Water: Experimental Research and Numerical Analysis of Flow Phenomena in Discharge Object With Siphon

water
Article
Experimental Research and Numerical Analysis of
Flow Phenomena in Discharge Object with Siphon
Milan Sedlář 1, * , Pavel Procházka 2 , Martin Komárek 1 , Václav Uruba 2,3 and Vladislav Skála 2
1 Centre of Hydraulic Research, Jana Sigmunda 313, 78349 Lutín, Czech Republic; m.komarek@sigma.cz
2 Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Dolejškova 1402/5,
18200 Praha 8, Czech Republic; prochap@it.cas.cz (P.P.); uruba@it.cas.cz (V.U.); skala@it.cas.cz (V.S.)
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Univerzitní 8,
30614 Plzeň, Czech Republic
* Correspondence: m.sedlar@sigma.cz; Tel.: +420-724-885-139

Received: 22 October 2020; Accepted: 23 November 2020; Published: 27 November 2020
Abstract: This article presents results of the experimental research and numerical simulations of the
flow in a pumping system’s discharge object with the welded siphon. The laboratory simplified
model was used in the study. Two stationary flow regimes characterized by different volume flow
rates and water level heights have been chosen. The study concentrates mainly on the regions below
and behind the siphon outlet. The mathematical modelling using advanced turbulence models has
been performed. The free-surface flow has been carried out by means of the volume-of-fluid method.
The experimental results obtained by the particle image velocimetry method have been used for the
mathematical model validation. The evolution and interactions of main flow structures are analyzed
using visualizations and the spectral analysis. The presented results show a good agreement of the
measured and calculated complex flow topology and give a deep insight into the flow structures below
and behind the siphon outlet. The presented methodology and results can increase the applicability
and reliability of the numerical tools used for the design of the pump and turbine stations and their
optimization with respect to the efficiency, lifetime and environmental demands.
Keywords: siphon; free-surface flow; PIV; CFD analysis; SAS; flow structures
1. Introduction
This paper presents one part of the results of the project, focused on the improvement and
verification of numerical tools, used for an optimal design of pumping stations. The pumping station
is a complete hydraulic system, consisting typically of one or several pumps, the intake and discharge
objects and the necessary connecting piping. This paper concentrates on the numerical modelling of
flow in the discharge objects with siphons and its validation by the experimental results obtained using
camera-based visualizations and the particle image velocimetry (hereinafter, PIV) measuring technique.
The pumping stations widely use the discharge objects with the siphons, as they are easy-to-install
and easy-to-operate and require minimum mechanical components. The flow in these output
hydro-machine objects could be characterized by specific features. It is typically a combination of the
diffuser flow and the free jet flow which interacts with still fluid and impinges on a wall. Typically,
the fluid is a two-phase one with both the liquid and gas fractions. Until now, there is no systematic
study of this specific case in the literature. Overall, the case represents a tough problem both from the
point of view of the physical modelling using the experimental research and mathematical simulations
involving the so-called computational fluid dynamics (hereinafter CFD). Our paper represents a
contribution to fill this gap.
Water 2020, 12, 3330; doi:10.3390/w12123330 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2020, 12, 3330 2 of 23
Concerning the mathematical simulations of a complete pumping system with the siphon outlet,
some published studies describe the flow inside the system as a single-phase one, e.g., [1]. More recent
simulations consider also the influence of the free water level, e.g., [2]. They use usually the volume of
fluid (hereinafter VOF) multiphase model. A more advanced study can be found in [3], which aims
to predict transient phenomena during the stopping process in the axial-flow pump system with
the siphon outlet using the VOF model inside the fluent CFD code. The transient phenomena
during the start-up phase of the complete pumping station with the welded siphon outlet have been
studied numerically in [4] using the scale-adaptive simulations (hereinafter SAS) and the detached
eddy simulations (hereinafter DES), supported by some experimental visualizations. There, also the
discharge objects with the arrow-shaped overflow wall have been analyzed experimentally as well as
using CFD. Unfortunately, both in the case of overflow walls and in the case of transient start-up of the
siphon (phases during filling the siphon with water), large amount of air bubbles inside water does not
allow to use the PIV measurements to validate the CFD simulations properly.
During the steady operation regimes, the main problem in the discharge objects with siphons is a
very complex pattern of flow, with a very complicated system of the wall attached and free-surface
vortices, which can be important sources of the energy dissipation as well as the erosive processes
decreasing the lifetime of the concrete walls. Simulations of these flow structures are similar to
the problem of flow structures in the intake objects, which have been much more studied both
experimentally and using the CFD tools. Nevertheless, there are some differences in the character of
vortical structures in the intake and discharge objects, which will be mentioned later. The analysis
of the flow with free water level in the suction objects of pumping stations can be found in many
references. They concentrate mainly on vortex structures and cavitation phenomena in the pump
intake [5–11]. Especially Tokay and Constantinescu [5] give a detailed picture of unsteady vortices
obtained by means of the large eddy simulations (hereinafter LES). To visualize the vortical structures,
they use both the pictures of distributions of the velocity, the turbulent kinetic energy and the vorticity
in predefined cross-sections, and the pictures of instantaneous surface streamlines, which give a clear
view of the singular points and singular lines in the flow field. In the next sections, this methodology
will be used as well, referring also to the terminology of three-dimensional separated flows introduced
by Tobak and Peake [12]. A very interesting comparison of five different commercial CFD codes can
be found in the work of Okamura et al. [6] showing the ability to predict vortices in a sump of the
axial-flow pump. Unfortunately, these calculations are based just on the single-phase flow and there is
lack of information on the turbulence and cavitation models used.
