Flight  Dynamics  and  

Control
Lecture  1:
Introduction

G.  Dimitriadis
University  of  Liege
 Reference  material
• Lecture  Notes
• Flight  Dynamics  Principles,  M.V.  Cook,  
Arnold,  1997
• Fundamentals  of  Airplane  Flight  
Mechanics,  David  G.  Hull,  Berlin,  
Heidelberg  :  Springer-­Verlag Berlin  
Heidelberg,  2007,  
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­540-­
46573-­7
What  is  it  about?
 Introduction
• The  study  of  the  mechanics  and  
dynamics  of  flight  is  the  means  by  which  
:
– We  can  design  an  airplane  to  accomplish  
efficiently  a  specific  task
– We  can  make  the  task  of  the  pilot  easier  by  
ensuring  good  handling  qualities
– We  can  avoid  unwanted  or  unexpected  
phenomena  that  can  be  encountered  in  
flight
 Aircraft  description

Pilot Flight  Control

System
Airplane Response Task

The  pilot  has  direct  control  only  of  the  Flight  Control  
System.  However,  he  can  tailor  his  inputs  to  the  FCS  by  
observing  the  airplane’s  response  while  always  keeping  an  
eye  on  the  task  at  hand.
 Control  Surfaces
• Aircraft  control  is  accomplished  through  
control  surfaces  and  power
– Ailerons
– Elevators
– Rudder
– Throttle
• Control  deflections  were  first  developed  by  
the  Wright  brothers  from  watching  birds
Wright  Flyer
The  Flyer  did  not  have  
separate  control  surfaces.
The  trailing  edges  of  the  
windtips  could  be  bent  by  
a  system  of  cables
 Modern  control  surfaces
Rudder

Aileron
Elevator
Rudderon  
(rudder+aileron
)

Elevon  
(elevator+aileron)
 Other  devices
Flaps Airbreak

Spoilers
•Combinations  of  control  surfaces  and  other  devices:  flaperons,  
spoilerons,  decelerons  (aileron  and  airbrake)
•Vectored  thrust
 Mathematical  Model
Flight  Condition

Input Output
Aircraft  
Aileron
Elevator equations  of   Displacement
Velocity
Rudder motion Acceleration
Throttle

Atmospheric  Condition
 Aircraft  degrees  of  freedom
Six  degrees  of  
freedom:
3  displacements
x:  horizontal  motion y

y:  side  motion w
z:  vertical  motion U
cg
3  rotations
x
Around  x:  roll
Around  y:  pitch z
Around  z:  yaw

U:  resultant  linear  velocity,  cg:  centre of  gravity

w:  resultant  angular  velocity
 Aircraft  frames  of  reference
• There  are  many  possible  coordinate  systems:
– Inertial  (immobile  and  far  away)
– Earth-­fixed  (rotates  with  the  earth’s  surface)
– Vehicle  carried  vertical  frame  (fixed  on  aircraft  cg,  
vertical  axis  parallel  to  gravity)
– Air-­trajectory  (fixed  on  aircraft  cg,  parallel  to  the  
direction  of  motion  of  the  aircraft)
– Body-­fixed  (fixed  on  aircraft  cg,  parallel  to  a  
geometric  datum  line  on  the  aircraft)
– Stability  axes  (fixed  on  aircraft  cg,  parallel  to  a  
reference  flight  condition)
– Others
 Airplane  geometry

s = b /2
c(y) x ( y)

y
c /4 cg c /4

lT
lt
c xMAC
 Airplane  references  (1)
• Standard  mean  chord  (SMC)
s s
c= ∫ c ( y )dy / ∫ dy
−s −s

• Mean  aerodynamic  chord  (MAC)

s s s s
c = ∫ c ( y )dy / ∫ c ( y )dy
2
x = ∫ c ( y ) x ( y )dy / ∫ c ( y )dy
MAC
−s −s −s −s

