88. States that the moment of the resultant is equivalent to the moment sum of its components
a. State postulate
b. Pascal’s principle
c. Varignon’s Theorem
d. Hooke’s Law
89. One way of reducing radius of turn is to?
a. increase airspeed
b. increase bank angle
c. decrease bank angle
d. increase thrust
90. A wing design of monoplane where it is raised clear above the top of the fuselage.
a. mid wing
b. sesquiplane
c. parasol
d. inverted parasol
91. A design having their elevators in ahead of the wings and at the same time contributes to lift.
a. Sweptback design
b. swept front design
c. Control Canard
d. lifting canard
92. A wing design wherein the tips are lower than the root.
a. Dihedral
b. Unhedral
c. Anhedral
d. inverted gull
93. The higher the moment of inertia the greater the ______ in that orientation.
a. Stress
b. resistance to bending
c. strength
d. possibility of buckling
94. Aspect ratio is
a. Chord over span
b. Chord over swept
c. span over chord
d. span over lift
95. It is the ratio of stress to strain
a. Euler’s ratio
b. stress to strain ratio
c. Poisson’s ratio
d. Modulus of Elasticity
96. It is a rotational force produced on an axis by a linear force applied at a distance away from the axis.
a. Inertia
b. Equilibrium
c. Moment
d. Couples
97. What of type loads causes the most rivet failures?
a. Bearing
b. Shearing
c. Head
d. Strain
98. An airplane’s center of lift is usually located aft of its center of gravity ___________.
a. so that the airplane will have a tail-heavy tendency
b. to improve stability about the longitudinal axis
c. so that the airplane will have a nose-heavy tendency
d. to induce poor static stability

79
 99. This type of emergency exit has the following characteristics: a rectangular opening not less than 24 in
wide by 48 in high with corner radii not greater than one third the width of the exit. This type of exit is
located on each side of the fuselage at the aft portion of passenger compartment unless configuration
of the airplane is such that some other location would afford a more effective means of evacuation.
This type of exit is at floor-level.
a. Type III
b. Type II
c. Type IV
d. Type I
100. When an airplane is designed to carry 140 to 179 passengers, it must be equipped with
___________ of emergency exits
a. 1 Type IV and 1 Type III
b. 2 Type I and 2 Type III
c. 2 Type I and 1 Type III
d. 2 Type I and 1 Type III

Additional Questionnaires
1. The attribute of the structure that permits it to retain its required residual strength for a period of use
after the structure has sustained a given level of fatigue, corrosion, accidental or discrete source damage.
Ans. Damage tolerance.

2. The attribute of the structure that permits it to retain its required residual strength for a period of
unrepaired use after the failure of partial failure of a principal structural element.
Ans. Fail-safe.

3. The number of events such as flights, landings, or flight hours, during which there is a low probability that
the strength will degrade below its design ultimate value due to fatigue cracking.
Ans. Safe-life of a structure.

4. The period of time (in flight cycles/hours) established at design and/or certification during which the
principal structure will be reasonably free from significant cracking.
Ans. Design service goal.

5. An element that contributes significantly to the carrying of flight, ground, or pressurization loads, and
whose integrity is essential in maintaining the overall structural integrity of the airplane.
Ans. Principal structural element (PSE).

6. Where the applied loads are eventually distributed through a single member, the failure of which would
result in the loss of the structural capability to carry the applied loads.
Ans. Single load path.

7. Identified with redundant structures in which (with the failure of individual elements) the applied loads
would be safely distributed to other load-carrying members.
Ans. Multiple load path.

8. Characterized by the simultaneous presence of cracks at multiple structural details that are of sufficient
size and density whereby the structure will no longer meet its damage tolerance requirement (i.e., to
maintain its required residual strength after partial structural failure).
Ans. Widespread fatigue damage (WFD).

9. A source of widespread fatigue damage characterized by the simultaneous presence of cracks in the same
structural element (i.e., fatigue cracks that may coalesce with or without other damage leading to a loss of
required residual strength).