The background of the experimental research and numerical simulations of flow in the discharge
objects with the siphon is very limited. Therefore, the experience from the intake objects should be
obviously applied instead. But still, there are some major differences in these types of flow. In the
intake object, the driving mechanism is the sump of the pump. The main singularity on the floor is
the nodal point or focus of separation (the stable node), based on the pre-rotation generated by the
impeller. An important part of vortices represent the free-surface ones, which could be filled with the
air bubbles or with a full air core, or the submerged vortices with the vapor bubbles originating in
the pressure drop inside the vortex cores [6,11]. On the contrary, in the discharge object close to the
siphon outlet, the vortices are driven primarily by the water jet, which comes from the siphon tube and
attaches the floor at the nodal point of attachment (the unstable node). In the water jet, there is no
swirl generated by the impeller, but there is a system of two or more secondary vortices generated in
the siphon tube bend. In some flow regimes, quite large separations of flow on the siphon inner wall
can influence all vortical structures significantly.
The objective of this work is to validate and verify the numerical tools, used for an optimal design
of the pumping stations and the discharge objects with siphons in particular. The validation is to be
performed using the physical modelling on the same case and the velocity field measurements using
the PIV measuring technique providing distributions of the velocity in the planes of measurement.
The steady operation regimes were chosen for this process, when water in the test section is not
Water 2020, 12, 3330 3 of 23
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

filled with the air bubbles. In addition, as stated above, this paper aims to broaden the limited
limited literary
literary resources
resources dealingdealing with
with the the
flow flow structures
structures in the siphon-based
in the siphon-based discharge
discharge objectsobjects and
and their
their numerical
numerical modelling.
modelling.
2.
2. Test
Test Case
Case Setup
Setup
All
All experiments
experiments have have been
been carried
carried out
out in
in the
the water
water circuit
circuit with
with aa free
free water
water level,
level, in
in the
the hydraulic
hydraulic
laboratory
laboratory of of the
the Centre
Centre of of Hydraulic
Hydraulic Research
Research(Figure
(Figure1).1). The
The test
test section
section isis 55 m
m long, with the
long, with the sluice
sluice
gate
gate and a water chute in the rear metal part. The front transparent part of the test section has the
and a water chute in the rear metal part. The front transparent part of the test section has the
dimensions (l ××hh××w)
dimensions w)2.7 2.7mm × 0.37
× 0.37 mm × 0.304
× 0.304 m (Figure
m (Figure 2a).2a).
The The
weldedwelded
siphonsiphon (Figure
(Figure 2b) starts
2b) starts from
from the flange
the flange DN125,DN125,
then thenturnsturns torectangular
to the the rectangular cross-section
cross-section 0.1220.122
m ×m × 0.103
0.103 m and m and
endsends
withwith
the
the diffuser with an opening angle of 10 ◦ in the horizontal direction and 7.4◦ in the vertical direction.
diffuser with an opening angle of 10° in the horizontal direction and 7.4° in the vertical direction. The
The length
length of theof diffusor
the diffusor is 0.31
is 0.31 m along
m along the upper
the upper wall.wall.
The The cylindrical
cylindrical tanktank
withwith2.5 m2.5inmdiameter
in diameterhas
has the capacity
the capacity ofm
of 5.9 5.9 m3 (Figure
33 (Figure 3). Two
3). Two volume volume
flow flow
ratesrates
Qv haveQv have
been been considered:
considered: 0.01380.0138 m3 /s
m33/s (with
(with the water
the water level level
0.2610.261
m abovem abovethe the floor,
floor, measured
measured in in
thethe rearpart
rear partofofthe
thetransparent
transparent section)
section) and
and
0.0172
0.0172 m
3 /s (with the water level 0.268 m above the floor), which correspond to
m33/s the mean longitudinal
to the mean longitudinal
velocity
velocityininthe thedischarge
discharge tanktank
about 0.174 0.174
about m/s andm/s 0.21 m/s0.21
and respectively. Both theseBoth
m/s respectively. regimes correspond
these regimes
to the real-life
correspond to regimes in the
the real-life already
regimes in built pumping
the already stations.
built pumping Thestations.
aim is the
Thesensitivity
aim is theanalysis of
sensitivity
influence
analysis of ofinfluence
the volume of flow rates onflow
the volume the measured
rates on theand calculated
measured andflow structures.
calculated flowThe volume flow
structures. The
rate has been
volume flow measured
rate has been withmeasured
the induction
withflowmeter
the induction(accuracy
flowmeter0.05 L/s) and the0.05
(accuracy meanL/s)water level
and the has
mean
been
watercontrolled by thecontrolled
level has been ultrasonicby level
the transmitter (accuracy
ultrasonic level 1 mm).(accuracy 1 mm).
transmitter
Figure 1.
1. Closed circuit with the test section and the open
open air
air tank.
tank.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Experiment set-up. (a) Test section;
section; (b)
(b) detail
detail of
of the welded siphon.
the welded siphon.
Water 2020, 12, 3330 4 of 23
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Detail of the transparent test sections; (b) arrangement of the particle image velocimetry
Figure 3. (a)
(a) Detail
Detail of
of the
the transparent
transparent test sections; (b) arrangement of the particle image velocimetry
(PIV) measurements with a blackout tent. Details of the water tank and water chute can be seen.
(PIV) measurements with a blackout tent. Details of the water tank and water chute can be seen.
3.
3. Experimental
Experimental Methods
Methods
3. Experimental Methods
The
The start-up
start-up regime,
regime, when
whenthe thewater
wateris filled
filledwithwithaa large amount of of
air bubbles could notnotbe
The start-up regime, when the water isisfilled with alarge
large amount
amount of airair bubbles
bubbles couldcouldnot be
measured
be measured by bymeans
means of of
PIV.
