Chapter 3: Conservation laws

Conservation of Energy

Process Fluid Flow

(PFF260S)

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 1

 3. Conservation Laws

3.6 Conservation of Energy

• The amount of energy in a system is constant- conservation of energy.

Rate of energy Net flow rate of Net rate of energy transfer

accumulation inside + energy out of the = into the control volume by
the control volume control volume heat and work transfer

𝜕
• Accumulation of energy inside a control volume = ‫𝑉𝑑𝜌𝑒 ׬‬
𝜕t

• Net rate of flow of energy through the surface = ‫𝑣𝜌𝑒 ׬‬.

Ԧ 𝑛𝑑𝐴

• Net rate of energy transfer by heat and work = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 2

 3. Conservation Laws
3.7 Total energy (e)

• Potential Energy: gz

v2
• Kinetic Energy: 2

• Internal: U (The microscopic energy associated with the random,

disordered motion of molecules).

• Flow work: PV (energy associated with pushing a fluid into or out of a

control volume).

• Total energy of the fluid per unit mass (J/kg):

𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑒 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 + + 𝑧𝑔 = ℎ + + 𝑧𝑔
2 2

• Where h is the specific enthalpy (J/kg):

ℎ = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝜌
PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 3
 3. Conservation Laws
3.8 The Energy Balance Equation

𝜕
Ԧ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ
න 𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉 + න 𝑒𝜌𝑣.
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

• The first law of thermodynamics can be written as:

𝜕 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑚 𝑈+ + 𝑧𝑔 + 𝑚ሶ ℎ+ + 𝑧𝑔 − ℎ+ + 𝑧𝑔 = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ
𝜕𝑡 2 2 2
2 1

• Heat energy Q and internal energy U, in the above equation, do not

permit simple conversion into work because of the second law of
thermodynamics.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 4

 3. Conservation Laws
3.9 Mechanical-Energy Balance Equation

𝜕 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2
𝑚 𝑈 + + 𝑧𝑔 + 𝑚ሶ +𝑈 + + 𝑧𝑔 − +𝑈 + + 𝑧𝑔 = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌 2 2
𝜌 2 1

• Energy converted to heat or internal energy is lost work or a loss in

mechanical-energy,
• It is often convenient to write the energy balance equation in terms of this
loss σ 𝐹 in mechanical-energy:

𝜕 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2
𝑚 𝑈+ + 𝑧𝑔 + 𝑚ሶ + + 𝑧𝑔 − + + 𝑧𝑔 + ෍ 𝐹 − 𝑊ሶ = 0
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌 2 2
𝜌 2 1

Where, σ 𝐹 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 − 𝑄ሶ

Per unit mass, σ 𝐹 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 − 𝑄

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 5

 3. Conservation Laws

3.10 Mechanical-Energy Balance Equation

𝜕 𝑣2
• At steady-state: 𝑚 𝜕𝑡 𝑈+ + 𝑧𝑔 = 0
2

• Therefore the mechanical energy balance per unit mass may be

written as:
𝑣22 −𝑣12 𝑃2 −𝑃1
+ 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + + σ𝐹 − 𝑊 = 0
2𝛼 𝜌

• Where  is the kinetic-energy velocity correction factor/ kinetic energy

coefficient, and has a value of 0.5 for laminar flow and 1.0 for
turbulent flows.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 6

 3. Conservation Laws
Summary of important equations:

• Mechanical energy balance per unit mass:

𝑣22 −𝑣12 𝑃2 −𝑃1
+ 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + + σ𝐹 − 𝑊 = 0
2𝛼 𝜌

• If no mechanical energy added (Ws = 0), no friction (σ 𝐹 = 0) and for

turbulent flows:

𝑣22 −𝑣12 𝑃2 −𝑃1

Bernoulli equation: + 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + =0
2 𝜌

𝑣22 −𝑣12 𝑃2 −𝑃1

In terms of Head (H, m): + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + =0
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 7

 3. Conservation Laws

3.11 Mechanical-Energy Balance

3.11.1 Class Exercise

A nozzle of cross-sectional area A2 is discharged to the atmosphere and is

located in the side of a large tank, in which the open surface of the liquid
in the tank is H m above the center line of the nozzle. Determine the
height of the liquid in the tank as a function of time.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 8

 3. Conservation Laws

3.11 Mechanical-Energy Balance

3.11.2 Class Exercise

Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with
velocity V0, as is shown in the figure below. Determine the difference in
the pressure between points (1) and (2).

