AERO MODULES:

APPLIED SUBSONIC
AERODYNAMICS

SUBJECT CODE: AENG 315

SUBJECT NAME: Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics (AERODYNAMICS II)
EDITOR: Shaira-Louise M. Denney, Dave Emmanuel J. Zuñiga
EDIT DATE: June 26, 2019
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Wing Theory
Definition of Wing Properties

• Geometric Wingspan (b) - The wingspan (or just span) of an airplane is the distance from
one wingtip to the other wingtip.
• Wing Area (S) - An area of the plan surface of the wing (projected on a plane perpendicular
to the normal axis). It includes the control surfaces. The wing area is equal to the product
of the wingspan and the chord.
• Wing Aspect Ratio (A)
𝑏2
1. A= 𝑆
𝑏
2. A= 𝑐̅
𝑆
3. A= ̅̅̅
𝑐2
Note: 𝑐̅ is equivalent to the mean chord.

• Taper Ratio (𝜆)- is a measure of how long and slender a wing is from tip to tip and it is the
ratio of tip chord to root chord.
𝐶𝑡
𝜆=
𝐶𝑟

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• The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (𝑐̅) - is located on the reference axis of the aircraft and is
used by the aeronautical engineer as a primary reference for longitudinal stability
considerations.

Graphical Method:

Solving Method:

2 𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 1
𝑐̅ = 𝐶𝑟 ( )
3 𝜆+1
1. For rectangular wing:

𝐶𝑟 + 𝐶𝑡
𝑐̅ =
2

• Sweep Angle (Λ) - The angle between the lateral axis and the quarter-chord line. It is
sometimes also referred to as the leading-edge sweep

Following the expressions of force and moment equations for airfoils, the wing aerodynamic
forces and moment are written as:
𝟏
̅𝑺
L = CL 𝟐 𝝆V2S = 𝑪𝑳 𝒒

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𝟏
̅𝑺
D = CD 𝟐 𝝆V2S = 𝑪𝑫 𝒒
𝟏
̅𝑺𝒄̅
M = CM 𝟐 𝝆V2S 𝒄̅ = 𝑪𝑴 𝒒

Circulation, Downwash, Lift and Induced Drag

• Induced drag (𝐷𝑖 )- that part of the drag on an airfoil that arises from the development of
lift.
• Downwash Velocity (𝜔)- air velocity deflected perpendicular to the direction of motion
of an airfoil.
• Angle 0f Attack (Geometric Angle of Attack) (𝛼)- is the angle between the oncoming air
or relative wind and a reference line on the airplane or wing.
• Effective Angle of Attack (𝛼𝑒 )- that part of a given angle of attack that lies between the
chord of an airfoil and a line representing the resultant velocity of the disturbed airflow.
• Induced Angle of Attack (𝛼𝑖 )-the downward vertical angle between the horizontal and
the velocity (relative to the wing of an aircraft) of the airstream passing over the wing.
• Absolute Angle of Attack (𝛼𝑎 ) - The acute angle between the chord of an airfoil at any
instant in flight and the chord of that airfoil at zero lift.
• Critical Angle of Attack- is the angle of attack which produces maximum lift coefficient.
This is also called the "stall angle of attack".
• Relative Wind- is the direction of movement of the atmosphere relative to an aircraft or
an airfoil. It is opposite to the direction of movement of the aircraft or airfoil relative to
the atmosphere.

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Note: 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒

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Two Methods of Calculating Lift:

• Momentum method –Force X Distance. According to the linear momentum principle,

assuming uniform downwash over s’

• Energy method -the work done on the air mass per unit time equals the kinetic energy
increase per unit time.

For induced angle of attack (𝜶𝒊 )

C𝑳
αi = , where αi is in radian
πA

For induced drag coefficient, (𝑪𝑫𝒊 )

CL 2
CDi = πA

Note: valid only for wings with elliptical loading

For non-elliptic distribution
C𝑳
αi = πAe

CL 2
CDi = πAe

Where
e = span efficiency factor or Oswald’s efficiency factor
= 0.85-0.95 for the wing alone
= 1 for elliptical
For rectangular wings:
C𝑳
αi = (1+ τ)
πA

CL 2
CDi = (1+ δ)
πA

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A 𝛕 𝛅 A 𝛕 𝛅
3 0.11 0.022 7 0.20 0.064
4 0.14 0.033 8 0.22 0.074
5 0.16 0.044 9 0.23 0.083
6 0.18 0.054

Total Drag Coefficient for a Wing

CL 2
CD = CDo + πAe

Where:
CDo = skin fricton + form drag

Airfoil Characteristics Correction

- From Prandtl’s Line Theory: Wings assumed to have high but different aspect ratios and
the same airfoil when placed at the same effective angle of attack, their lift coefficient
must be the same where 𝛼𝑎 = 𝛼 − 𝛼0 ; where 𝛼0 is the angle of zero lift.