80
 Ans. Multiple site damage (MSD).

10. A source of widespread fatigue damage characterized by the simultaneous presence of fatigue cracks in
adjacent structural elements.
Ans. Multiple element damage (MED).

11. A life reduction factor used in the interpretation of fatigue analysis and test results.
Ans. Scatter factor.

12. Material properties that define the strength related characteristics of any given material.
Ans. Material strength properties.

13. Material strength properties that have been established based on the requirements of FAR part 25.613 (b).
Ans. Material design values.
14. The operating limitations defined by the applicant under subpart G of FAR part 25.
Ans. Airplane operating envelope.

15. Wing dihedral, a rigging consideration on most airplanes of conventional design, contributes most to
stability of the airplane about its
Ans. lateral axis.

16. If a pilot reports that an airplane flies left wing heavy, this condition may be corrected by
Ans. increasing the angle of incidence of the left wing, or decreasing the angle of
incidence of the right wing , or both.

17. If the vertical fin of a single-engine propeller driven airplane is rigged properly, it will generally be parallel
to
Ans. the vertical axis but not the longitudinal axis.

18. An airplane which has a good longitudinal stability should have a minimum tendency to
Ans. pitch.

19. An airplane’s center of lift is usually located aft of its center of gravity
Ans. to improve stability about the longitudinal axis.

20. An airplane is controlled directionally about its vertical axis by the

Ans. rudder.

21. The elevator of a conventional airplane are used to provide rotation about the
Ans. lateral axis.

22. Washing-in the left wing of a monoplane, for purposes of rigging corrections after flight test, will have
what effect on the lift and drag of that wing?
Ans. Both drag and lift will increase due to increased angle of attack.

23. What type of flap system increases the wing area and changes the wing camber?
Ans. Fowler flaps.

24. If the right wing of a monoplane is improperly rigged to a greater angle of incidence than designated in the
manufacturer’s specifications, it will cause the
Ans. airplane to be off balance both laterally and directionally.

25. The chord of a wing is measured from

Ans. leading edge to trailing edge.

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26. When the lift of an airfoil increases, the drag will
Ans. also increase.

27. What physical factors are involved in the aspect ratio of airplane wings?
Ans. Span and chord.

28. Improper rigging of the elevator trim tab system will affect the balance of the airplane about its
Ans. Lateral axis.

29. An airplane that has a tendency to gradually increase a pitching moment that has been set into motion has
Ans. poor longitudinal stability.

30. The purpose of wing slats is to

Ans. reduce stalling speed.

31. The angle of incidence of an airplane

Ans. is that angle between the relative wind and the wing chord.

32. Buffeting is the intermittent application of forces to a part of an airplane. It is caused by

Ans. an unsteady flow from turbulence.

33. Movement of an airplane along its lateral axis is also movement

Ans. around or about the longitudinal axis controlled by the ailerons.

34. The primary purpose of stall strips is to

Ans. stall the inboard portion of the wings first.

35. The purpose of the vertical fin is to provide

Ans. directional stability.

36. If all, or a significant part of a stall strip is missing on an airplane wing, a like result will be
Ans. asymmetrical lateral control at or near stall angles of attack.

37. An airplane wing is designed to produce lift resulting from

Ans. positive air pressure below the wing’s surface and negative air pressure above the wing’s
surface along with the downward deflection of air.

38. Aspect ratio of a wing is defined as the ratio of the

Ans. wing span to the mean chord.

39. Suitability for use of a specific propeller with a particular engine-airplane combination can be determined
by reference to what informational source?
Ans. Propeller specifications or Propeller Type certificate Data Sheet

40. When an airworthy (at the time of sale) aircraft is sold. The airworthiness certificate
Ans. is transferred with the aircraft.

41. The issuance of an airworthiness certificate is governed by

Ans. 14 CFR Part 21.

42. Specifications pertaining to an aircraft of which a limited number were manufactured under type
certificate and for which there is no current aircraft specification, can be found in the
Ans. Aircraft Listing.

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43. Where are technical descriptions of certificated propellers found?
Ans. Propeller Type Certificate Data Sheets.

