AE31007: Introduction to Aircraft Performance

Presented by
Dr. Susmita Bhattacharyya
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Contents

• Aircraft Performance

• Aerodynamic and Propulsive Models

• Flight Segments of a Transport Aircraft

• Dynamic and Kinematic Equations of Motion (EOM)

• Steady Flight Conditions

• Mathematical degrees of freedom (DOF)

• Non-dimensional Equations of Motion (EOM)

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Aircraft Performance
• In the rest of the course, we will learn aircraft performance during different phases of flight
• Performance depends on aerodynamic and propulsive characteristics
• For a given aircraft, aerodynamic characteristics are influenced by angle of attack/sideslip, Mach
number and Reynolds number
• Characteristics of powerplant depend on altitude, flight velocity and engine operating conditions
• Detailed performance evaluation requires complex simulations on high-speed computers
• In this class, we will use simple aerodynamic and propulsive models and analyse basic aircraft
performance
• With simplifying assumptions, we will be able to gain insights into important performance measures
that affect aircraft performance

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Aerodynamic Model
• We will assume a parabolic drag polar
• CL is the lift coefficient of the complete aircraft
• CD is the drag coefficient, comprising
▫ parasite drag containing profile drag of the wing, tails,
fuselage, and any other components
▫ Induced drag coefficient
▫ Wave drag coefficient at transonic and supersonic speeds

𝐶𝐿2
▫ CD = CD, e + , CD, e = CD, 0 + r𝐶𝐿2 ,
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Real aircraft
1 1
CD = CD, 0 + 𝑟 + 𝐶𝐿2 = CD, 0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 , 𝑘 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝜋𝑒0 𝐴𝑅

Zero lift drag Lift-induced

coefficient drag coefficient Figures 4.24 and 4.36 from Brandt’s Book 4
Propulsive Models
• For propeller aircraft
𝜌 𝜈
▫ 𝑃𝐴 = η𝛿𝑃0 𝜌 , where 𝑃0 = maximum power
0

developed at sea level, 𝛿 = throttle setting (maximum

is one), 𝜌0 = density of air at sea level, 𝜈 = exponent

• For jet aircraft

𝜌 𝜈
▫ 𝑇𝐴 = 𝛿𝑇0 𝜌 , where 𝑇0 = maximum thrust
0

available at sea level, 𝛿 = throttle setting (maximum is

one), 𝜌0 = density of air at sea level, 𝜈 = exponent

𝑃
• 𝑊ሶ = −𝑐𝑇 (jet), 𝑊ሶ = −𝑐𝑃𝐷 = −𝑐 𝜂𝑎 (propeller), c =
thrust specific fuel consumption (jet)/ specific fuel
consumption (propeller)
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Performance Problems
• There are two types of performance problems
▫ Point performance: Local characteristics at a point in flight path (steady gliding, steady level flight, steady
climbing flight, and steady turning flight)
▫ Path performance: Overall performance considering entire/a segment of flight path from a given initial
condition to a specified final condition; often requires complex integration
▫ We will treat unsteady climbing, range, endurance, take off, landing and unsteady gliding as simple path
performance problems

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 Typical Flight Segments of a Transport Aircraft
Area Control (cruise phase)

Hand over to
approach/terminal control
(descent)
Approach/Terminal
control (cruise climb)

Hand over to tower control

Take off run Landing gear retracted

(end of take-off) Ground roll
Vs 1.12Vs = lift off Touch down
Clearance delivery (route clearance) Air traffic control is service provided by ground-based
Ground control clearance (taxi) controller to guide an aircraft on the ground and in
Tower control clearance (take-off run) controlled airspace 222272
Equations of Motion (EOM) for Flight in Vertical Plane
• Dynamic EOM: Resolving forces along and normal
to the flight path

𝑊 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝛾
𝑇 cos ∈ −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 =
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑉

𝑊 𝑉 2 𝑊 𝑑𝛾
𝑇 sin ∈ +𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = = 𝑉
𝑔 𝑅 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
• Conditions for steady flight 𝜖0
▫ 𝛼 is small (2o – 6o), 𝛾 < 20o, 𝑉ሶ = 𝛾ሶ = 0
▫ 𝜖 = 𝛼 − 𝜖0 is small, hence, cos ∈ ≈ 1, sin ∈ ≈ ∈
𝑇 𝑇
▫ ~ (0.2 − 0.4) for transport planes, ~ 1 for
𝑊 𝑊
fighter with full throttle and maximum take off weight,
𝑇
∈ ≪ 1 (steady flight) 𝜖 = Thrust angle of attack
𝑊
Figure 2.2 from Pamadi
▫ ∆𝑊 ≪ 𝑊, 𝑊 is almost constant 222282
Equations of Motion (EOM) for Steady Flight in Vertical Plane