For wing #1
𝛼𝑎1 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖1 , 𝛼𝑒 = 𝛼𝑎1 − 𝛼𝑖1

For wing #2
𝛼𝑎2 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖2 , 𝛼𝑒 = 𝛼𝑎2 − 𝛼𝑖2

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𝑎2
𝑎1 =
𝑎 1 1
1 + 𝜋2 [ − ]
(𝐴𝑒)1 (𝐴𝑒)2
Where:
𝑎1 = slope of lift curve of wing # 1
𝑎2 = slope of lift curve of wing # 2

Let:

𝑎1 = 𝑎
𝑎2 = 𝑎∞

𝑎∞
𝑎= 𝑎
1+ ∞
𝜋𝐴𝑒

Where:
𝑎 = slope of lift curve of wing with finite aspect ratio
𝑎∞ = slope of lift curve of wing with infinite aspect ratio

Airplane Drag

• Clean Airplane - is the flight configuration of a fixed-wing aircraft when its external
equipment is retracted to minimize drag and thus maximize airspeed for a given power
setting. It is used for normal cruising at altitude during which lift, or rise in altitude, is not
needed.

CL 2
CD = CDo +
πAe

Where:
CDo = zero lift drag coefficient
e = Oswald’s efficiency factor

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• Dirty Airplane - It means the landing gear or flaps are down an opposed to clean when the
landing gear and flaps are up, nothing hanging down in the air stream so the aircraft can
go full speed.

Fundamentals of Flight Mechanics for Steady Symmetrical Flight

nj

The aircraft fixed frame and the earth fixed frame (with origin translated to the center of
mass of the aircraft) are illustrated.

• The pitch angle θ is the angle between the aircraft-fixed x axis and the ground-fixed x axis.
• Vx is referred to as the horizontal or ground speed of the aircraft; Vz is referred to as the
descent rate of the aircraft or equivalently −Vz is the climb rate of the aircraft
(velocity components of the aircraft represented in the ground coordinate frame).
• Define u and w to be the velocity components of the aircraft, represented in the aircraft
fixed frame. The magnitude of the aircraft velocity vector with respect to the stationary
atmosphere (the air speed), in terms of aircraft fixed velocity components, is
V = √u2 + w 2
In terms of ground fixed velocity components,
V = √Vx 2 + Vz 2
• The angle of attack α is the angle between the velocity vector of the aircraft and the
aircraft-fixed x axis; the angle of attack satisfies

w
tan 𝛼 =
u

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• The flight path angle γ is the angle between the velocity vector of the aircraft and the
ground fixed x axis; the flight path angle satisfies

−Vz
sin γ =
√Vx 2 + Vz 2

∑ 𝐹𝑥𝑠 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑞̅ 𝑆 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼 + 𝜃𝑇 ) = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑧𝑠 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑞̅𝑆 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝜃𝑇 ) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 = 0

Note:
D= 𝐶𝐷 𝑞̅ 𝑆
L= 𝐶𝐿 𝑞̅ 𝑆

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• Seven quantities needed to completely define a steady symmetrical flight state:

1. W (airplane weight)
2. h (through ρ)
3. α (airplane angle of attack)
4. θT (thrust orientation angle relative to body x-axis)
5. V (airplane velocity)
6. 𝛾 (flight path angle)
7. T (airplane thrust)

Unpowered Flight or Glide

- is the ability to stay airborne for a period of time without using any power source.

As shown, the only forces that act on the aircraft are the lift force, the drag force, and the weight of the
aircraft. Since the aircraft is in steady gliding longitudinal flight in a fixed vertical plane, it is not
accelerating. That is, the velocity vector of the aircraft is constant in direction and magnitude.

Based on the figure the sum of the force vectors on the aircraft is zero. This leads to the two algebraic
equations that the sum of the components of the forces along the velocity vector is zero and the sum of
the components of the forces normal to the velocity vector is zero:

−D + W sin 𝛾̅ = 0

L − W cos 𝛾̅ = 0

Therefore,

CD q̅S = W sin 𝛾̅
CL q̅S = W cos 𝛾̅

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Steady gliding flight also requires that the aerodynamic moments are also zero; in
particular, the pitching
moment is zero:
M = 0.

Assuming the glide angle, in radian measure, is small so that the sin of the angle can be
approximated by the angle and the cosine of the angle can be approximated by unity,
obtain the expressions
𝐷
𝛾̅ =
𝑊
L=W
Glide Path Angle, Airspeed and Rate of Descent

• Glide Path Angle, 𝛾̅

Divide CD q
̅ S = W sin 𝛾̅ by CL q̅S = W cos 𝛾̅

1
𝛾̅ = tan−1
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷

• Airspeed, V
From CR q̅S = W

𝑊 2 1
𝑉 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 CR

From CL q̅S = W cos 𝛾̅

𝑊 2 1
𝑉 = √( ) ( ) ( ) cos 𝛾̅
𝑆 𝜌 CL

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• Rate of Descent, RD
RD = V sin 𝛾̅

𝑊 2 1
𝑅𝐷 = ( ) ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝛾̅
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿 3
2
√ ( 𝐶𝐷 )
Horizontal Distance Covered in a

Steady Glide

Glide performance – minimum angle of glide and minimum rate of

descent and maximum range and endurance in glide

The aircraft's distance traveled through the air has two components, the vertical altitude lost in
the glide h and the horizontal distance or range traveled R. For a fixed initial altitude, the range
is maximized when the magnitude of the flight-path angle is as small as possible. The limit to
how small can it get, while still sustaining steady flight, is set by the force balance.