• Wing  area
S = bc

• Aspect  Ratio
AR = b 2 /S
 Airplane  references  (2)
• Centre  of  gravity  (cg)
• Tailplane  area  (ST)
• Tail  moment  arm  (lT)
• Tail  volume  ratio:  A  measure  of  the  
aerodynamic  effectiveness  of  the  
tailplane
ST lT
VT =
Sc
 Airplane  references  (3)

c /4 cg c /4

lF
lf

• Fin  moment  arm  (lF)

• Fin  volume  ratio
SF lF
VF =
Sc
Aerodynamic  Reference  Centres
• Centre  of  pressure  (cp):  The  point  at  which  
the  resultant  aerodynamic  force  F acts.  There  
is  no  aerodynamic  moment  around  the  cp.
• Half-­chord:  The  point  at  which  the  
aerodynamic  force  due  to  camber,  Fc,  acts
• Quarter-­chord  (or  aerodynamic  centre):  The  
point  at  which  the  aerodynamic  force  due  to  
angle  of  attack,  Fa,  acts.  The  aerodynamic  
moment  around  the  quarter-­chord,  M0,  is  
constant  with  angle  of  attack
 Airfoil  with  centres
By  placing  all  of   L La
the  lift  and  drag   Lc
Camber  line
on  the   Fc F Fa
aerodynamic   cp ac
centre  we  move   D Da
Dc
the  lift  and  drag   V0
due  to  camber   L
from  the  half-­ M0
chord  to  the   D
quarter  chord.   c /2 hn c c /4
This  is  
c
balanced  by  the  
moment  M0
 Full  description  of  aircraft  
movement
• The  static  stability  analysis  presented  in  the  
aircraft  design  lectures  is  good  for  the  
preliminary  design  of  aircraft
• Aircraft  flight  is  a  dynamic  phenomenon:
– Every  control  input  or  external  excitation  results  in  
a  dynamic  response
– The  dynamic  response  may  be  oscillatory  and  
have  a  single  or  several  frequency  components
– The  dynamic  response  may  be  damped  (stable)  or  
undamped (unstable)
• The  modelling  of  this  dynamic  response  
necessitates  the  derivation  of  the  full  equations  
of  motion  of  the  aircraft
 Nomenclature
• Here  is  a  definition  of  the  degrees  of  freedom  of  an  
aircraft  and  the  forces  and  moments  acting  on  it.
• All  degrees  of  freedom  are  relative  to  the  aircraft’s  
centre  of  gravity  and  use  aircraft  geometrical  axes.

Symbols Definition
x, U, X translation,  velocity  and  force  applied  in  the  direction  parallel  to  
the  axis  of  the  fuselage
y, V, Y translation,  velocity  and  force  applied  in  the  direction  
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  of  the  aircraft
z, W, Z translation,  velocity  and  force  applied  in  the  direction  
perpendicular  to  both  x and  y
p, L angular  velocity  and  moment  in  roll  direction
q, M angular  velocity  and  moment  in  pitch  direction
r, N angular  velocity  and  moment  in  yaw  direction
 Body  and  axes
Axis  system
Could  be  any  body  
but  in  this  case  it  is  
an  aircraft  of  mass  
m.
For  the  moment  it  is  
a  flexible  body
Any  point  p on  the  
body  can  have  a  
velocity  and  
acceleration  with  
respect  to  the  c.g.
 Vector  notation
• We  define  the  following  vector  notation
! x $ ! p $ ! U $ ! X $ ! L $
# & # & # & # & # &
x = # y &, w = # q &, U = # V &, F = # Y &, M = # M &
# z & # r & # W & # Z & # N &
" % " % " % " % " %
! $
! u $ a
# x &
# &
u = # v &, a = # ay &
# w & # &
" % #" az &%
• Noting  that  u and  a are  velocities  and  
accelerations  with  respect  to  the  center  of  
gravity
 Developing  the  equations  of  motion
• All  equations  of  motion  of  dynamic  systems  can  be  
derived  using  Newton’s  Second  Law.
• Two  sets  of  equations  are  derived:
– Sum  of  forces  acting  on  the  system  (internal  and  
external)  are  equal  to  its  mass  times  its  acceleration
– Sum  of  moments  acting  on  the  system  (internal  and  
external)  are  equal  to  its  moment  of  inertia  times  its  
angular  acceleration
• Therefore,  the  object  of  the  derivation  is  to  estimate  
the  accelerations  (linear  and  angular  of  the  aircraft)
• As  usual,  the  same  equations  of  motion  can  be  
obtained  using  Lagrange’s  equation  (i.e.  
conservation  of  energy)
 Local  velocities  (1)
• The  local  velocity  vector  u is  given  simply  
by
u = x! + w × x
• Substituting  for  the  vector  definitions
! x! $ ! p $ ! x $
# & # & # &
u = # y! & + # q & × # y &
# z! & # r & # z &
" % " % " %