PIV.ForForthe thesteady
steadystatestateregimes
regimesof the
the siphon
siphon performance,
performance, the the PIV
measured by means of PIV. For the steady state regimes ofof the siphon performance, the PIV
PIV
measurements
measurements with
with one
one camera
camera have
have been
been realized
realized (Figure
(Figure 4). Therefore,
4). Therefore, the results
the represent
results two
represent
measurements with one camera have been realized (Figure 4). Therefore, the results represent two
components
two components of the velocity
of the vectors
velocity vectors in inthe plane ofofthethelaser
lasersheet.
sheet. The The measurement
measurement apparatus
components of the velocity vectors in thethe plane
plane of the laser sheet. The measurement apparatus
apparatus
consists
consists of
of a
a laser
laser and
and the
the CMOS
CMOS camera
camera by
by Dantec
Dantec Company.
Company. The
The laser
laser is
is the
the New
New Wave
Wave Pegasus,
Pegasus,
consists of a laser and the CMOS camera by Dantec Company. The laser is the New Wave Pegasus,
Nd:YLF,
Nd:YLF, double
double head
head pulse
pulse type
type with
with the
the light
light ofofwavelength
wavelength 527527nm, nm,the maximal
the maximal frequency
frequency is 10is
Nd:YLF, double head pulse type with the light of wavelength 527 nm, the maximal frequency is 10
kHz,
10 thethe
kHz, single shot
single energy
shot energy is is
1010 mJmJ (for
(for1 kHz)
1 kHz) and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding power
power isis10
10 WW per
per one
one head.
head.
kHz, the single shot energy is 10 mJ (for 1 kHz) and the corresponding power is 10 W per one head.
The
The camera
camera Phantom
Phantom V611V611 with
with thethe resolution
resolution of of 111280
280 × × 800 pixels
pixels is ableable to acquire
acquire double snaps
The camera Phantom V611 with the resolution of 280 × 800800 pixels is is able to to acquire double snaps
double snaps
with
with the
the frequency
frequency up
up to
to3000
3000 HzHz (the
(the full
fullresolution)
resolution) and andit uses
it usesthe internal
the internal memory
memory of 8ofGB 8 for the
GB for
with the frequency up to 3000 Hz (the full resolution) and it uses the internal memory of 8 GB for the
data storage
the data within
storage a
withinsingle experiment.
a single experiment. The data have been acquired and post-processed using the
data storage within a single experiment. The Thedatadatahavehave beenbeen acquired
acquired andand post-processed
post-processed usingusing
the
Dynamic
the DynamicStudio, Matlab
Studio, andand
Matlab Tecplot
Tecplot software
software tools
tools[13].
[13]. Measurements
Measurements ininboth
both the
the vertical
vertical and
and
Dynamic Studio, Matlab and Tecplot software tools [13]. Measurements in both the vertical and
horizontal
horizontal planes
planes have
have enabled to get aa complex
complex view view of of the
the flow
flow structures.
structures. The The vertical
vertical planes
planes have
horizontal planes have enabled
enabled to to get
get a complex view of the flow structures. The vertical planes have
have
been located in the positions z = 0 mm, +/−75 mm and +/−141 mm, where z is the distance from the
been located
been located ininthe positionsz z= =0 0mm,
thepositions mm, +/−75
+/−75mm mm and and+/−141
+/−141mm, mm, where
where z isz the distance
is the distancefrom the test
from the
test section
section symmetry
symmetry plane.
plane. The
The The horizontal
horizontal planesplanes have
havehave been
beenbeen located
located at the at the distance of 10 mm, 135
test section symmetry plane. horizontal planes located at distance
the distance of 10ofmm, 135 mm
10 mm, 135
mm andmm
and 170 170 mm
above above the section
the test test sectionfloor.floor.
mm and 170 mm above the test section floor.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a)Measurements
Figure 4. (a) Measurements in
in vertical
vertical planes. Laser
Laser sheet
sheet is
is reflecting 45◦ ; (b)
reflecting on the mirror in 45°; (b) position
position
Figure 4. (a) Measurements in vertical planes. Laser sheet is reflecting on the mirror in 45°; (b) position
of the high-speed camera during measurements in horizontal planes.
of the high-speed camera during measurements in horizontal planes.
The measurements have been done in the Segment A (in front of the siphon), Segment B (location
The measurements have been done in the Segment A (in front of the siphon), Segment B (location
of the main siphon jet) and Segment C (behind the siphon), see Figure 5. The wide-angle objective
of the main siphon jet) and Segment C (behind the siphon), see Figure 5. The wide-angle objective
Water 2020, 12, 3330 5 of 23
The measurements have been done in the Segment A (in front of the siphon), Segment B (location of
the main siphon jet) and Segment C (behind the siphon), see Figure 5. The wide-angle objective lens
enabled
lens to capture
enabled flowflow
to capture pictures withwith
pictures the maximum
the maximum dimensions
dimensionsabout 300 mm
about 300 mm× 300 mm,mm,
× 300 which fits
which
well with the distances between test section steel ribs. For the vertical planes, the 105 mm
fits well with the distances between test section steel ribs. For the vertical planes, the 105 mm objective objective has
beenbeen
has applied, the horizontal
applied, planesplanes
the horizontal have been
havevisualized with thewith
been visualized 35 mmthe objective. In every In
35 mm objective. segment,
every
the calibration has been performed in one vertical plane (z = 0 mm) and in
segment, the calibration has been performed in one vertical plane (z = 0 mm) and in one horizontalone horizontal plane
(y = 100 mm) using special optical target boards (Figure 5). Both the overall
plane (y = 100 mm) using special optical target boards (Figure 5). Both the overall view of the view of the Segments
A–C and details
Segments A–C and of flow close
details of to the close
flow siphon towalls have been
the siphon walls captured,
have been including
captured, time-averaged and
including time-
instantaneous results. The instantaneous results have been captured with
averaged and instantaneous results. The instantaneous results have been captured with thethe frequencies of 100–250 Hz;
the time-averaged results have used frequencies 10–20 Hz. In the investigated
frequencies of 100–250 Hz; the time-averaged results have used frequencies 10–20 Hz. In the flow areas, there are
quite high velocity
investigated gradients.