ℎ
𝑅=
tan 𝛾̅
𝐶𝐷
But, tan 𝛾̅ = 𝐶𝐿

Therefore, 𝐶𝐿
𝑅=ℎ ( )
𝐶𝐷

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𝐶𝐷
From tan 𝛾̅ = 𝐶𝐿

1
𝛾̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan−1
𝐶
(𝐶 𝐿 )
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Hence, 𝐶𝐿
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ ( )
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐶
For the case of parabolic drag equation, (𝐶 𝐿 ) can be found by setting its derivative with 𝐶𝐿 =0
𝐷

𝐶𝐿 2
𝐶𝐷0 − =0
𝜋𝐴𝑒

𝐿 𝐶 2
𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝜋𝐴𝑒

𝐶𝐿 2 = 𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐿 = √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐷 = 2𝐶𝐷0

𝐶 √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0
(𝐶 𝐿 ) =
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐿 1 𝜋𝐴𝑒
( ) = √
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝐶𝐷0

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Minimum Rate of Descent

𝑊 2 1
𝑅𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( ) ( ) 3
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶
( 𝐿 2)
√ [ 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ]

𝐶𝐿 3
For the case of parabolic drag equation, ( ) can be found by setting its derivative with 𝐶𝐿 =0
𝐶𝐷 2

𝐶𝐿 2
3𝐶𝐷0 − =0
𝜋𝐴𝑒

1 𝐿 𝐶 2
𝐶𝐷0 = 3 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝜋𝐴𝑒

𝐶𝐿 2 = 3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐿 = √3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐿 3 3 3𝜋𝐴𝑒
( ) = 𝜋𝐴𝑒√
𝐶𝐷 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 16 𝐶𝐷0

Minimum Airspeed or Stalling Speed

𝑊 2 1
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑆 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑊
To achieve a low minimum airspeed or stall speed it is seen that 𝑆
should be low and C𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
should be high.

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SPEED POLAR OR HODOGRAPH

A graph relating horizontal to vertical flight speed components in a Steady Symmetrical Glide is
referred to as a Speed Polar or Hodograph.

There are six points on a hodograph, and on the drag-polar which have a particular significance

POLAR DRAG POLAR SPEED POLAR EQUATIONS

1 Max CR Min Airspeed 𝑊 2 1
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛

2 Max CL Min Airspeed 𝑊 2 1

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

3 Max CL3 Min Rate of 2

CD2 Descent 𝑊 2 𝐶𝐷
𝑅𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( 3 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶 𝐿

4 Max CL Min Glide Path

𝐶
CD Angle γ min = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐷 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿

5 Min CR Maximum Dive 𝑊 2 1

Velocity 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

6 CL=0 Vertical Dive 𝑊 2 1

(γ=90o) 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

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EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON THE SPEED OF A GLIDER

Because compressibility is not important for a low-speed vehicle like a glider, the glide
path angle γ is independent of altitude and depends solely on the angle of attack points with
the same value of α therefore must have the same glide path angle γ. For that reason, such
points appear exactly on a straight line through the origin of the speed polar

𝑊 2 1 𝑊 2 𝐶 2
From eqns: 𝑉 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝑅
and RD = V* (CD/CL) = √( 𝑆 ) (𝜌) ( 𝐶𝐷3 )
𝐿

It follows that for two flight conditions at altitudes ho and h (densities  and ) and for the
same 

𝑊 2 1
𝑉 √( ) ( ) ( ) 1
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝑅 𝜌
= =√( 𝜌𝑜) = √( 𝜌𝜌 ) = √(𝜎1)
𝑉𝑜 𝑊 2 1 𝑜
√( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌𝑜 𝐶𝑅

𝑉𝑜
𝑉 =
√𝜎
𝑅𝐷𝑜
𝑅𝐷 =
√𝜎
𝑉ℎ𝑜
𝑉ℎ =
√𝜎
DENSITY VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE ABOVE SEA LEVEL UP TO TROPOPAUSE
𝜌𝑜 𝑎ℎ 4.20
= = (1 + )
𝜌 𝑇𝑜

Where

 = density ratio above sea level up to tropopause

a = -0.008566 R/ft
To = 519 R
h = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause

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STEADY POWERED FLIGHT

For stationary (steady), symmetrical powered flight the equations of motion arc.

T cos(+r) – D – Wsin = 
and
T sin(+r) + L– Wcos = 
Where: T = thrust orbitation angle
 = Flight path Angle

In the case of conventional airplanes, it turns out that the component T sin(+r) is small when
compared to other forces in T sin(+r) + L – W Wcos = 

For that reason it can be assumed that sin(+r) ≈ 0 and cos(+r) ≈ 1.0

Hence Eq’ns above become,

T = D + Wsin and L = Wcos

It is useful to write T = D + Wsin in terms of “work” by multiplication by airspeed v.