• Where  x  denotes  the  vector  (cross)  

product  and ! p $ ! $ i j k
# & # x &
# q &×# y & = p q r
# r & # z & x y z
" % " %
 Local  velocities  (2)
• The  equations  for  the  local  velocities  at  
point  p(x,y,z) are
u = x
− ry + qz
v = y
− pz + rx
w = z
− qx + py
• Now  assume  that  the  body  is  rigid,  i.e.  
no  parts  of  it  are  moving  with  respect  to  
the  c.g
 Total  local  velocities
• This  gives x
= y
= z
= 0 therefore
u = −ry + qz
u = w × x, or, v = − pz + rx (1)
w = −qx + py
• The  total  local  velocities  u´=u+U at  
p(x,y,z) are  given  by
u′ = U + u = U − ry + qz
v ′ = V + v = V − pz + rx
w ′ = W + w = W − qx + py
 Local  accelerations  (1)
• Similarly,  the  local  accelerations  at  point  
p(x,y,z) are  given  by
a = u! + w × u (2)
• Substituting  for  the  vector  definitions
! u! $ ! p $ ! u $ ! −r!y + qz $ ! p $ ! $
# & #
!
& # & # u
# & # & &
a = # v! & + # q & × # v & = # − p! z + r!x &+ # q &×# v &
# w! & # r & # w & # −qx & # r & # w &
" % " % " % " ! + p! y % " % " %

• where ! p $ ! $ i j k
# & # u
&
# q &×# v & = p q r
# r & # w & −ry + qz − pz + rx −qx + py
" % " %
 Local  accelerations  (2)
• Carrying  out  all  the  algebra  leads  to
ax = −x ( q + r ) + y ( pq − r!) + z ( pr + q! )
2 2

ay = x ( pq + r!) − y ( p 2 + r 2 ) + z ( qr − p! )
az = x ( pr − q! ) + y ( qr + p! ) − z ( p 2 + q 2 )

• Remembering  that  this  is  only  part  of  the  

acceleration  of  point  p.  The  acceleration  of  
the  centre of  gravity  must  be  added.
 Total  local  acceleration
• The  total  local  acceleration  at  point  
p(x,y,z) is  defined  as
a! = U
! +w×U+a (3)
• So  that,  finally
a!x = U! − rV + qW − x ( q 2 + r 2 ) + y ( pq − r!) + z ( pr + q! )
a!y = V! − pW + rU + x ( pq + r!) − y ( p 2 + r 2 ) + z ( qr − p! ) (4)

a!z = W! − qU + pV + x ( pr − q! ) + y ( qr + p! ) − z ( p 2 + q 2 )
 Example
• A  pilot  in  an  aerobatic  aircraft  performs  
a  loop  in  20s  at  a  steady  velocity  of  
100m/s.  His  seat  is  located  5m  ahead  
of,  and  1m  above,  the  c.g.  What  total  
normal  load  factor  does  he  experience  
at  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  loop?
 Solution
Movement  only  in  the   cg
plane  of  symmetry:
V = p
= p = r = 0 100m/s

Normal  acceleration:
az′ = W
− qU + xq
− zq 2
For  a  steady  manoeuvre: 2R
W
= q
= 0

