Aerodynamics

ME-438
Spring’16
ME@DSU

Dr. Bilal A. Siddiqui

Quiz 01
The German Zeppelins of World War I were dirigibles with the following
typical characteristics: volume = 15,000 m3 and maximum diameter =
14 m. Consider a Zeppelin flying at a velocity of 30 m/s at a standard
altitude of 1000 m (assume density 0.8 times sea-level density).
The Zeppelin is at a small angle of attack such that its lift coefficient is
0.05 (based on the maximum cross-sectional area). The Zeppelin is
flying in straight-and-level flight with no acceleration. Calculate the
total weight of the Zeppelin.
Stall Speed
𝑇 1
• In level, steady flight, we know that L=W and T=D  =
𝑊 𝐿/𝐷
𝑇 𝐿
• In most conventional aircraft, → 1 and → 10.
𝑊 𝐷
• For a given aerodynamic shape and velocity, M and Re are fixed.
• In that case CL and CD are only functions of α.
𝐿 2𝑊
• Since, 𝐶𝐿 = 2𝑆 , this means for level flight 𝑉∞ =
0.5𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Therefore, the stall speed is given by 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
• This means if the aircraft goes any slower than this it will start falling!
• It may not be possible to sustain level flight at the stall speed due to high
drag. Why?
Why is stalling speed important

• The minimum or stall speed of an aircraft is purely a function of its

weight and aerodynamic shape.
• It determines the minimum speed that an aircraft needs to attain for
taking off the ground.
• It also determines the minimum speed which must be maintained
during controlled landing (you have the option of crash landing!)
• Since we cannot muck around with the weight during flight (some
fighters can jettison extra fuel tanks), the only thing we can do is to
change the SHAPE and AREA of the aircraft wing when we need to go
slower than the original stall speed. How?
High Lift Devices

• Flaps, slats, and slots on the wing which, when deployed by the pilot,
serve to increase CL,max and Swing, hence decrease the stalling speed.
High-lift devices are usually deployed for landing and take-off.
 Maximum Velocity in Level Flight
• Maximum velocity in level flight is of course determined by
• Maximum Engine Thrust
• Minimum Drag
𝐷 2𝑇
• Since, 𝐶𝐷 = 2𝑆 , this means for level flight 𝑉∞ =
0.5𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Therefore, maximum level speed is given by 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑖𝑛
• This an aircraft with a given shape and engine cannot go any faster in
level flight, even if it tries.
• But this speed may not be sustainable (look at the lift curve).
 Actual Maximum Speed of the Aircraft
• This maximum velocity can easily be exceeded in dive!
• There is also a structural limit of the aircraft speed
due to drag and lift which cannot be exceeded
without breaking the craft in the air!
• The CL produced at CD,min may be not equal the
weight, so may not be sustainable. It is only a
theoretic speed for specifying an aircraft.
• It is clear that aerodynamic coefficients are important
engineering quantities that dictate the performance
and design of airplanes.
L/D ratio-A criterion for Aerodynamic
Efficiency
Wind damage: Barn door blown around 40 yards away

• Obtaining raw lift on a body is easy-even a barn door

creates lift at some 𝛼
• The actual challenge is to do so at a low cost (drag).
• A poor aerodynamic design (barn door) will produce the
required lift at a very high drag (which will require a large
engine….and increase weight!)
• Therefore, the more the L/D ratio, the more
aerodynamically efficient the shape.
 L/D ratio as a function of Speed and AoA
• Since a particular aircraft's required lift is set by its weight, delivering that lift
with lower drag leads directly to better fuel economy, climb performance,
and glide ratio.
• Generally, we would like to cruise at or near best L/D velocity for max range.
Some Typical L/D ratios
Flight article Scenario L/D ratio
Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer Cruise 37[4]
Lockheed U-2 Cruise ~28
Rutan Voyager Cruise[4] 27
Albatross 20[5]
Boeing 747 Cruise 17
Common tern 12[5]
Herring gull 10[5]
Concorde M2 Cruise 7.14
Cessna 150 Cruise 7
Helicopter 100 kts speed 4.5[6]
Concorde Approach 4.35
House sparrow 4[5]
Assignment
• Read Design Box in Chapter 1 of Anderson’s book, and try to
understand it. It is about the variation of CL and CD in flight and their
importance in aerodynamics and flight.

• Solve Problem No. 1.15 in your book, with reference to the design box
above. What is the stall speed?
• Also make a two page summary of historical notes 1.13 (CP) and 1.14
(coefficients)
Example 1.7
Consider an executive jet transport patterned after the Cessna 560
Citation V. The airplane is cruising at a velocity of 492 mph at an
altitude of 33,000 ft, where the ambient air density is 7.9656×10−4
slug/ft3. The weight and wing planform areas of the airplane are 15 kip
and 342.6 ft2. The drag coefficient at cruise is 0.015. Calculate the lift
coefficient and the lift-to-drag ratio at cruise.
Effect of Streamlining
• We know that 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝐷 (𝑀∞ , 𝑅𝑒∞ ), but for M<0.3, 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝐷′ (𝑅𝐸∞ )
Drag Coefficients
• Remember the composition of drag once again
𝑇𝐸 𝑇𝐸
𝐷= −𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + 𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙
𝑇𝐸 𝐿𝐸 𝑇𝐸 𝐿𝐸

+ 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠𝑙

𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐸
• It is composed off pressure drag and skin friction drag.
• Blunt bodies have big wake regions (of slow recirculating flow), and most of their
drag is due to pressure drag.
• Streamlined bodies have smaller wake regions and most of the drag is due to skin
friction (much smaller)
• The size of wake depends on flow separation point and turbulence.
• More energetic (high Re) flows remain attached more and produce less drag
 Effect of Reynold Number on Skin Friction
• Skin friction is a strong function of Reynold number.
• Pressure drag is often just a function of the shape (it is aka form drag)
• Turbulent Cf is much higher than laminar Cf. We like to promote slender
aerodynamic shapes (low form drag) and laminar flow (low skin friction drag)
 Laminar Flow Airfoils
• These are low speed airfoils designed to
have laminar flow over most of their Drag
length for low angle of attacks. increases at
high AoA due
• Generally it is very difficult to ensure to transition
to turbulence
laminar flow due to
• Turbulence in upstream flow
• Rivets, attachments on wings.
• Vibrations in the aircraft
• Need for higher angles of attack.

F-16XL Laminar Flow Aircraft

Drag Contributors