TV = DV + WVsin

But,

R.C = V sin

Then

TV = DV + WR.C
Where:

TV = PAv = Power Available from the propulsive system

DV = Preq = Power Required to overcome the drag at a given speed v
WR.C = climb power

Therefore in steady symmetrical flight, the power available equals the sum of the power
required and climb power

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THE THREE FLIGHT MODES

1. LEVEL FLIGHT

XS Horizon

←+FH=0
−D = 0
T=D=CDqs

↑+Fv = 0
L= W = 0
L=CLqs

For a given weight, flight configuration and altitude, Eqn’s above contain the variables , v, T.
One of these variables can therefore be arbitrarily selected. Note that TV=DV+WR.C in this case
can be written as:

TV = DV

PAV = PREQ’D

TV-DV=WR.C
PAV-PREQD = EP (Excess Power)
or Climb Power

The level flight speed follows from Eqn ( L=CLqs = W)

CLqs = W
1
CL2v2s = W

𝑊 2 1
V= √( 𝑆 )(𝜌)(𝐶𝐿)

The drag in level flight is

𝑊
D = CDqs * 𝑆

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CDqs
D= ∗𝑊
CLqs

CD
D= ∗𝑊
CL

Therefore, the power required can be written as

CD 𝑊 2 1
PREQD = DV = ∗ 𝑊 ∗ √( )( )( )
CL 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿

𝑊 2 𝐶 2
PREQD = 𝑊 ∗ √( 𝑆 )(𝜌)( 𝐶𝐷3 )
𝐿

2. MINIMUM DRAG FLIGHT

For the Speed at MINIMUM DRAG FLIGHT

𝑊 2 1
VMinDrag = √( )( )( )
𝑆 𝜌 √𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋

For the Drag Force at MINIMUM DRAG FLIGHT

1 𝜔2
Dmin = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝑀𝑖𝑛𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 2 𝑠 + 1
2 𝜋𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑀𝑖𝑛𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 2 𝑠
2
1 𝑊 2 1 𝜔2
Dmin = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑠√( )( )( )+
2 𝑆 𝜌 √𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷 𝜋 1
𝜋𝐴𝑒 2𝑠√( 𝑆 )(𝜌)(
𝑊 2 1
)
√𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷 𝜋

𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝐶𝐷𝑜
Dmin = 𝑊 √𝐴𝑒𝜋 + 𝑊 √𝐴𝑒𝜋

𝐷𝑜 𝐶
Dmin = 2𝑊√𝐴𝑒𝜋

Dmin = Do + Do

Dmin = 2Do

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For the Power Required at MINIMUM DRAG FLIGHT

𝑊 2 𝐶𝐷𝑜
PReqdMinDrag = 2𝑊 √( )( )( )
𝑆 𝜌 (𝐴𝑒𝜋)3

3. MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED FLIGHT

For the Speed at MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED FLIGHT

𝑊 2 1
VMinPreq = √( )( )( )
𝑆 𝜌 √3𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋

For the Drag Force at MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED FLIGHT

𝐶𝐷𝑜
DminPreq = 𝑊 √3𝐴𝑒𝜋 + 𝑊 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐴𝑒𝜋

For the Power Required at MINIMUM POWER REQUIRED FLIGHT

4 𝑊 2 3𝐶𝐷𝑜
PReqdMin = 𝑊 √( )( )( )
3 𝑆 𝜌 (𝐴𝑒𝜋)3

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Equations of Motion

Normal to Flight path

+↑ ∑ 𝐹 = 0

𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 (∝ 𝑤 − 𝜃𝑇 ) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 − 𝐶. 𝐹. = 0
𝑊 𝑑𝑉
Where C.F. is the centrifugal force (= 𝑔
𝑉 𝑑𝑅
)I

𝑑𝑉
In normal flight since 𝑑𝑅 = 0 and C.F.=0

Assuming small climb angles ( 𝛾 < 15° ) and (∝ 𝑤 − 𝜃𝑇 ) ≃ 0

Therefore,

L-W=0

L≃W

Along the flight path

+
← ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

𝑊 𝑑𝑉
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 (∝ 𝑤 − 𝜃𝑇 ) − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 − 𝐷 − =0
𝑔 𝑑𝑡

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Since the rate of climb, R.C. is equal to the vertical component of the flight speed:
𝑑ℎ
𝑅. 𝐶 = = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
𝑑𝑡
𝑅. 𝐶.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 =
𝑉
By equating…

Therefore,

(𝑇 − 𝐷)𝑉
𝑅. 𝐶 = 𝑊
𝑉 𝑑𝑉
1+
𝑔 𝑑ℎ

Where:
𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑔 𝑑ℎ
= acceleration factor