• Dynamic EOM in steady flight

𝜖0
𝑇 −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0
𝐿 + (𝑇 ∈ −𝑊 cos 𝛾) = 0
𝑇∈
𝐿+𝑊 − cos 𝛾 = 0
𝑊
𝜖 = Thrust angle of
𝑇∈ 𝑇∈
Since cos 20 = 0.9397 and ≪ 1, 𝑊 ≪ cos 𝛾 attack
𝑊

𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 0 Conditions for steady flight

• Kinematic EOM 𝛼 is small (2o – 6o), 𝛾 < 20o, 𝑉ሶ = 𝛾ሶ = 0
𝜖 = 𝛼 − 𝜖0 is small, hence, cos ∈ ≈ 1, sin ∈ ≈ ∈
𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 𝑇
∈ ≪ 1 (steady flight)
ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾 ℎ 𝑊
∆𝑊 ≪ 𝑊, 𝑊 is almost constant
𝑥

Along trace of flight path on ground 222292

Mathematical Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
• Dynamic EOM Kinematic EOM
𝑊 𝑑𝑉 𝑡0 t
𝑇 −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑉 cos 𝛾 𝑡1
𝑔 𝑑𝑡

𝑊 𝑉2 𝑊 𝑑𝛾
𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 ℎሶ = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑔 𝑅 𝑔

𝑃
• Weight equation: 𝑊ሶ = −𝑐𝑇 (jet), 𝑊ሶ = −𝑐𝑃𝐷 = −𝑐 𝜂𝑎 (propeller)

• Mathematical DOF: No of variables – no of equations

• Determines how many variables you can pick freely
• In the above case, variables are: 𝑉, 𝛾, 𝑊, 𝑥, ℎ (state variables), 𝛿, 𝛼 (control variables) and there are five equations
• 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑉, 𝛿, ℎ , 𝐿 = 𝑔1 𝑉, 𝛼, ℎ , 𝐷 = 𝑔2 (𝑉, 𝛼, ℎ)
• So, DOF = 2 (with given time evolutions of any two variables and boundary conditions, we can determine the time
profile of all variables by integrating the above equations)
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Non-Dimensional Form of Dynamic EOM (1/2)
• Dynamic EOM in steady flight
𝑇 −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0
𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 0
• Some non-dimensional variables are introduced
𝐶𝐿 𝐿 𝑇𝐸𝑚 𝑉
▫ 𝐸= (aerodynamic efficiency), 𝑛 = (load factor), 𝑧 = (non-dimensional thrust), 𝑢 = (non-
𝐶𝐷 𝑊 𝑊 𝑉𝑅

2𝑊 4 𝑘
dimensional velocity), 𝑉𝑅 = 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0

• Condition for maximum aerodynamic efficiency 𝐸𝑚

𝐶𝐷 CD,0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 𝑑 𝐶𝐷 −CD,0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 𝐶𝐷0 1

= , = 2 = 0, 𝐶𝐿∗ = , 𝐸𝑚 =
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝑘 2 𝑘𝐶𝐷0

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Non-Dimensional Form of Dynamic EOM (2/2)
1 1 2𝑛𝑊
• 𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2 , 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝐿 =
2 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆

1 4𝑘𝑛2 𝑊 2 1 4𝑘𝑛2 𝑊 2 1 2𝑤 𝑘 4𝑘𝑛2 𝑊 2

• 𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 2
𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 + = 2 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝑢2 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝜌2𝑢2𝑉 2 𝑆2 = 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷0 𝑢2 +
2 𝜌2 𝑉 4 𝑆 2 2 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝐷𝑜 2𝑤 𝑘
𝑅 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝜌𝑆 𝐶 𝑆2
𝐷𝑜

1 2𝑤 2𝑛2 𝑊 𝑘𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑛2 𝑊 𝑛2
• 𝐷= 𝜌𝑆 𝑢2 𝜌𝑆 𝑘𝐶𝐷𝑜 + = 𝑤 𝑘𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑢2 + = 𝑢2 +
2 𝜌𝑆𝑢2 𝑢2 2𝐸𝑚 𝑢2

𝑧𝑊
• Substituting the above expression of D and writing 𝑇 = 𝐸𝑚

𝑧𝑊 𝑊 𝑛2
• 𝑇 −𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0, - 𝑢2 + - 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0, Simplifying, 2𝑧𝑢2 − 𝑢4 − 𝑛2 − 2𝐸𝑚 sin 𝛾 = 0
𝐸𝑚 2𝐸𝑚 𝑢2

• 𝐿 − 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 0, In non-dimensional form, 𝑛 − cos 𝛾 = 0

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