flow areas, thereInare thequite
localhigh
areasvelocity
with very low velocities,
gradients. In the we
localcanareas
expect an increased
with very low
level of uncertainty. Inside local areas with the velocities in the order of about 1
velocities, we can expect an increased level of uncertainty. Inside local areas with the velocities m/s, the accuracy of
in the
velocity measurements is about 1–2% of the maximum velocity.
order of about 1 m/s, the accuracy of velocity measurements is about 1–2% of the maximum velocity.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Calibration
Calibration of
of the
the camera
camera view
view in
in vertical
vertical plane,
plane, Section
Section B.
B.
4. Numerical
4. Numerical Simulations
Simulations
All calculations
All calculations in in the
the discharge
discharge object
object with
with the
the siphon
siphon have
have been
been carried
carried out
out byby means
means of of the
the
CFD software ANSYS CFX release 19.2. The free-surface flow modelling including
CFD software ANSYS CFX release 19.2. The free-surface flow modelling including the gravity effects the gravity effects is
based
is based onon
thethe
VOFVOFmethod
method evaluating
evaluating thethe
volume
volume fraction of of
fraction each
each fluid. AA
fluid. non-homogenous
non-homogenous model
model of
the multiphase flow has been applied with different velocities for the water and
of the multiphase flow has been applied with different velocities for the water and air fractions. In air fractions. In this
study
this the unstructured
study the unstructured computational
computational gridgrid
withwith
prismatic elements
prismatic elementsinside the boundary
inside the boundary layers has
layers
approximately 10 million nodes (Figure 6), which enables to preserve sufficiently lowlowvalues of y +
has approximately 10 million nodes (Figure 6), which enables to preserve sufficiently values of
calculated
y + calculatedat at
the first
the grid
first gridpoint
pointaway
awayfrom fromthethesolid
solidwalls
wallsand
andto toreach
reach aa sufficiently
sufficiently isotropic grid
isotropic grid
with acceptable
with acceptable aspect
aspect ratios
ratios close
close to the walls.
to the walls. The
The maximum
maximum distance
distance of of the
the neighboring
neighboring grid grid points
points
is about 3 mm, which enables to capture the turbulent vortices larger than
is about 3 mm, which enables to capture the turbulent vortices larger than 10 mm. It is practically 10 mm. It is practically
impossible to
impossible to optimize
optimize the the computational
computational grid grid from
from the
the point
point ofof y+ values as
y+ values as the
the wall
wall shear
shear stress
stress
changes dramatically
changes dramatically in in time
time with
with the
the changing
changing pattern
pattern of
of separation
separation and and attachment
attachment regions.
regions. In In our
our
case the values of y+ monitored in time have remained close to 1 on the majority
case the values of y+ monitored in time have remained close to 1 on the majority of solid surfaces. of solid surfaces.
As mentioned above, the transient phenomena during the start-up phase of the pumping station
as well as the experimental discharge object with the welded siphons have been studied numerically
in [4] using the SAS and DES scale resolving simulations. Though the DES simulations provided
better resolution of vortical structures, the SAS simulations showed much better robustness and
better predictions of frequencies of unsteady phenomena. That is why the fundamental calculations
in this study are based on the SAS simulations, with the time step of Δt = 0.005 s. Nevertheless, these
calculations are also compared with the shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model based unsteady
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (URANS) calculations (with the time step of Δt = 0.01
s), which provide some time-averaging (the Reynold’s one) of results, though they are fully unsteady
in their nature.
distribution at the outlet. The initial calculations employed the URANS equations with the standard
SST turbulence model and then switched to the SAS simulations. The momentum equations have
employed the high-resolution scheme while the first order scheme has been used for the turbulence
numerics. The time discretization has employed the second order backward Euler scheme.
Water 2020, 12, 3330
All the simulations are based on the constant property fluids. It means, that both the water6 of
and23
water vapor are taken as incompressible, with constant densities and constant temperatures.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Computational grid.(a)

Computational grid. (a)Surface
Surface mesh;
mesh; (b)(b) detail
detail of the
of the gridgrid resolution
resolution in vertical
in vertical z = 0 mm.
planeplane z=0
mm.
As mentioned above, the transient phenomena during the start-up phase of the pumping station
5. Results
as well as the experimental discharge object with the welded siphons have been studied numerically
in [4] using the SAS and DES scale resolving simulations. Though the DES simulations provided
In this paragraph, some selected results of the PIV measurements and the CFD simulations are
better resolution of vortical structures, the SAS simulations showed much better robustness and
presented. The complete database is collected at the Centre of Hydraulic Research as well as at the
better predictions of frequencies of unsteady phenomena. That is why the fundamental calculations
Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, the contact emails are provided above.
in this study are based on the SAS simulations, with the time step of ∆t = 0.005 s. Nevertheless,
these calculations
5.1. PIV Experiments are also compared with the shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model based
unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (URANS) calculations (with the time step of
∆t = During the experiments,
0.01 s), which provide some thetime-averaging
(two-dimensional) velocity vector
(the Reynold’s one) ofmagnitude
results, though(the symbol
they are M in
fully
corresponding
unsteady in theirfigures)
nature. has been evaluated, together with the individual velocity components,
variances and vector
The computational lines with includes
domain the singular points.
