1.

2 Methods of Radio navigation

 Radio navigation provides is position estimate, also called position fixes,

with which we fix our inertial navigation position estimates.
 The development of radio navaids accelerated during and after world
II resulting in

VHF Omni directional Radio Range (VOR)

Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
Instrument Landing system (ILS)
Microwave landing system (MLS)

These are ground – based, short – range , lines – of – sight systems

 1.2.1 Trilateration

The coordinates of P (X,Y) are unknown

The coordinates of Sk (Xk,Yk) are known, or P is informed about it.

The electromagnet waves travel at a known speed c (3X10⁸ m/s)

If the transit ∆t k = [(Xk – X)² + (Yk – Y)²]½ (1.1)
 Estimation of position based on measurement of distances (ranges) is referred to as
trilateration.
 Trilateration is a Time – of – Arrival (TOA) system, become we measure
∆tk = t arrival, k – t transmission, k
∆Tk could be measured if both transmission, k and arrival, k are known to the receiver.

 How many transmitters are required to determine P (X,Y) ?

Just one (K=1) gives a circle of radios r1 called line – of – position
Two ( K = 1,2) give two circle of radius r1 and r2 with two points of intersection.
sono unique soln.
Three (k = 1, 2, 3,) give a unique P(X,Y)
see the numerical example.

 k = 1,2 [i.e. two transmitters] would suffice if some approximate location of

P(X,Y) is known in advance, which is usually the case.
 For 3 – dim position estimation, we need a transmitter that should be up above
at some air borne or space – based signals for 3 – din position estimation .
 Synchronization of the clocks of the in order to measure ∆tk (k = 1,2,3)
correctly, the clock of the transmitters, receivers must be synchronized.
Otherwise, for
c = 3 X 10⁸ m/s
a synchronization error of 1 ms = 3 X 10⁸ X 10–⁶ m = 300 m
error of 1 ms = 3 X 10⁸ X 10 –⁹m = 30 cm
 The transmitters can be synchronized, but impractical to expect
synchronization with the receiver clock. So, have one more transmitter
to determine the receiver clock. So, have one more transmitter to
determine the receiver clock error.
 1.2.2 hyperbolic positioning

 These system are based on the measurement of the difference in the times of arrival of
signals from two transmitting stations.

 The transmitters are synchronized, but the receiver need not be and its
synchronization error, if some, does not matter because we measure the difference in
the times of arrival.

 Such system are called Time – difference – of – Arrival (TDOA) systems.

 Loran (long range navigation) is such a system .

 Omega, the first truly global radio navigation system, now discontinued, was also a
TDOA system.
•The basic idea for 2-dim is as follows:

r₁= [(X₁-X)² + (Y₁-Y)²]½ = c∆t₁

r₂= [(X₂-X)² + (Y₂-Y)²]½ = c∆t₂
r₃= [(X₃-X)² + (Y₃-Y)²]½ = c∆t₃
Difference in the times of arrival at P of the signals from S ₁and S ₂:
∆t₂ - ∆t₁

We may just as well consider:

r₂₁≜ c(∆t₂- ∆t₁) = r₂- r₁= [(X₂-X)² + (Y₂-Y)²] ½ - [(X₁-X)² + (Y₂-Y)²] ½ (1.2a)

Likewise :
r₃₁= c (∆t₃- ∆t₁) = r₃- r₁= [(X₃-X)²] ½ - [(X₁-X)² + (Y₁-Y)²] (1.2b)
 Fig 1.6 Hyperbolic position

 The hyperbola X₃ is the locus of points that are 3 units closer to transmitter X than to
the transmitter m:
rm = rx = 3u

Or rm = uu, rx = u so that rm – rx = 3u
rm = 5u, rx = 2u so that rm – rx= 3u
rm = 3.14, rx = 0.1u, so that rm – rx = 3u

# Likewise, draw the hyperbola X₂,X₂,X₀,X₋₁, X₋₂,X₋₃,...

# The hyperbole Yi are defined for the rair of transmitters m and y .
# The intersection of the hyperbole Xi and Yj yields the location of the receiver P
# The multiple solutions are resolved by the prior knowledge of some approximately
location
of the P.
 1.2.3 Doppler Positioning

 Doppler effect is the change in the apparent frequency of a signal

received by an observe due to relative motion between a transmitter
and the observer
 Doppler shift is the difference between the frequency of the received
signal and the frequency at the source.
 The first satellite navigation system, called Transit, was based on the
measurement of Doppler shift .
 This technique of positioning is called Doppler shift.
 One – dim positioning
v = [(Xp-Vt)² + Y²p]1/2

r = ½r [2(Xp-Vt) (-v)]
= - 1r [2(Xp-Vt) =-V cos ө
r
 As the locomotive approaches P, more cycle of waves are read. At P
than transmitted by the locomotive because of shrinking r, and the pitch
of the sound heard seems higher, the apposite is true when the
locomotive recedes.
 The transmitted freq.,ƒT (1-r )
Vs
Vs = speed of propagation of the waves = λƒT
r = the component of V along r
So the Doppler shift =ƒR – ƒT = - r ƒT = + V cos ө ƒT
Vs Vs
 ƒR – ƒT = V cos ө = - r (1.4)
λ λ
What we measure is Doppler shift = ƒR - ƒT → λ (ƒR – ƒT) = - r
 See the illustration, fig.1.7, and elaborate.
 The shape of the Doppler shift curve determines the observers distance from
the track.
 Navigation with Transit Satellites
Four to seven satellite in low – altitudes (1100 km), nearly circular, polar orbits
Each satellite broadcast signal at 150-400 MHZ (VHF, UHF)
Only one satellite in view at a time
User waited 100 minutes between successive passes to determine position
After a satellite came in view, the Doppler shift of the received signal was
recorded continuously
Navigation message from the sat. gives the position of the sat.
The satellite pass lasts 10-20 minutes.
The receiver determines Doppler count:
 = ∫ (ƒT-ƒR) dt (1.5)
ti -₁
ti ti
= ∫ + r dt = +1 ∫dr
λ λ
ti -₁ ti -₁

Doppler count = + 1 [r( ti ) - r( ti-₁)] (1.6)

 The Doppler count is thus a direct measure of change in distance between the receiver
and the satellite over a time interval.

 For each Wavelength the satellite moves away, i.e., r (ti) – r (ti -₁) =+λ,Doppler count
goes up by 1; and vice versa
 Transit satellites were used by u.s. Submarines to update a ship’s position and reset
the inertial now.
 The 2 – D positioning accuracy : 25 m rms for a stationery user
 Transit satellites were used between 1967 – 1996
 Than came along the GPS. For India, IRNSS
 Doppler – based positioning is suitable for ships at sea which require infrequent
updates , and could track a signal for 10-20 minutes continuously during a satellite
pass. Not suitable for airplanes.