𝑑𝑉
When the climb is made at a constant true airspeed, 𝑑ℎ = 0, therefore

(𝑇 − 𝐷)𝑉
𝑅. 𝐶. =
𝑊

Note that this formula is applicable only for a jet plane. This formula can be rewritten for propeller-
driven airplane as:
𝑇𝑉 − 𝐷𝑉
𝑅. 𝐶. =
𝑊
𝑃𝐴𝑉 − 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷
𝑅. 𝐶. =
𝑊

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Climb Performance and Speed of Propeller-Driven Airplanes

• Power Required

Power required at constant speed:

𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = 𝐷𝑉

Since for small γ,

𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = 𝐷 = 𝑊
𝐶𝐿

And

𝑊 2 1
𝑉= √
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿
Therefore,

𝑊 𝑊 2 𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = √
550 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶 3⁄2
𝐿

At sea level,
𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷0 = 𝑊
𝐶𝐿 0
𝑊0 𝑊0 2 𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷0 = √
550 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶 3⁄2
𝐿

𝐶𝐷
Equating
𝐶𝐿

𝑊
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷0 ( )
𝑊0

1
Equating √𝐶
𝐿

𝑊 1
𝑉 = 𝑉0 √( ) ( )
𝑊0 𝜎

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𝐶𝐷
Equating 3
𝐶𝐿 ⁄2

𝑊 3 1
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 √
= 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷0 ( ) ( )
𝑊0 𝜎

Power Available

𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = 𝐵𝐻𝑃 × 𝜂𝑃

Where:

BHP = shaft brake horsepower

𝜂𝑃 = propeller efficiency

Power speed coefficient, CS

𝟓 𝝆𝑽𝟓
𝑪𝑺 = √
𝑵𝟐 𝑩𝑯𝑷

Where:

𝜌 = density (slug/ft3)

V=VDES (ft/s)

N=NDES (rev/sec)

BHP=BHPDES (ft.lb/sec)

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Propeller Diameter, D
𝑽
𝑫 (𝒇𝒕) =
𝑵𝑱
Where:

V=VDES (ft/s)

N=NDES (rev/sec)

J=advance ratio

Climb Performance and Speed

• Parameters obtained from the plotted graph of power required and available at given altitudes:
1. Max. flight speed
2. Max. rate of climb
3. Max. climb angle
4. All corresponding speeds
Note: Max. speed is where curves of power available and required intersect.

Formulas:

𝑅. 𝐶. = 𝑉 sin 𝛾

𝑅. 𝐶.
sin 𝛾 =
𝑉
𝑅. 𝐶.
𝛾 = sin−1 ( )
𝑉

𝑅. 𝐶.
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin−1 ( )
𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥

In determining max. climb angle, speed for max. climb angle should not be less than the stall speed.

Climb Performance for Constant THPAV and Parabolic Drag Equation

- Assumed to be independent of flight speed and the airplane drag equation is of parabolic form:
CL 2
CD = CDo +
πAe
- e = 0.7 − 0.85 for general aviation aircraft

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𝑃𝐴𝑉 − 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷
𝑅. 𝐶. =
𝑊
Indicates that R.C.max implies minimum 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 .

From eqn,

𝑊 𝑊 2 𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = √
550 𝑆 𝜌 𝐶 3⁄2
𝐿
𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 ∝ 3
𝐶𝐿 ⁄2

3 3
𝐶𝐿 ⁄2 𝐶𝐿 ⁄2
Therefore max R.C. requires 𝐶𝐷
to be maximum and the derivative of 𝐶𝐷
with CL should be zero.

𝐶𝐿 2
3𝐶𝐷0 − =0
𝜋𝐴𝑒
1 𝐶𝐿 2
𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
3 3𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝐿 2 = 3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

𝐶𝐿 = √3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0
CD = CDo +
πAe

𝐶𝐷 = 4𝐶𝐷0

Ceilings and Time to Climb

- Rate of climb varies in straight proportion with altitude.

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Using ratio and proportions:

𝐻 ℎ
=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ

ℎ𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂
𝐻=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ

Absolute Ceiling, H- this can be defined as the altitude where the aircraft can no longer produce an
increase in altitude even though it is at maximum power. In other words, a rate of climb is no longer
being produced.

Service Ceiling, Hs- is the maximum usable altitude of an aircraft. Specifically, it is the density altitude at
which flying in a clean configuration, at the best rate of climb airspeed for that altitude and with all
engines operating and producing maximum continuous power, will produce a given rate of climb (a
typical value might be 100 feet per minute climb or 30 meters per minute, or on the order of 500 feet
per minute climb for jet aircraft)

Using ratio and proportions:

𝐻 𝐻𝑠
=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 100

𝐻(𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 100)

𝐻𝑠 =
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂

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Where:
H = absolute ceiling
Hs = service ceiling
h = any altitude
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 = rate of climb at sea level
𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ = rate of climb at any altitude
𝑅. 𝐶.𝐻𝑠 = rate of climb at service ceiling (100 fpm)

Time to Climb

Using ratio and proportion:

𝐻 ℎ
=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ
ℎ𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂
𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ = 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 −
𝐻

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𝐻 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − ℎ𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂

=
𝐻
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂
𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ = (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐻
By integration…..
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡= ln
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 𝐻ℎ

Where:

t = time to climb to altitude h

Take-off and Landing Performance

• Take-off

Accelerating ground-run
Rotation
Lift-off
Climb out

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• Landing

Descent
Flare
Touchdown
Decelerating ground-run

Options of pilot in case of engine failure during take-off:

1. Continue take-off
2. Stop (discontinue take-off)

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Where:
VS = one g stall speed out of ground effect
VLOF = Lift-off speed
VR = rotational speed
V1 = decision speed (option 1 or 2)
V2 or VCL = climb out speed

• CTOL- Conventional Take-off and Landing

Where:
VA = speed over the 50ft obstacle (also called the approach speed)
VTD = speed at touchdown during landing

Take-off Analysis

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Where:
SG = ground distance
SR = rotation distance
STR = transition distance
SC = climb distance

• Total Take-off distance= SG + SR + STR + SC

• Coefficient of friction, µ

Concrete = 0.02-0.03
Hard turf = 0.05
Short grass = 0.05
Long grass = 0.1
Soft ground = 0.1-0.32

• Wind Effect on Take-off

1
𝑉𝑤1 ℎ1 7
= ( )
𝑉𝑤2 ℎ2
−𝑉𝑤 = 50% 𝑉𝑤1

+𝑉𝑤 = 150% 𝑉𝑤1

Where:
𝑉𝑤1 = wind speed at ℎ1
𝑉𝑤2 = wind speed at ℎ2
ℎ1 = height of MAC from the ground
ℎ2 = height of tower

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• Effect of Speed on Thrust

Thrust at Lift – Off

𝑇VLOF
THPAV = 375

375 THPAV
T = VLOF

Where:

T is in lbs

VLOF is in mph

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• Effect of the Ground on CL and CD

Lift Coefficient in Ground Effect

𝐂𝐋
𝛂(𝐈𝐆𝐄)
CL (IGE) = 𝐂𝐋(𝐎𝐆𝐄) - 𝐂𝐋𝛂(𝐈𝐆𝐄) ∆𝛂𝐨
𝐂𝐋
𝛂(𝐎𝐆𝐄)

Where:
CL(OGE) = Lift Coefficient in the appropriate configuration out of Ground Effect

= √πAeCDo

C Lα(OGE)
2πA
CLα(OGE) = , Per rad/
2+√(A)2 (1+tan2 Λc )+4
2

CLα(IGE)
2π𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
CLα(IGE) = , Per rad.
2+√(A)2 (1+tan2 Λc )+4
2

Figure 10.8 Effect of Wing Height from Ground on Effective Aspect Ratio (Taken from Ref. 10.2)

A 2h
=f ( )
Aeff b

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Drag Coefficient in Ground Effect

𝑪𝑫(𝑰𝑮𝑬 ) = 𝑪𝑫(𝑶𝑮𝑬 ) + △ 𝑪𝑫𝒊

Where:

𝐶𝐷(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = _____+ ____ 𝐶𝐿2 (Clean airplane)

𝐶𝐿2
△ 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = −𝜎 ′ , 𝑒 = (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑡. 2)
𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿(𝑂𝐺𝐸 )

For 0.033 < h/b < 0.25, the ground influence coefficient can be estimated from:

𝐡
𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐 ( )
𝛔𝟏 = 𝐛
𝐡
𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝟕. 𝟒 ( )
𝐛
Approximate Method I for 𝑆𝐺

𝒘 ( 𝑭𝒔 − 𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑭 )𝑽𝟐
𝒂 = 𝑭𝒔 −
𝒈 𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝑶𝑭

Where:

FS = T - µW - W⏀0 at V = 0

FLOF = T - µW - (D − µL) - W⏀0 at V = VLOF

Approximation for Zero Wind Speed

𝟐
𝐖 𝐕𝐋𝐎𝐅
𝐒𝐆 =
𝟐𝐠 𝐅𝐦
Where:

𝐹𝑚 = 𝐾 𝐹𝑠
FLOF
FS
𝐾= F
ln S
FLOF

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Approximation for Nonzero Wind speed

For Total Take-off Time

𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑭 + 𝑽𝒘
𝒕𝑳𝑶𝑭 =
̅
𝒂
But,
𝑤
𝐹𝑚𝑤 = 𝑎̅
𝑔
𝐹𝑚𝑤
𝑎̅ = 𝑤
𝑔
Subt.