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 9

 3. Conservation Laws

3.11 Mechanical-Energy Balance

3.11.3 Class Exercise

Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter D = 0.03 m and
exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of diameter d = 0.01 m as shown in
the figure below. The pressure in the tank remains constant at 3.0 kPa
(gage) and the atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and
pressure. Determine the flowrate and the pressure in the hose.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 10

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

• The Frictional losses in mechanical energy σ 𝐹 consists of:

❖ Skin friction

❖ Sudden Expansion losses

❖ Sudden Contraction losses

❖ Fittings and bends

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 11

 3. Conservation Laws
3.12 Frictional Losses
3.12.1 Skin friction

• The force Fk exerted by a fluid on the solid surface of a pipe is

proportional to the surface area of the pipe and the kinetic energy of
the fluid:
𝜌𝑣 2
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑓 𝐴
2
where f is a proportionality constant (Fanning friction factor):

𝐷 𝑃0 −𝑃1 𝐿 𝑣2
𝑓′ = 4𝑓 = 1 ⇒ 𝑃0 − 𝑃1 = 4𝑓𝜌
𝐿 𝜌𝑣 2 𝐷 2
2

(𝑓 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦/𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)

𝑃0 −𝑃1 𝐿 𝑣2
• For constant density: 𝐹𝑓 = = 4𝑓
𝜌 𝐷 2

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 12

 3. Conservation Laws
3.12 Frictional Losses
3.12.1 Skin friction

• Moody chart
(related Fanning chart)

• Relative roughness
(e/d)

16
For laminar flow only: 𝑓 = 𝑁
𝑅𝑒

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 13

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.2 Class Exercise

What pressure gradient is required to cause diethylaniline,

C6H5N(C2H5)2, to flow in a horizontal, smooth, circular tube of inside
diameter D = 3 cm at a mass rate of 1028 g/s at 20˚C? At this
temperature the density of diethylaniline is  = 0.935 g/cm3 and its
viscosity is  = 1.95 cp.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 14

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.3 Class Exercise

In a hydraulic project a cast iron pipe having an inside diameter of 0.156

m and a 305-m length is used to drain wastewater at 293 K. The
available head is 4.57 m of water. Neglecting any losses in fittings and
joints in the pipe, calculate the flow rate in m3/s (Assume physical
properties of water).

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 15

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.4 Sudden Expansion Losses

• If the cross-section of a pipe enlarges gradually, there are no

significant losses. If the change is sudden then there are losses:

2
𝐴1 𝑣12 𝑣12
ℎ𝑒𝑥 = 1− = 𝐾𝑒𝑥 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝐴2 2𝛼 2𝛼

where hex is the friction loss is J/kg, Kex is the expansion loss coefficient =
𝐴1 2
1− , v1 is the upstream velocity, and v2 is the downstream velocity.
𝐴2

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 16

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.5 Sudden Contraction Losses

• When the cross-sectional area of a pipe is suddenly reduced, frictional

losses due to eddies occur:

𝐴2 𝑣22 𝑣22
ℎ𝑐 = 0.55 1 − = 𝐾𝑐 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝐴1 2𝛼 2𝛼

where hc is the friction loss is J/kg, Kc is the contraction loss coefficient =

𝐴
0.55 1 − 𝐴2 . For laminar flow the factor  becomes 1/2.
1

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 17

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.6 Losses in Fittings and Valves

• Pipe fittings disturb the normal flow lines in a pipe and cause
additional friction losses. The frictional loss in fittings and valves is
given by:

𝑣12
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
2

where hf is the friction loss is J/kg, Kf is the loss factor for the fitting or
the valve.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 18

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional Losses

3.12.6 Fittings and Valves

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 19

 3. Conservation Laws

3.12 Frictional losses

3.12.4 Class Exercise

Water at 20°C is being pumped from a tank to an elevated tank at the

rate of 5.0 x10-3 m3/s. All the piping is 4-in. commercial steel pipe. The
pump has an efficiency of 65%. Calculate the kW power needed for the
pump.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 20

 3. Conservation Laws

Syllabus

✓ Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and its Basic Concepts

✓ Properties of Fluids
✓ Pressure and Fluid Statics
• Mass, Momentum and Energy Conservation Equations
• Flow in Pipes
• Losses in Piping System
• Piping Network and Pump Selection

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 21

 References (PFF260S)

• Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., and Okiishi, T. H. 2006.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. 5th ed. Wiley: New York.
• White, F.M. 1998. Fluid Mechanics. 4th edition. McGraw-Hill: New
York.
• Geankoplis. C.J. 1993. Transport Processes and Unit Operations.
Prentice Hall: New Jersey.
• Fox, R.W., McDonald, A.T. & Pritchard, P.J. 2004. Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics. 6th edition. Wiley: New York.
• Holland, F.A. 1995. Fluid Flow for Chem. Engineers. 2nd edition.
Edward Arnold: London.
• Welty, J.R., Wicks, C. E., Wilson, R. E. 2001. Fundamentals of
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer. 4th ed. John Wiley: New
York.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 22

 References (PFF260S)

• Cengel, Y.A. & Cimbala, J.M. 2013. Fluid Mechanics:

fundamentals and applications. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Perry, R.H., Green, D.W. & Maloney, J.O. (eds). 1998. Perry’s
chemical engineer’s handbook. 7th ed. McGraw Hill: New York.
• Anderson, J.D. 1995. Computational fluid dynamics: the basics
with applications. New York: McGraw-Hill.

PFF260S: Conservation of energy M Nkohla 23