all the The general term
three-dimensional “vector
geometry of lines” is used object
the discharge in the
description of results as “streamlines” are strictly “vector lines of the instantaneous
including the siphon with its walls. No symmetry plane has been applied. To set correctly the inlet velocity fields in
3D”, whichconditions,
boundary is not the case of the time-averaged
the computational domainvelocity
has been fields in 2D. with
extended Not all data canpiping
a straight be presented
DN125
of the length 0.75 m (six diameters) in front of the flange (which corresponds to the the
because of limited space of the article. Moreover, because for both measured flow rates topology
experiment).
of the
The flow phenomena
boundary conditions is the
are same,
based with
on the theprescribed
differencevolume
just in theflow velocity
rate atmagnitude
the inlet and (as the
it will be
static
shown hereinafter), only the results for the volume flow rate of 0.0172
pressure distribution at the outlet. The initial calculations employed the URANS equations with m 3/s (with a higher relative
accuracy)
the standardare SST
considered.
turbulence Figures
model 7–9andshowthentheswitched
(two-dimensional)
to the SAS magnitude
simulations. of The
velocity and the
momentum
vector lines
equations havein the verticalthe
employed planes z = 0, 75 and
high-resolution –75 mm
scheme obtained
while from
the first orderthescheme
time-averaged
has been used results.
forThe
the
primary flow structure is a water jet, which dominates in the upper
turbulence numerics. The time discretization has employed the second order backward Euler scheme. part of the siphon outlet,
accompanied with a backflow
All the simulations are basedandon a strong vortexproperty
the constant just below the siphon
fluids. It means, outlet. The jet
that both thetears
waterdown
and
the water above the siphon outlet, with a distinct shear layer. In the
water vapor are taken as incompressible, with constant densities and constant temperatures. vertical planes z = 75 and –75
mm, a large secondary vortex can be located behind the jet, above the nodal point of attachment
5. Results
(Figures 8 and 9). The flow is weakly asymmetrical in the vertical planes z = 75 and –75 mm, but it is
rather insignificant in these figures. Figure 10 shows the flow in the vertical planes z = 0, −75 and –
In this paragraph, some selected results of the PIV measurements and the CFD simulations are
141 mm in the Segment C obtained for the time-averaged results. It can be seen that the secondary
presented. The complete database is collected at the Centre of Hydraulic Research as well as at the
vortex located behind the jet is not fully perpendicular to the test section plane of symmetry and its
Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, the contact emails are provided above.
core can be detected only in the vertical planes z = 75 and –75 mm. The asymmetry of the flow can be
visually
5.1. registered much better in the horizontal planes. In Figure 11, the flow in the horizontal plane
PIV Experiments
y = 10 is shown. The dominant structure here is the nodal point of attachment. It can be seen, that this
During the experiments, the (two-dimensional) velocity vector magnitude (the symbol M in
corresponding figures) has been evaluated, together with the individual velocity components, variances
and vector lines with the singular points. The general term “vector lines” is used in the description of
results as “streamlines” are strictly “vector lines of the instantaneous velocity fields in 3D”, which is
not the case of the time-averaged velocity fields in 2D. Not all data can be presented because of
limited space of the article. Moreover, because for both measured flow rates the topology of the
flow phenomena is the same, with the difference just in the velocity magnitude (as it will be shown
hereinafter), only the results for the volume flow rate of 0.0172 m3 /s (with a higher relative accuracy)
are considered. Figures 7–9 show the (two-dimensional) magnitude of velocity and the vector lines in
Water 2020, 12, 3330 7 of 23
the vertical planes z = 0, 75 and –75 mm obtained from the time-averaged results. The primary flow
structure is a water jet, which dominates in the upper part of the siphon outlet, accompanied with a
backflow and a strong vortex just below the siphon outlet. The jet tears down the water above the
siphon outlet, with a distinct shear layer. In the vertical planes z = 75 and –75 mm, a large secondary
vortex can be located behind the jet, above the nodal point of attachment (Figures 8 and 9). The flow is
weakly asymmetrical in the vertical planes z = 75 and –75 mm, but it is rather insignificant in these
figures. Figure 10 shows the flow in the vertical planes z = 0, −75 and –141 mm in the Segment C
obtained for the time-averaged results. It can be seen that the secondary vortex located behind the jet
is not fully perpendicular to the test section plane of symmetry and its core can be detected only in the
vertical planes z = 75 and –75 mm. The asymmetry of the flow can be visually registered much better
in the2020,
Water horizontal
12, x FORplanes. In Figure 11, the flow in the horizontal plane y = 10 is shown. The dominant
PEER REVIEW 7 of 23
structurepoint
singular here isisthe nodalabout
shifted point50 of mm
attachment.
from theIttestcan section
be seen,centerline.
that this singular
It is very point is shifted
important toabout
note,
singular
50 mm point
from theistest
shifted about
section 50 mm It
centerline. fromis the important
very test section to centerline.
note, that It isnodal
the verypoint
important
of to note,
attachment
that the nodal point of attachment is a highly unstable node. Its position is unsteady and any small
that the nodal
is a highly pointnode.
unstable of attachment
Its position is ais highly
unsteady unstable
and node.
any small Itsdeviation
position inis unsteady and any
the test section small
geometry
deviation in the test section geometry causes the asymmetry of the experimental results. It is in
deviation
causes thewithin the test section
asymmetry of the geometry
experimental causes the asymmetry of the experimental results. It is in
contrast the numerical simulations, results.which Itconsider
is in contrast
the testwith the numerical
section geometry simulations,
perfectly
contrast
which with
consider the numerical
the test section simulations,
geometry which
perfectly(e.g.,consider
symmetric the test
andforces.
withoutsection geometry
any influence perfectly
symmetric and without any influence of external Coriolis) Figures 12 and 13ofshowexternal
the
symmetric
(e.g., and forces.