44. Placards required on an aircraft are specified in

Ans. Aircraft Specifications or Type certificate Data Sheets.

45. Technical information about older aircraft models, of which no more than 50 remain in service, can be
found in the
Ans. Aircraft Listing.

46. (1) The Federal Aviation Regulations require approval after compliance with the data of a Supplemental
Type Certificate.
(2) An installation of an item manufactured in accordance with the Technical Standard Order system
requires no further approval for installation in a particular aircraft.

Regarding the above statements,

Ans. only No.1 is true.

47. Which regulation provides information regarding instrument range markings for an airplane certificated in
the normal category?
Ans. 14 CFR Part 23.

48. (1) Propellers are NOT included in the Airworthiness Directive system.
(2) A certificated powerplant mechanic may make a minor repair on an aluminum propeller and
approve for return to service.

Regarding the above statements,

Ans. only No. 2 is true.

49. (1) Manufacturer’s data and FAA publications such as Airworthiness Directives, Type Certificate Data
Sheets, and Advisory Circulars are all approved data.
(2) FAA publications such as Technical Standard Orders, Airworthiness Directives, Type Certificate Data
Sheets, and Aircraft Specifications and Supplemental Type Certificates are all approved data.

Regarding the above statements,

Ans. only No. 2 is true.

50. The Air Transport Association of America (ATA) Specification No. 100
(1) establishes a standard for the presentation of technical data in maintenance manuals.
(2) divides the aircraft into numbered systems and sales systems in order to simplify
locating maintenance instructions.
Regarding the above statements,
Ans. both No.1 and No. 2 are true.

51. Which of the following is the ultimate limiting factor of turbine engine operation?
Ans. Turbine inlet temperature.

52. Standard aircraft cylinder oversizes usually range from 0.010 inch to 0.030 inch. Oversize on automobile
engine cylinders may range up to 0.100 inch. This is because aircraft engine cylinders
Ans. has already thin walls and may be nitrided.

53. What is required by 14 CFR Part 43 Appendix D when performing an annual/100-hour inspection on a
reciprocating engine aircraft?
Ans. Cylinder compression check.
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54. What is the possible cause when a turbine engine indicates no change in power setting parameters, but oil
temperature is high?
Ans. Engine main bearing distress.

55. What actuates the pilot valve in the governor of a constant-speed propeller?
Ans. Governor flyweights.

56. (1) Serviceability limits for turbine blades are much more stringent than are those for turbine nozzle vanes.
(2) A limited number of small nicks and dents can usually be permitted in any area of a turbine blade.

Regarding the above statements,

Ans. only No. 1 is true.

57. Master rod bearings are generally what type?

Ans. Plain.

58. What is the first engine instrument indication of a successful start of a turbine engine?
Ans. A rise in the exhaust gas temperature.

59. Where is the high and low pitch stops of a Hamilton standard constant-speed or two-position
counterweight propeller located?
Ans. In the counterweight assembly.

60. (1) Cast iron piston rings may be used in chrome-plated cylinders.
(2) Chrome-plated rings may be used in plain steel cylinders.

Regarding the above statements,

Ans. both No.1 and No. 2 are true.

61. Which condition would be the least likely to be caused by failed or failing engine bearings?
Ans. Low oil temperatures.

62. The function of the exhaust cone assembly of a turbine engine is to

Ans. straightens and collects the exhaust gases into a solid exhaust jet.

63. In a dual axial-flow compressor, the first stage turbine drives

Ans. N (2) compressor.

64. What is the function of the stator vane assembly at the discharge end of a typical axial-
flow compressor?
Ans. To straighten airflow to eliminate turbulence.

65. (1) During take-off, propeller thrust (pull) is greatest if the blade angle of attack is low and the engine
power setting is high.
(2) With the aircraft stationary, propeller thrust is greatest if the blade angle of attack is high and the
engine power setting is high.
Ans. only no. 1 is true.

66. In an axial-flow compressor, 0ne purpose of the stator vanes at the discharge end of the compressor is to
Ans. straightens the airflow and eliminates turbulence.