Pitch  rate:
2π 100m/s 1m
q= = 0.314rad/s
20
cg
5m
 Solution  (2)
• Substituting  into  equation  for  normal  
acceleration  at  the  seat:
az′ = −qU − zq 2 = −0.314 × 100 − (−1) × 0.314 2 = −31.3m/s2

• Normal  load  factor  definition:

a′z 31.3
n′ = = = 3.19
g 9.81
• Total  normal  load  factor  at  top  of  loop:
n = n ′ − 1 = 2.19

• Total  normal  load  factor  at  bottom  of  

loop: n = n ′ + 1 = 4.19
 Generalized  Force  Equations
• Assume  that  point  p(x,y,z) has  a  small  
mass  dm.
• Applying  Newton’s  2nd law  to  the  entire  
body  yields
∫ a! dm = F (5)
Vol
• where  the  subscript  Vol denotes  that  
the  integral  is  taken  over  the  entire  
volume
 Force  equations  (2)
• Remember  from  equation  (3)  that
a! = U
! +w×U+a
• Substituting  from  equations  (2)  and  (1)
a! = U
! +w×U+w
! × x + w × ( w × x) (6)
• Putting  this  last  result  back  into  
Newton’s  2nd Law,  equation  (5)

∫ (U! + w × U + w! × x + w × ( w × x)) dm = F
Vol
 Centre  of  gravity
• As  far  as  the  integral  over  the  volume  is  
concerned,  w and  U are  constants
• The  generalized  force  equation  becomes
# &
! ∫ dm + w × U ∫ dm + w
U ! × ∫ x dm + w × % w × ∫ x dm ( = F
Vol Vol Vol $ Vol '
• The  definition  of  the  centre of  gravity  is
∫ x dm = 0
Vol
• The  force  equation  becomes
m U
! +w×U = F
( ) (7)
 Generalized  Moment  
Equations
• The  angular  acceleration  of  point  p(x,y,z)
around  the  centre of  gravity  is  given  by
x × a"

• Again,  use  Newton’s  second  law,  this  

time  in  moment  form,  to  obtain
∫ x × a" dm = M (8)
Vol

• Substitute  from  equation  (6)

∫ x × (U! + w × U + w! × x + w × ( w × x)) dm = M
Vol
 Center  of  gravity
• Using  the  definition  of  the  centre of  
gravity,  the  moment  equation  becomes

∫ x × ( w! × x) dm + ∫ x × #$w × ( w × x)%&dm = M
Vol Vol

• Now  remember  the  matrix  form  of  the  

cross  product
# 0 −z y &
x × w = Xw % (
, where X = % z 0 −x (
w×x = X wT
% −y x 0 (
$ '
 Moments  of  inertia
• The  first  term  in  the  moment  equation  
becomes
# &
∫ x × ( w! × x) dm = ∫ XX w! dm = %$ ∫ XX dm (' w!
T T

Vol Vol Vol

• where # 2 2 &
% y +z −xy −xz (
Ic = ∫ XXT dm = ∫ % −xy x2 + z2 −yz (dm
Vol Vol % (
%$ −xz −yz x +y (
2 2
'
• is  the  system’s  inertia  matrix
 Moments  of  inertia  (2)
• The  individual  moments  and  products  of  
inertia  are  defined  as
Ix = ∫ ( y 2
+ z 2
) dm, I y = ∫ ( x 2
+ z 2
) dm, I z = ∫ ( x 2
+ y 2
) dm
Vol Vol Vol

I xy = ∫ xy dm, I xz = ∫ xz dm, I yz = ∫ yz dm
Vol Vol Vol

• So  that  the  inertia  matrix  becomes

" I −I xy −I xz %
$ x '
Ic = $ −I xy Iy −I yz ' (8)
$ '
$# −I xz −I yz Iz '
&
 Moment  equation
• Using  the  definition  of  the  inertia  matrix,  
the  first  term  in  the  moment  equation  
becomes  simply
∫ x × ( w! × x) dm = Ic w!
Vol