𝑊 2
𝑆𝐺 = (𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 + 𝑉𝑤 )
2𝑔𝐹𝑚𝑤

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Approximate Method II for 𝑆𝐺

1 2
𝑆𝐺 = (𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 + 𝑉𝑤 )
2𝑎̅

If 𝑉𝑤 = 0

2
W VLOF
SG =
g (FS + FLOF )

Where:

FS = T − µW − W⏀2 at V = 0

FLOF = T − µW − (CD − μCL )q̅S − W⏀0 at V = VLOF /√2

Approximation Method for Rotation Distance, SR

𝑆𝑅 = VLOF 𝑡𝑅

Where 𝑡𝑅 ~ 3 seconds for modern swept-wing aircraft (less for small aircraft)

Approximation Method for Transition Distance, STR

STR = R sin θCL

Where:
V2LOF
R= V
2 CL
g[( LOF ) ( TR )−1]
V
S CLMAX

CLtr
= 0.8
CLmax

T−D
θCL = Arcsin | |
W At V=VLOF

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Approximation Method for Climb Distance, SCL

50 − hTR
SCL =
tan θCL

Where:
STR
hTR = (1 − cos θCL )
sinθCL

If hTR > 50ft or 35 ft, then SCL = 0

Landing Analysis

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-Calculation of landing performance is similar to the take-off calculation varying only in the treatment of
approach and flare and in the consideration of auxiliary stopping devices such as speed brakes.

- Approach applies only to the air distance from an altitude of 50 ft. to touchdown.

-Two parts of air distance:

1. A steady-state glide path where the airplane is in the final landing configuration, prior to touchdown,
and

2. the flare

- After touchdown there is a short ground run (approximately 2 seconds) during which no brakes are
applied.

Air Distance, SA

Approach Speed, VA

VA = 1.3VS (L)

Touchdown Speed ,VTD

VTD = (1.10- 1.15)VS (L)

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 AERO MODULES

Where:

VS (L) = stall speed in the landing configuration

W 2 1
VS (L) = √( S ) (ρ) (C )
Lmax
δf

CLmax = CLmax + ΔfCLmax

δf

By conservation of Energy:

Change in (KE + PE) = (Retarding Force) SA

W V2A − V 2
TD
SA = [( ) + hf ]
D−T 2g

Where:
1
D = DA = CDA 2 ρvA2 s

CDA = ___ + ___ CL ( Dirty Airplane)

A2

W
CLA = 1
pv s
2 A2

Free Roll Distance, SFR

The time for the free roll, tFR may be taken as tFR ~ 0 to 3 seconds.

SFR = VTD tFR

Braking Distance, SB

1 2
𝑆𝐵 = (𝑉𝑇𝐷 + 𝑉𝑤 )
2𝑎

From,
𝑤
𝐹𝑚𝑤 = 𝑎
𝑔

2
W (𝑉𝑇𝐷 + 𝑉𝑤 )
SB =
2g 𝐹𝑚𝑤

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 AERO MODULES

Where:

FS = µW – Te + W⏀0 at V = 0

F𝐵 = µW – Te - ( µ𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝐷 ) 𝑞̅ 𝑆 + W⏀0 at V = VTD

If Vw = 0

W VTD 2
SB =
2g FM

where:

FM = KFS
F
1− B
FS
K= Fs
ln
FB

Note that with brakes applied, µ on concrete may be taken to be 0.4 to 0.6

Range and Endurance

• Range is the distance an airplane can travel with a given amount of fuel.
• Endurance is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight.

Propeller-Driven Airplanes

• Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc), c – defined as the amount of fuel measured in lbs per second,
consumed or required by an engine for each horsepower or pound of thrust developed (lbs of
fuel per second per ft.lbs/sec of power, or per lbs of thrust)
• Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC –defined as the amount of fuel per hour used for each
brake horsepower (lbs of fuel per brake hp, hour per brake hp).

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Relation Between c and BSFC

𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ( ) = 𝑐 × 1, 980, 000
𝐵𝐻𝑃 − ℎ𝑟
Note that fuel burned is equal to the decrease in airplane weight.

Breguet’s Formulas for Range and Endurance

• Range

𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡) = 𝑙𝑛
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1

𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 𝑙𝑛
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1

𝐶
For best range 𝐶 𝐿 should be maximum
𝐷

𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 375 ( ) 𝑙𝑛
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊1

• Endurance

3
𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 ⁄2 1 1
𝐸 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠) = √2𝜌𝑆 ( − )
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 √𝑊1 √𝑊0

3
𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 ⁄2 1 1
𝐸 (𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) = 778 √𝜌𝑆 ( − )
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝐷 √𝑊1 √𝑊0

3
𝐶𝐿 ⁄2
For best endurance 𝐶𝐷
should be maximum

3
𝜂𝜌 𝐶𝐿 ⁄2 1 1
𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) = 778 ( ) √𝜌𝑆 ( − )
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝐷 √𝑊1 √𝑊0
𝑚𝑎𝑥

