Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram

 Important speeds found on the diagram:

o VS – The 1-g stall speed (FAR 25 VS, FAR 23 VS0 and VS1)
o VA – Design maneuvering speed
o VC – Design cruise speed
o VD – Design dive speed
 Design Limit Load Factors (𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒔 , 𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒈 )
24000
o 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠 = 2.1 + 𝑊+10000
Except 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠 need not be greater than:
n = 3.8 for Normal
n = 4.4 for Utility
n = 6.0 for Acrobatic

And shall not be less than n = 2.5

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)
 o 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑔 = −0.4𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠 (Normal, Utility)
o 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑔 = −0.5𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠 (Aerobatic)
 Stall Speed, VS
𝑊 2 1
o 𝑉𝑆 = √( 𝑆 ) (𝜌) (𝐶 )
𝐿𝑀𝐴𝑋

 Design Maneuvering Speed, VA

o 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝑆 √+𝑛 but need not exceed VC
 𝑪𝑵 curves (Parabolic curve 0-A, 0-G)
o Renigen
± 𝑛𝑊
± 𝐶𝑁𝐴 =
𝑞̅𝐴 𝑆
1
±𝐶𝑁𝐴 2 𝜌 𝑉 2
±𝑛=
𝑊
𝑆
o Lan, Roskam
2𝑛𝑊𝐹𝐷𝐺𝑊
𝑉𝑆𝑛=𝑛 = √
𝜌 𝐶𝑁max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) 𝑆

2𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 𝑊𝐹𝐷𝐺𝑊
𝑉𝑆𝑛=𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 = √
𝜌 𝐶𝑁max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)𝑛𝑒𝑔 𝑆
Where: 𝐶𝑁max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) = 1.1 𝐶𝐿max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)
𝐶𝑁max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)𝑛𝑒𝑔 = 1.1 𝐶𝐿max(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)𝑛𝑒𝑔

Note: Refer to Maneuvering and Flight Envelope chapter

 Design Cruise Speed, VC (KEAS)
𝑊
o 𝑉𝐶 (𝐾𝐸𝐴𝑆) = 𝑘𝑐 √ 𝑆
For kc:
𝑘𝑐 varies linearly from 33 to 28.6 as the wing loading varies from
20 ~ 100 psf for Normal and Utility category airplanes

𝑘𝑐 = 33 Normal, Utility with wing loadings up to 20 psf

𝑘𝑐 = 36 Acrobatic category

o However, VC need not exceed 0.9VH (𝑉𝐶 = 0.9 𝑉𝐻 )

Where VH is the maximum level speed obtained with maximum thrust or power
o Conclusion: Choose whichever VC is higher.

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)
  Gust Load Factor (VC, VD Gust Lines)
𝐾𝑈𝑉𝑎
o 𝑛=1 ± 𝑊 (V = mph)
575( )
𝑆
𝐾𝑈𝑉𝑎
o 𝑛=1 ± 𝑊 (V = KEAS)
498( )
𝑆

Where:

K – Gust Alleviation Factor

o Renigen
1
1 𝑊 4 𝑊
o 𝐾= ( )
2 𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆
< 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓
2.67 𝑊
o 𝐾 = 1.33 − 3 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑊
( )4
𝑆
o Lan, Roskam
0.88𝜇
o 𝐾𝑔 = 5.3+𝜇𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝑔
1.03
𝜇𝑔
o 𝐾𝑔 = 1.03 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠
6.9+𝜇𝑔
2(𝑊/𝑆)
o 𝜇𝑔 = 𝜌 𝐶̅ 𝑔 𝑎
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

U – Desired Gust Velocity

o Up to speed VC:
o 𝑈 = ± 30 𝑓𝑝𝑠
o 𝑈 = ± 50 𝑓𝑝𝑠 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 20,000 𝑓𝑡
o 𝑈 = ± 66.67 − 0.000833 ℎ 𝑓𝑝𝑠 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 20,000 𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 50,000 𝑓𝑡
o Up to speed VD:
o 𝑈 = ± 15 𝑓𝑝𝑠
o 𝑈 = ± 25 𝑓𝑝𝑠 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 20,000 𝑓𝑡
o 𝑈 = ± 33.34 − 0.000417 ℎ 𝑓𝑝𝑠 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 20,000 𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 50,000 𝑓𝑡
V – Airplane Speed, mph or KEAS

a – Lift Curve Slope

𝐶
o 𝑎 = 𝛼−𝛼𝐿
𝑜

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)
  Design Dive Speed, VD
o The design dive speed may not be less than 𝑉𝐷 = 1.25 𝑉𝐶
o With 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 , the required minimum design cruising speed, 𝑉𝐷 (knots) may not be less
than:

𝑉𝐷 = 1.40 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠

𝑉𝐷 = 1.50 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝐷 = 1.55 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠

Explanation of the diagram (Lan, Roskam)

If the slope of the VC gust line is such that point C is above line AD in Figure 12.12, the design
limit load factor at the speed, VC, is given by the projection of point C onto the load-factor axis.

A similar situation can arise with regard to point D’: if point D’ is above point D in Figure 12.12,
then the design limit load factor at the speed, VD, is given by the projection of point D’ onto the load-
factor axis. If any one of these conditions is satisfied the airplane is said to be gust-critical.

Clearly, the slope of both gust lines is related to the lift-curve slope and the wing loading of the
airplane. Observe that airplanes with a low wing loading and a high lift-curve slope may become gust-
critical.

Whenever the V-n diagram indicates a higher design limit load factor to be required, the
structural weight of the airplane (and thus the empty weight) tends to be higher.

The two negative gust load factor lines in Figure 12.12 are also defined by the gust load factor
line equation except that their slopes are negative.

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)
Explanation of the diagram (John D. Anderson)

A diagram showing load factor versus velocity for a given airplane – The V-n diagram. Consider
an airplane flying at velocity V1. Assume that the airplane is at an angle of attack such that 𝐶𝐿 < 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
This flight condition is represented by point 1. Now assume that the angle of attack is increased to
obtain 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , keeping the velocity constant at V1. The lift increases to its maximum value for the given
V1, and hence the load factor reaches its maximum value nmax for the given V1. This value of nmax, and the
corresponding flight condition is given by point 2. If the angle of attack is increased further, the wing
stalls and the load factor drops. Therefore point 3 is unobtainable in flight. Point 3 is in the stall region of
the V-n diagram.

Beyond a certain value of load factor, defined as the positive limit load factor and shown as the
horizontal line BC, structural damage may occur to the aircraft. The velocity corresponding to point B is
designated as V*.

As a final note concerning the V-n diagram, consider point B. This point is called the maneuver
point. At this point, both CL and n are simultaneously at their highest possible values that can be
obtained anywhere throughout the allowable flight envelope of the aircraft. Consequently, this point
corresponds simultaneously to the smallest possible turn radius and the largest possible turn rate for
the airplane. The velocity corresponding to point B is called the corner velocity and is designated by V*.

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)
Turning Flight – Figures and Formulas

𝑉 2 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2=
𝑉𝑆 𝐶𝐿

Turn radius R, turn rate 𝜑:

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑅= =
𝑔 tan 𝜙 𝑔 √𝑛2 − 1

𝑉
φ=
𝑅

References: Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance (Dr. Jan Roskam, Dr. Chuan-Tau Edward Lan)
Flight Envelope or V-n Diagram, Aircraft Structures I (Engr. Roberto R. Renigen)
Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition (John D. Anderson)