67. Which of the following statements about constant-speed counterweight propellers is also true when
referring to two-position counterweight propellers?
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 Ans. Blade angle changes are accomplished by the use of two forces, one hydraulic and the other
centrifugal.

68. Which of the following is used to monitor the mechanical integrity of the turbines, as well as to check
engine operating conditions of a turbine engine?
Ans. Exhaust gas temperature.

69. During which of the following conditions of flight will the blade pitch angle of a constant-speed propeller
be the greatest?
Ans. High-speed, high-altitude cruising flight.

70. Before attempting to start a radial engine that has been shut down for more than 30 minutes,
Ans. turn the propeller by hand three to four revolutions in the normal direction of rotation to check for
liquid lock.

71. Who establishes the recommended operating time between overhauls (TBO) of a turbine engine used in
general aviation?
Ans. The engine manufacturer.

72. Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to detonation?
Ans. Use of fuel with too low an octane rating.

73. Reduce blade vibration and improved airflow characteristics in gas turbines are brought about by
Ans. shrouded turbine rotor blades.

74. One of the advantages of inspecting an aluminium propeller utilizing dye-penetrant inspection procedure
is that
Ans. it shows whether visible lines and other marks are actually cracks rather than scratches.

75. The propeller governor controls the

Ans. oil to and from the pitch changing mechanism.

76. Excessive valve clearances will cause the duration of valve opening to
Ans. decrease for both intake and exhaust valves.

77. What is the purpose of a power check on a reciprocating engine?

Ans. To determine satisfactory performance.

78. Main bearing oil seals used with turbine engines are usually what type (s)?
Ans. Labyrinth and/or carbon rubbing.

79. The turbine section of a jet engine

Ans. drives the compressor section.

80. An aircraft reciprocating engine using hydraulic valve lifters is observed to have no clearance in its valve-
operating mechanism after the minimum inlet oil and cylinder head temperatures for take-off have been
reached. When can this condition be expected?
Ans. During normal operation.

81. Oil leakage around the rear cone of a hydromatic propeller usually indicates a defective
Ans. spider-shaft oil seal.

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82. The airworthiness standards for the issue of Type certificates for small airplanes with nine or less
passenger seats in the normal, utility, and acrobatic categories may be found in the
Ans. Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 23.

83. If the ignition switch is moved from BOTH to either LEFT or RIGHT during an engine ground check, normal
operation is usually indicated by a
Ans. slight drop in RPM.

84. A turbine engine compressor which contains vanes on both sides of the impeller is a
Ans. Double entry centrifugal compressor.

85. What method would be used to inspect an aluminum propeller blade when a crack is suspected?
Ans. Dye-penetrant.

86. Which of the following is used to correct horizontal unbalance of a wood propeller?
Ans. Solder.

87. A Cessna 180 aircraft has a McCauley propeller model No. 2A34C50/90A. The propeller is severely
damaged in a ground accident, and this model propeller is not available for replacement. Which of the
following should be used to find an approved alternate replacement?
Ans. Aircraft specification/Type Certificate Data Sheets.

88. Why does the smoothness of operation of an engine increase with greater number of cylinders?
Ans. The power impulses are spaced closer together.

89. The two types of centrifugal compressor impeller’s are

Ans. single entry and double entry.

90. What normally prevents a Hartzell Compact propeller from going to feather when the engine is shut down
on the ground?
Ans. a latch mechanism composed of springs and lock pins.

91. The low pitch stop on a constant-speed propeller is usually se so that

Ans. the engine will turn at its rated take-off RPM at sea level when the throttle is opened to allowable
take-off manifold pressure.

92. Excessive valve clearance in a piston engine

Ans. decreases valve overlap.

93. The application of more protective coating on one blade than the other when refinishing a wood propeller
Ans. may be necessary to achieve final balancing.

94. What is the result of moving the throttle on a reciprocating engine when the propeller is in the constant-
speed range with the engine developing cruise power?
Ans. Opening the throttle will cause an increase in blade angle.

95. In what position is the constant-speed propeller control placed to check the magnetos?
Ans. Full increase, low propeller blade pitch angle.