Coriolis) withoutFigures
any influence
12 and of
13 external
show the(e.g.,
flow Coriolis)
in the forces. Figures
horizontal planes 12 yand
= 13 show
135 mm the
and
flow in the horizontal planes y = 135 mm and 170 mm. The flow asymmetry is decreased here a little
flow
170 in the
mm. Thehorizontal planes yis=decreased
flow asymmetry 135 mm and here170little
mm.bit, Thewhich
flow asymmetry is decreased here aoflittle
bit, which indicates, that the main source of theaasymmetry indicates,
is located nearthat the main source
the floor. the
bit, which
asymmetry indicates, that
is located near the main source
thestructures
floor. of the asymmetry is located near the floor.
The instantaneous flow in the horizontal plane y = 10 mm are shown in Figure 14. In
The instantaneous flow structures ininthe horizontal plane y y = 10 mm
= 10 areareshown in Figure 14. 14.
In
some instants, there is a complex system ofthe
The instantaneous flow structures horizontal
singular pointsplane
replacing mm
temporarily shown in Figure
the picture of one
some
In some instants,
instants,there is aiscomplex
there a complex system
system of singular points replacing temporarily the picture of one
dominant nodal point of attachment. On theof singular
other hand,points
in thereplacing temporarily
other instants, the picture
this dominant nodalof
dominant
one dominantnodal point
nodal of
point attachment.
of attachment.On theOnother
the hand,
other in
hand,the other
in the instants,
other this
instants, dominant
this nodal
dominant
point can be clearly recognized and apparently it is not necessarily shifted from the test section
point
nodal canpointbe clearly recognized and andapparently it isitnot necessarily shifted
shiftedfrom fromthethetest
test section
centerline allcan
thebe clearly
time. recognized apparently is not necessarily section
centerline all the
centerline all the time.time.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Vertical plane z = 0 mm. (a) Velocity magnitude; (b) vector lines.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Vertical plane zz == 00 mm.
Vertical plane mm. (a)
(a)Velocity
Velocity magnitude;
magnitude; (b)
(b) vector
vector lines.
lines.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Vertical plane z =
= 75
75 mm.
mm. (a)
(a) Velocity
Velocity magnitude; (b) vector lines.
(a) (b)
Water 2020, 12, 3330 8 of 23
(a) (b)
Figure9.
Figure 9. Vertical planezz== −75
Verticalplane −75 mm. (a)
(a) Velocity
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Vertical
Vertical planes
planes in
in Sector
Sector C.
C. (a)
(a) Velocity
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Horizontal plane y = 10 mm. (a) Velocity magnitude; (b) vector lines.
(b)
Water 2020, 12, 3330 9 of 23
Figure 10. Vertical planes in Sector C. (a) Velocity magnitude; (b) vector lines.
(a) (b)
Water
Water2020,
2020,12,
12,xxFOR
FORPEER
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REVIEW 99 of
of 23
23
Horizontal plane y ==10
Figure 11. Horizontal 10mm.
mm. (a)
(a)Velocity
Velocity magnitude;
magnitude; (b)
(b) vector
vector lines.
lines.
(a) (b)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 12. Horizontal plane y = 135 mm. (a) Velocity magnitude; (b) vector lines.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. Horizontal plane yy ==135
Horizontal plane 135 mm.
mm. (a)
(a)Velocity
(a) Velocitymagnitude;
Velocity magnitude; (b)
(b) vector
vector lines.
lines.
(a) (b)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Horizontal plane yy ==170
Horizontalplane 170mm.
mm.(a)(a)Velocity
Velocitymagnitude;
magnitude;(b)
(b)vector
vectorlines.
lines.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Horizontal
Horizontal plane
plane yy == 170
170 mm.
mm. (a)
(a) Velocity
Velocity magnitude;
magnitude; (b)
(b) vector
vector lines.
lines.
(a) (b)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 14. Instantaneous flow in horizontal plane y = 10 mm. (a) and (b); two different time instants.
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Instantaneous
Instantaneous flow
flow in
in horizontal plane yy ==
horizontal plane = 10
10mm.
10 mm.(a)
mm. (a)and
(a) and(b);
and (b);two
(b); twodifferent
two differenttime
different timeinstants.
time instants.
instants.
Vector lines and vorticity.
Vector
Vector
Vector lines
lines and
and vorticity.
vorticity.
vorticity.
Figure 15 shows the flow in the shear layer behind the upper siphon wall in the vertical plane z
Figure
Figure 15 15 shows
shows the
the flow
flow in
in the
the shear
shear layer
layer behind
behind thethe upper
upper siphon
siphon wall
wall in
in the
the vertical
vertical plane
plane zz
= 0 mm. Pictures and the coordinate system are in this figure rotated by 37° against the horizon.
== 00 mm.
mm. Pictures
Pictures and
and the
the coordinate
coordinate system
system are
are in
in this
this figure
figure rotated
rotated byby 37°
37° against
against the
the horizon.
horizon.
Unsteady vortices behind the wall edge can be found in the shear layer.
Unsteady
Unsteady vortices
vortices behind
behind the
the wall
wall edge
edge can
can be
be found
found inin the
the shear
shear layer.
layer.