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• Speed for best endurance

𝑊 2 1
𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿

Where:
𝐶𝐿 = √3𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

• Speed for best range

𝑊 2 1
𝑉𝑅𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿

Where:
𝐶𝐿 = √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷0

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References:
• Engr. Hari’s Lecture Material
• https://ariadacapo.net/lecture-
notes/aspects_aircraft_design/lecture_5.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2foW7UmODid_olPTik9ZyRAhXV_sHo
M6Tgt4xXuDRFTG1YuRXtzAg2HXk
• https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/geom.html?fbclid=IwAR3xN4PHnm6Z-
kMK6OwyTq9CCUaVRMA0x1J1AEM1daZi0iu304TbWOl4OwU
• http://airspot.ru/book/file/73/hull_airplane_flight_mechanics.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1XwGaIHXmRqEZ
gwRCh8ZUqmTPJdTaNWKDnf7VLyZXCdBMhS11byntH5vA
• https://downwash.askdefine.com/?fbclid=IwAR0_aJG-
p0HLzWCvJYDp68r6gQodn0aIj3dRBycV0HzKwPGFP1tgai9HtfQ
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/6174343/18/images/18/INFINITE+WING+DESCRIPTION.jpg?fbclid=
IwAR2th5clDuzwlqXyCKY8Ud987n2oyBngtbjodfaVig7OzBNYjrRcn67cwqU
• http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_12/whatisaoa.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2XAO0
RACY4JgpwJSeh4cUv6dF4VKsY_XxTBJ4pl_4p_tLlr4xMbxA1eeY
• https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/effective+angle+of+attack?fbclid=IwAR1AxFRoQw
UyJEo8oiUkp66W2JKY5RJNllkhxh-gojP4SqJF6GAzgw5Ulic
• http://aviation_dictionary.enacademic.com/30/absolute_angle_of_attack?fbclid=IwAR24DiF87-
jDb6YnjSYKkI58H0GyAe4MeG-C-NvF1xif1nAEvKeZY8yY5FU
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_attack?fbclid=IwAR3HtyySGm2But6k1WgRoQ2NXiDECS
Uhm_8QfRnGtHwQavOZmrwd6_TomBk
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_wind?fbclid=IwAR1ockfM_XP0Q7mebVMzTHSWJ2xs2iYti
qM392kYuOm1UROn_4x53z9Zfy4
• http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/fluids/Spring2008/LectureNotes/f05.pdf?fbclid=Iw
AR1OLsu1G1p2YLWgZkLoLkKBpqP4zYaPJqSooXQXvDRdH3XKcfeOl-BFrRM
• http://www2.esm.vt.edu/~dtmook/AOE5104_ONLINE/Class%20Notes/23_Class_LLT.pdf?fbclid=
IwAR24DiF87-jDb6YnjSYKkI58H0GyAe4MeG-C-NvF1xif1nAEvKeZY8yY5FU
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_configuration?fbclid=IwAR3h9E_V1KJtPY2K0yXBbXBrw-
wYWPtpr8ieyS_rCmLna86XEaghehDu22I
• http://www.askacfi.com/21895/clean-configuration-and-induced-
drag.htm?fbclid=IwAR2th5clDuzwlqXyCKY8Ud987n2oyBngtbjodfaVig7OzBNYjrRcn67cwqU
• https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/33209/what-is-the-relationship-between-angle-
of-attack-and-wake-
turbulence?fbclid=IwAR13rFL7euMx2s9eGIckqgtOJ1OMrxEtKI_QtHVhadNeCHNXOrhzRFWPVGo
• https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20150712060055AArdyH6&guccounter=1&guc
e_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9sLmZhY2Vib29rLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAMQQNUIP-
EvQYU3Cm56K3xKLuvIVXzT1BbiUZ0abQt1eRrDsCR6-H5oPxTAQc-
109FGZHQeKEIcfAqc9L129EnLyWheknL91mb8Ot4a_n_kF0QP3I0F95ALyQagoe9-
Rs3w2UmUh4Om56bNzMNfxFNfLEjoKJrVBym350Irh46J_
• http://www.aerostudents.com/courses/flight-
dynamics/flightDynamicsFullVersion.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1gadkUdIf7OAjuhRB1Z7xASUJoz1RAZxO1e
v9FV4Htkgq8gbGlJebtL_c
• https://studylib.net/doc/18313870/steady-climb--descent-and-
glide?fbclid=IwAR0yuDsP11oZzWACxNpp5JrLgeU_7rBbwE_0vh-tNrK1cyKloNMKuDiaVyE

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 AERO MODULES

• https://www.globalspec.com/reference/30053/203279/5-8-
glides?fbclid=IwAR1GkfDSStsxyomRj3wpjjzx9vHSBZ3rtDijSgAJrkZsB1JnAPknnW2Mulg

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceiling_(aeronautics)?fbclid=IwAR1OLsu1G1p2YLWgZkLoLkKBpqP
4zYaPJqSooXQXvDRdH3XKcfeOl-BFrRM

• http://theatlasgroup.biz/understanding-logistics-take-aircraft/?fbclid=IwAR3UUQ9ZJj-
UWlrmzTaxWlL0BUZbfV4-1ls9LkjMVTk4r8yOAVidk63Etr0

• http://www.studyflight.com/flight-for-range-and-
endurance/?fbclid=IwAR3AD56jgNjD7ffe3YOwToLywObwsY3NxJvkbPVwAWHO31-Xk-J9cl02bFQ

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_(aeronautics)?fbclid=IwAR1qFP4T2OzwNjZIMSqUfScf3
yDB2q5PzCSnpTq5KEWkUUE-JYe1azTfe6I

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