96. What is meant by a double entry centrifugal compressor?

Ans. A compressor with vanes on both sides of the impeller.

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97. On most reciprocating multiengine aircraft, automatic propeller synchronization is accomplished through
the actuation of the
Ans. propeller governors.

98. As the pressure is applied during a reciprocating engine compression check using a differential pressure
tester, what would a movement of the propeller in the direction of engine rotation indicate?
Ans. The piston was positioned past top dead center.

99. Which statement is correct regarding a four-stroke cycle aircraft engine?

Ans. the intake valve closes on the compression stroke.

100. What section in the instructions for continued airworthiness is FAA approved?
Ans. Airworthiness limitations section.

101. Which of these conditions will cause an engine to have an increased tendency to detonate?
1. High manifold pressure.
2. High intake temperature.
3. Engine overheated.
4. Late ignition timing.
Ans. 1, 2, 3.

102. Which of the following conditions is usually not acceptable to any extent in turbine blades?
Ans. Cracks.

103. The holding coil on a hydromatic propeller feathering button switch holds a solenoid relay closed that
applies power to the propeller
Ans. feathering pump motor.

104. When must an Airworthiness Directive (AD) be complied with after it becomes effective?
Ans. As specified in the AD.

105. The fan rotational speed of a dual axial compressor forward fan engine is the same as the
Ans. low-pressure compressor.

106. If, during inspection at engine overhaul, ball or roller bearings are found to have magnetism but
otherwise have no defects, they
Ans. must be degaussed before use.

107. Engine operating flexibility is the ability of the engine to

Ans. run smoothly and give the desired performance at all speeds.

108. If the hot clearance is used to set the valves when the engine iws cold, what will occur during operation
of the engine?
Ans. The valves will open late and close early.

109. Why is the pulley stop screw on a propeller governor adjustable?

Ans. To limit the maximum engine speed during takeoff.

110. Turbine engine components exposed to high temperature generally may NOT be marked with
1. Layout dye.
2. Commercial felt tip marker.
3. Wax or grease pencil.

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 4. Chalk.
5. Graphite lead pencil.
Ans. 3 and 5.

111. Propeller fluid anti-icing systems generally use which of the following?
Ans. Isopropyl alcohol.

112. Some cylinder barrels are hardened by

Ans. nitriding.

113. At what point in an axial-flow turbojet engine will the highest gas pressures occur?
Ans. At the compressor outlet.

114. Ignition occurs at 28o BTDC on a certain four-stroke cycle engine, and the intake valve opens at 15o
BTDC. How many degrees of crankshaft travel after ignition does the intake valve open?
Ans. 373o.

115. Which of the following functions requires the use of a propeller blade station?
Ans. Measuring blade angle.

116. (1) Preignition is caused by improper ignition timing. (2) Detonation occurs when an area of the
combustion chamber becomes incandescent and ignites the fuel/air mixture in advance of normal timed
ignition.
Regarding the above statements,
Ans. neither No. 1 nor No. 2 is true.

117. Which of the following defects is cause for rejection of wood propellers?
Ans. An oversize hub or bolthole, or elongated boltholes.

118. Removal of propeller blade tips within Type Certificate Data sheet limits correcting a defect is
Ans. a major repair.

119. When preparing a propeller blade for inspection it should be cleaned with
Ans. mild soap and water.

120. (1) A mechanic certificate with a powerplant rating authorizes the holder to repair deep scars, nicks,
and dents on aluminium propeller blades. (2) A mechanic certificate with a powerplant rating authorizes
the holder to perform minor straightening of steel propeller blades.
Regarding the above statements,
Ans. neither No.1 nor No. 2 is true.

121. Ans. galling.A severe condition of chafing or fretting in which a transfer of metal from one part to
another occurs is called

122. What is used in turbine engines to aid in stabilization of compressor airflow during low thrust engine
operation?
Ans. Variable guide vanes and/or compressor bleed valves.

123. A ground incident that results in propeller sudden stoppage would require a cranks
Ans. Current manufacturer’s maintenance instructions.