As it has been already mentioned, not all data are presented, because for both measured flow
As
As itit has
has been
been already
already mentioned,
mentioned, not
not all
all data
data are
are presented,
presented, because
because for
for both
both measured
measured flow
flow
rates (0.0138 m333/s and 0.0172 m333/s) the topology of the flow phenomena is the same, including the
Water 2020, 12, 3330 10 of 23
Figure 15 shows the flow in the shear layer behind the upper siphon wall in the vertical plane
z = 0 mm. Pictures and the coordinate system are in this figure rotated by 37◦ against the horizon.
Unsteady vortices behind the wall edge can be found in the shear layer.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Flow
Flow in
in the
the shear
shear layer behind the upper siphon wall in vertical plane z =
layer behind = 0 mm. Pictures
Pictures
and
and the
thecoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemare
arerotated
rotatedbyby
37° ◦
37against thethe
against horizon. (a) Time-averaged
horizon. velocity
(a) Time-averaged field;field;
velocity (b)
instantaneous vortices
(b) instantaneous behind
vortices the the
behind wallwall
edge.
edge.
As it has been already mentioned, not all data are presented, because for both measured flow
(a) m3 /s) the topology of the flow phenomena(b)
rates (0.0138 m3 /s and 0.0172 is the same, including the
sameFigure
asymmetries
15. Flow in
in the flow fields.
the shear It is partially
layer behind the upperdemonstrated
siphon wall in in Figure
vertical 16, which
plane shows
z = 0 mm. the flow
Pictures
structures
and themeasured
coordinate at the volume
system flow
are rotated rateagainst
by 37° of 0.0138 m3 /s and
the horizon. can be compared
(a) Time-averaged to the
velocity results
field; (b) in
Figures 7 and 8. For
instantaneous clarity,
vortices Figure
behind the16 is the
wall only one with the volume flow rate of 0.0138 m /s.
edge. 3
(a) (b)
Figure 16. Vector lines. (a) Vertical plane z = 0 mm.; (b) vertical plane z = 75 mm. This is the only
picture with the volume flow rate Qv = 0.0138 m3/s.
5.2. CFD Simulations

Similar to the experiments, (a) the (two-dimensional) velocity vector magnitude (b) has been evaluated
from velocity components, together with the vector lines and singular points. Moreover, some criteria
Figure
Figure 16. Vector
Vector lines. (a) Vertical plane z =
(a) Vertical mm.; (b) vertical plane z =
= 00 mm.; = 75
75 mm. ThisThis is is the
the only
only
which enable to visualize the vortical structures (like the vorticity, velocity real eigenvalue or Q
picture with the volume flow rate Qv = = 0.0138
0.0138 m 3 /s.
m /s.
3
invariant [14,15]) are used for unsteady results. As mentioned for the measurements, only the results
for
5.2.the
5.2. CFD
CFD flow rate of 0.0172 m3/s are presented.
Simulations
Simulations
Figures 17–21 show the (two-dimensional) magnitude of velocity and the vector lines in the
Similar to
Similar to the experiments,
experiments, the (two-dimensional)
(two-dimensional) velocity velocity vector
vector magnitude has has been
been evaluated
evaluated
vertical planes zthe = 0 mm, ±75 mmthe and ±141 mm obtained with the SAS magnitude
turbulence model for the time-
from velocity
from velocity components,
components, together with the vector lines and singular points. Moreover, some criteria
averaged results. To enabletogether
a betterwith the vectorwith
comparison linesthe
and singular points.
experimental data, Moreover,
each picture someincludes
criteria
which enable
which enable to to visualize
visualize the the vortical
vortical structures
structures (like(like the
the vorticity,
vorticity, velocity
velocity real
real eigenvalue
eigenvalue or or Q Q
indicative lines with the x-coordinates x = 151 mm and 806 mm, which frame the full range of
invariant [14,15])
invariant [14,15]) are used
are used for unsteady
for unsteady results.
results. As mentioned
As mentioned for the
for the measurements, only the results
experiment. Though the geometry of the computational domain is measurements,
perfectly symmetric, only the theresults
time-
for the
for the flow
flow rate
rate of
of 0.0172
0.0172 m m33/s /s are
are presented.
presented.
averaged results show an asymmetry, especially in the vertical planes z = ±75 mm. There could be
Figures 17–21
Figures 17–21 show the
showthem the (two-dimensional)
(two-dimensional) magnitude
magnitude of velocity and the
of velocity and vector lines inlines
theorvector the vertical
in size
the
several reasons, among the asymmetric unstructured computational grid not sufficient
planes
vertical z = 0
planes mm, z =±75
0 mm
mm, and
±75 mm±141 mm
and obtained
±141 mm with
obtained the SAS
with turbulence
the SAS model
turbulence for the
model time-averaged
for the time-
of data files can play the most important role. Nevertheless, a similar asymmetry (including the
results. Toresults.
averaged enable aTo better
enablecomparison
a better with the experimental
comparison data, each picturedata,includes indicative lines
topology of the asymmetric flow structures) can bewith found theinexperimental
the time-averaged each
resultspicture
obtained includes
with
with the
indicative x-coordinates
lines withmodel x = 151 mm
the x-coordinates and 806 mm, which frame the full range of experiment. Though the
the SST turbulence as could be xseen = 151in mmFigures and22–26.
