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Navigation Systems
Navigation by Pilotage – Visual Navigation.
Celestial Navigation – Based on the position (azimuth and
elevation) of celestial bodies in space.
Radio Navigation – Very High Frequency OmniRange (VOR),
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), Automatic Direction Finding
(ADF), Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), Long Range Navigation
(LORAN), VORTAC (Combined VOR and TACAN).
Dead reckoning navigation – Inertial Navigation System (INS) and
Doppler Navigation.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) – NAVSTAR GPS,
Russian GLONASS, European Union’s Galileo.
Approach and Landing Aids – Instrument Landing System and
Microwave Landing System.
Magnetic bearing and Relative bearing
Automatic Direction Finder
It operates in Low Frequency and Medium Frequency band (190-
1799 KHz), thus it is based on ground wave propagation. Its range is
not limited to line-of sight distance.
It can receive on both Amplitude Modulation radio stations and
NDB (non directional beacons). Its operation is similar to listening to
a transistor radio.
ADF Ground station – transmit omnidirectional signals. They are
called nondirectional beacons (NDB). Stations have a vertical antenna
which emits vertically polarized signal.
ADF Aircraft components – Antennas, Receiver, Control head,
Indicator.
ADF antennas – Loop antenna (directional antenna), Sense
antenna (omnidirectional antenna).
Automatic Direction Finder
Rectangular
loop antenna
Circular
loop
antenna
Automatic Direction Finder
VOR Indicator
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
DME is a secondary Radar and provides distance (slant range)
information.
For each channel, pair of frequencies (f1 and f2) which differ by 63
MHz are allotted. The frequency of 63 MHz is used as the
intermediate frequency in the receivers.
LORAN-C pulses
NAVigation Signal Timing
And Ranging GPS
Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation
system that was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
in the early 1970s.
GPS satellite orbits are nearly circular (an elliptical shape with a
maximum eccentricity is about 0.01), with an inclination of about 55°
to the equator. The corresponding GPS satellite orbital period is
about 12 sidereal hours.
GPS Segments
GPS Space Segment
The space segment consists of the 24-satellite constellation.
The carriers and the codes are used mainly to determine the
distance from the user's receiver to the GPS satellites. The navigation
message contains, along with other information, the coordinates (the
location) of the satellites as a function of time.
The monitor stations measure signals from the satellites which are
incorporated into orbital models for each satellite. The models
compute precise orbital data (ephemeris) and clock corrections for
each satellite.
Pseudorange
Software based GPS Receiver
aN ax aN vN vN xN
a C n a v a v x v y
E b y 0 E E 0 E E
aD az aD vD vD z D
Inertial Navigation – Corrections
Local Gravity (including gravitational acceleration and centripetal
acceleration).
Coriolis acceleration.
Transport wander.
Schuler tuning.
Schuler Pendulum
Inertial Sensor – Gyroscopes
Gyroscopes are used in various applications to sense either the
angle turned through by a vehicle or structure (displacement
gyroscopes) or, more commonly, its angular rate of turn about some
defined axis (rate gyroscopes).
Micro-machined electromechanical
system (MEMS) gyros.
Conventional Gyros
f ag
a f g
2V
fD cos
Doppler Radar – Beam configurations
VH , VD , VV
VH2 VD2
VD
1
tan
VH
Doppler Radar – Antenna configuration
VVa VV
VH a
VH
VH VH a
VD Cb VDa
n
V
V VVa
Doppler Navigation Equations
VH
H
D 0
VD
VV
0 V
v
v1 VH cos H VD cos D VV cos V
v2 VH cos H VD cos D VV cos V cos H cos 0 cos 0
v3 VH cos H VD cos D VV cos V cos D cos 0 sin 0
v4 VH cos H VD cos D VV cos V cos V sin 0
Doppler Navigation Equations
v2 v3 v1 v4 f D2 f D3 f D1 f D4
VH
4 cos H 8 cos 0 cos 0
v1 v2 v3 v4 f D1 f D2 f D3 f D4
VD
4 cos D 8 cos 0 sin 0
VV
v1 v2 v3 v4 f D1 f D2 f D3 f D4
4 cos V 8 sin 0
Inertial and Satellite Navigation – Comparison