124. A cool-off period prior to shutdown of a turbine engine is accomplished in order to

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 Ans. allow the turbine wheel to cool before the case contracts around it.

125. Generally, when starting a turbine engine, the starter should be disengaged
Ans. after the engine has reached self-accelerating speed.

126. A propeller synchrophasing system allows a pilot to reduce noise and vibration by
Ans. adjusting the phase angle between the propellers on an aircraft’s engines.

127. If the exhaust valve of a four-stroke cycle engine is closed and the intake is just closed , the piston is on
the
Ans. compression stroke.

128. Which of the following best describes the blade movement of a propeller that is in the high RPM
position when reversing action is begun?
Ans. Low pitch directly to reverse pitch.

129. The blade angle of a fixed-pitch propeller

Ans. is smaller at the tip.

130. Anti-icing of jet engine air inlets is commonly accomplished by

Ans. engine bleed air ducted through the critical areas.

131. Constant-speed non-feathering McCauley, Hartzell, and other propellers of similar design without
counterweights increase pitch angle using
Ans. oil pressure.
132. Propellers exposed to salt spray should be flushed with
Ans. fresh water.

133. Which of the following engine variables is the most critical during turbine engine operation?
Ans. Turbine inlet temperature.

134. Repairs of aluminum alloy adjustable pitch propellers are not permitted to be made on which of the
following propeller blade areas?
Ans. Shank.

135. The stator vanes in an axial-flow compressor

Ans. convert velocity energy into pressure energy.

136. Severe rubbing of turbine engine compressor blades will usually cause
Ans. galling.

137. What publication is used for guidance to determine whether a powerplant repair is major or minor?
Ans. federal Aviation regulations, Part 43, appendix A.

138. An advantage of the centrifugal-flow compressor is its high

Ans. pressure rise per stage.

139. Standard sea level pressure is

Ans. 29.92” Hg.

140. Each powerplant installed on an airplane with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate must have been
Ans. type certificated.

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141. The primary purpose of a feathering propeller is to
Ans. eliminate the drag created by a windmilling propeller when an engine fails in flight.

142. When starting a turbine engine, a hung start is indicated if the engine
Ans. fails to reach idle RPM.

143. Grease used in aircraft propellers reduces the frictional resistance of moving parts and is easily molded
into any form under pressure. This statement defines
Ans. anti-friction and plasticity characteristics of grease.

144. What is the proper starting sequence for turbojet engine?

Ans. Starter, ignition, fuel.

145. Between each row of rotating blades in a turbine engine compressor, there is a row of stationary
blades which act to diffuse the air. These stationary blades are called
Ans. stators.

146. Propeller blade tracking is the process of determining

Ans. the positions of the tips of the propeller blades relative to each other.

147. Which turbine engine compressor offers the greatest advantages for both starting flexibility and
improved high-altitude performance?
Ans. Split-spool, axial-flow.

148. A turbine engine hot section is particularly susceptible to which kind of damage
Ans. Cracking.

149. Hot spots in the combustion section of a turbojet engine are possible indicators of
Ans. malfunctioning fuel nozzles.

150. Longitudinal (fore and aft) clearance of constant-speed propeller blades or cuffs must be at least ½
inch (12.7 mm) between propeller parts and stationary parts of the aircraft. This clearance is with the
propeller blades
Ans. feathered or in the most critical pitch configuration.

151. What is the profile of a turbine of a turbine engine compressor blade?

Ans. A cutout that reduces blade tip thickness.

152. Valve clearance changes on opposed-type engines using hydraulic lifters are accomplished by
Ans. push rod replacement.

153. Which of the following can cause fan blade shingling in a turbofan engine?
1. Engine overspeed.
2. Engine overtemperature.
3. Large, rapid throttle movements.
4. FOD.
Ans. 1 and 4.

154. You are performing a 100-hour inspection on an R985-22 aircraft engine. What does the “985” indicate?
Ans. the total piston displacement of the engine.

155. What operational force tends to increase propeller blade angle?

Ans. Aerodynamic twisting force.
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156. Hot section inspections for many modern turbine engines are required
Ans. on a time or cycle basis.