• Similarly,  the  second  term  is

∫ x × #$w × ( w × x)%&dm = w × (Ic w)
Vol
• The  full  moment  equation  becomes
Ic w
! + w × ( Ic w) = M (9)
Complete  equations  of  motion
• Assembling  equations  (7)  and  (9)  we  
get  the  complete  equations  of  motion
m U
! +w×U = F
( )
(10)
Ic w
! + w × ( Ic w) = M
• This  is  a  set  of  6  equations  of  motion  
with  6  unknowns,  U,  V,  W,  p,  q,  r.
• They  are  nonlinear  Ordinary  Differential  
Equations.
 Scalar  form
• Substituting  for  the  definitions  of  Ic,  U,  
w,  F and  M we  get  a  nicer  form
m (U! − rV + qW ) = X
m (V! − pW + rU ) = Y
m (W! − qU + pV ) = Z (11)
I x p! − ( I y − I z ) qr + I xy ( pr − q! ) − I xz ( pq + r!) + I yz ( r 2 − q 2 ) = L
I y q! + ( I x − I z ) pr + I yz ( pq − r!) + I xz ( p 2 − r 2 ) − I xy ( qr + p! ) = M
I z r! − ( I x − I y ) pq − I yz ( pr + q! ) + I xz ( qr − p! ) + I xy ( q 2 + p 2 ) = N
 Symmetric  aircraft
• Consider  an  aircraft  that  is  symmetric  
about  the  x-z plane.
• For  ever  point  p(x,y,z) with  mass  dm,  
there  is  a  point  p(x, -y,z) with  mass  dm.
• It  follows  that  
I xy = ∫ xy dm = 0
Vol
• Similarly,
I yz = ∫ yz dm = 0
Vol
y p(x,y,z)

O p(x,-y,z)

The  elementary  mass  

moment  xydm around  the  
CG  is  cancelled  by  the  
z elementary  mass  
x moment  x(-y)dm.
 Asymmetric  Aircraft

Blohm  und  Voss  141

Ruttan  Bumerang

Blohm  und  Voss  237

 Symmetric  aircraft  (2)
• For  symmetric  aircraft,  the  equations  of  
motion  become
m (U! − rV + qW ) = X
m (V! − pW + rU ) = Y
(12)
m (W! − qU + pV ) = Z
I x p! − ( I y − I z ) qr − I xz ( pq + r!) = L
I y q! + ( I x − I z ) pr + I xz ( p 2 − r 2 ) = M
I z r! − ( I x − I y ) pq + I xz ( qr − p! ) = N
 Discussion  of  the  equations
• If  we  can  solve  for  U,  V,  W,  p,  q,  r as  
functions  of  time,  then  we  know  the  
complete  time  history  of  the  motion  of  the  
aircraft.
• Unfortunately,  terms  such  as  rU,  pV,  qW,  
etc and  pq,  r2,  qr etc are  nonlinear.
• Furthermore,  we  have  only  defined  the  
inertial  loads  up  to  now.
• We  have  not  said  anything  about  the  
external  loads  acting  on  the  aircraft.
External  Forces  and  Moments
• There  are  five  sources  of  external  
forces  and  moments:
– Aerodynamic
– Gravitational
– Controls
– Propulsion
– Atmospheric  Disturbances
External  Forces  and  moments
• The  full  equations  of  motion  in  the  
presence  of  external  forces  and  
moments  are
m(U
− rV + qW ) = X a + X g + X c + X p + X d
m(V
− pW + rU ) = Ya + Yg + Yc + Yp + Yd
m(W
− qU + pV ) = Z a + Z g + Z c + Z p + Z d

( )
Ix p
− Iy − Iz qr − Ixz ( pq + r
) = La + Lg + Lc + L p + Ld
Iy q
+ ( Ix − Iz ) pr + Ixz ( p 2 − r 2 ) = M a + M g + M c + M p + M d

( )
Iz r
− Ix − Iy pq + Ixz (qr − p
) = N a + N g + N c + N p + N d