157. The primary purpose of the front and rear cones for propellers that are installed on splined shafts is to
Ans. position the propeller hub on the splined shaft.

158. W2hat are the two functional elements in a centrifugal compressor?

Ans. Impeller and diffuser.

159. An aircraft’s propeller system beta range

Ans. is used to produce zero or negative thrust.

160. Compressor field cleaning on turbine engines is performed primarily in order to

Ans. prevent engine performance degradation, increased fuel costs, and damage or corrosion to gas path
surfaces.

161. How is the speed of a constant-speed propeller changed in flight?

Ans. By changing the load tension against the flyweights in the governor.

162. When cleaning aluminum and magnesium engine parts, it is inadvisable to soak them in solutions
containing soap because
Ans. some of the soap will become impregnated in the surface of the material and subsequently cause
engine oil contamination and foaming.

163. A condition known as “hot streaking” in turbine engines is caused by

Ans. a partially clogged fuel nozzle.

164. Which two elements make up the axial-flow compressor assembly?

Ans. Rotor and stator.

165. Jet engine turbine blades removed for detailed inspection must be reinstalled in
Ans. the same slot.

166. A characteristic of dyna-focal engine mounts as applied to aircraft reciprocating engines is that the
Ans. shock mounts point toward the engine’s center of gravity.

167. During engine operation at speeds lower than those for which the constant-speed propeller control
can govern in the INCREASE RPM position, the propeller will
Ans. remain in full LOW PITCH position.

168. When does valve overlap occur in the operation of an aircraft reciprocating engine?
Ans. At the end of the exhaust stroke and the beginning of the intake stroke.

169. If a turbine engine is unable to reach takeoff EPR before its EGT limit is reached, this is an indication
that the
Ans. compressor may be contaminated or damaged.

170. Counterweights on constant-speed propellers are generally used to aid in

Ans. increasing blade angle.

171. Which of the following influences the operation of an automatic fuel control unit on a turbojet engine?
Ans. Burner pressure.

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172. To reduce the power output of an engine equipped with a constant-speed propeller and operating
near maximum BMEP, the
Ans. manifold pressure is reduced with the throttle control before the RPM is reduced with the propeller
control.

173. What is the primary purpose of the metal tipping which covers the blade tips and extends along the
leading edge of each wood propeller blade?
Ans. To prevent impact damage to the tip and leading edge of the blade.

174. Direct mechanical push-pull carburetor heat control linkages should normally be adjusted so that the
stop located on the diverter valve will be contacted
Ans. before the stop at the control laver is reached in both HOT and COLD positions.

175. If the intake valve is opened too early in the cycle of operation of a four-stroke cycle engine, it may
result in
Ans. backfiring into the induction system.

176. The basic gas turbine engine is divided into two main sections: the cold section and the hot section.
(1) The cold section includes the engine inlet, compressor, and turbine sections.
(2) The hot section includes the combustor, diffuser, and exhaust sections,
Regarding the above statements,
Ans. neither No. 1 nor No. 2 is true.

177. What could cause excessive pressure buildup in the crankcase of a reciprocating engine?
Ans. Plugged crankcase breather.

178. Where is the highest gas pressure in a turbojet engine?

Ans. In the entrance of the burner section.

179. The propeller blade angle is defined as the acute angle between the airfoil section chord line (at the
blade reference station) and
Ans. the plane of rotation.

180. What should be done initially if a turbine engine catches fire when starting?
Ans. Turn off the fuel and continue engine rotation with the starter.

181. Who establishes mandatory replacement times for critical components of turbine engines?
Ans. The engine manufacturer.

182. One cause of after firing in an aircraft engine is

Ans. an excessively rich mixture.

183. Using the following information, determine how many degrees the crankshaft will rotate with both the
intake and exhaust valves seated.
Intake opens 15o : BTDC.
Exhaust opens 70o : BBDC.
Intake closes 45o : ABDC.
Exhaust closes 10o : ATDC.
Ans. 245o.

184. What operational force causes propeller blade tips to lag in the opposite direction of rotation?
Ans. Torque-bending force.

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