806 mm, which frame
Concerning the full range
the horizontal planes of
geometry
experiment. of the
Thoughcomputational
the geometry domain
of theis perfectly
computational symmetric,
domain the
is time-averaged
perfectly results
symmetric, show
the time-an
(Figures 27–32), we can see the asymmetry of the time-averaged results especially in the plane y = 135
averaged
mm behind results show an
the primary jet.asymmetry,
Still, the jet especially in the vertical
itself is surprisingly planes z = ±75 mm. There could be
symmetric.
severalIt isreasons,
difficultamong themand
to quantify the compare
asymmetric the unstructured
asymmetry ofcomputational
the presented gridresultsor obtained
not sufficientfromsizethe
of data files can play the most important role. Nevertheless, a
experiments and from the numerical simulations. The asymmetry is an imperfection of the specific similar asymmetry (including the
topology of theapparatus
experimental asymmetric andflow thestructures)
mathematical can be foundFor
model. in the time-averaged
each, resultsreason
the imperfection obtained canwithbe
the SST turbulence model as could be seen in Figures 22–26. Concerning
different. However, it must be considered, that the investigated phenomena are highly turbulent and the horizontal planes
Water2020,
Water
Water 2020,12,
2020, 12,xxxFOR
12, FORPEER
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11
11 of 23
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23
baseddischarge
based
based dischargeobject
discharge objectbehaves
object behaveslike
behaves likethe
like theHopf
the Hopfbifurcation,
Hopf bifurcation,so,
bifurcation, so,any
so, anyasymmetry
any asymmetryperturbation
asymmetry perturbationbreaks
perturbation breaksthe
breaks the
the
global
global solution
solution symmetry.
symmetry. From
From the
the point
point of
of view
view of
of the
the visualized
visualized
global solution symmetry. From the point of view of the visualized results, the numerical simulations results,
results, the
the numerical
numerical simulations
simulations
show2020,
show
Water
show aaahigher
higher
12, 3330
higher degreeof
degree
degree ofasymmetry.
of asymmetry.
asymmetry. 11 of 23
Large turbulent
Large
Large turbulent eddies
turbulent eddies calculated
eddies calculated in
calculated in the
in the vertical
the vertical plane
vertical plane zzz === 000 with
plane with the
with the SAS
the SAS scale
SAS scale resolving
scale resolving
resolving
simulations
simulations
simulations can
can be
be seen
seen in
in Figures
Figures 33
33 and
and 34.
34. The
The highly
highly unsteady
unsteady vortices
vortices can
can be
be found
found especially
especially in
in
asymmetry, can be seenininthe
especially Figures
vertical 33planes
and 34.z The= ±75highly
mm. unsteady
There could vortices can be
be several found especially
reasons, among them in
the
the
the shear
shear layer layer behind
layer behind the
the upper
the upper siphon
siphon
siphon wall.wall. They
They are
Theyorare shedding
shedding with with the dominant
the dominant frequency
frequency about
about
the shear
asymmetric behind
unstructured uppercomputational wall.grid are
notshedding
sufficientwith sizethe dominant
of data files canfrequency
play theabout
most
5.2–6.3
5.2–6.3
5.2–6.3 Hz
Hz
Hz (Figure
(Figure
(Figure 35).
35).
35). Figure
Figure
Figure 36
36
36 shows
shows
shows (similar
(similar
(similar to
to
to Figure
Figure
Figure 15)
15)
15) in
in
in detail
detail
detail the
the
the flow
flow
flow in
in
in the
the
the shear
shear
shear layer
layer
layer
important role. Nevertheless, a similar asymmetry (including the topology of the asymmetric flow
behind
behind
behind the
the
the can upper
upper
upper siphon
siphon
siphoninwallwall
wall inin
in thethe vertical
the vertical plane
plane
verticalresults z = 0 mm,
zz == 00 mm,
plane obtained mm, calculated
calculated
calculated with
with
with the the
the SAS SAS
SAS turbulence
turbulence
turbulence
structures) be found the time-averaged with the SST turbulence model as could
model.
model.
model. In
In this
this figure,
figure, pictures
pictures and
and the
the coordinate
coordinate system
system are
are rotated
rotated by
by 37°
37° against
against the
the horizon.
horizon. The
The
be seenIn in this figure,
Figures pictures
22–26. and thethe
Concerning coordinate
horizontal system
planesare rotated27–32),
(Figures by 37°we against
can see thethehorizon.
asymmetryThe
smooth
smooth
smooth time-averaged
time-averaged
time-averagedresults shear
shear layer
layer
shear layer can
can be
be seen
seen
can beinseen on
on the
the left,
left, unsteady
unsteady vortices
vortices behind
behind the
the wall
wall edge
edge can
can
of the time-averaged especially the on theyleft,
plane = 135 unsteady
mm behind vorticesthebehind
primary thejet.
wall edge
Still, thecanjet
be
be
be found
found
found in
in
in thethe shear
the shear
shear layer
layer
layer on on
on the the right-hand
the right-hand
right-hand side. side. Similar
side. Similar
Similar (but (but
(but muchmuch
much less less pronounced
less pronounced
pronounced and and less
and less
less
itself is surprisingly symmetric.
regular)vortices
regular)
regular) vorticescan
vortices canbe
can befound
be foundin
found inthe
in theCFD
the CFDanalysis
CFD analysisbased
analysis basedon
based onthe
on theSST
the SSTmodel
SST model(Figure
model (Figure37).
(Figure 37).
37).
Figure17.
Figure
Figure
Figure 17.Time
17.
17. Time
Time averaged
Timeaveraged
averaged scale-adaptivesimulation
averagedscale-adaptive
scale-adaptive
scale-adaptive simulation(SAS).
simulation
simulation (SAS).Vertical
(SAS).
(SAS). Verticalplane
Vertical
Vertical planezzz====0000mm.
plane mm.
mm. Vector
mm.Vector
Vector lines
Vectorlines
lines (top),
lines(top),
(top),
(top),
2D
2D
2D velocity
2D velocity magnitude
velocity magnitude
velocity (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
Figure18.
Figure
Figure
Figure 18.Time
18. Timeaveraged
Time
Time averagedSAS
averaged
averaged SASsimulation.
SAS
SAS simulation.Vertical
simulation.
simulation. Vertical
Vertical planezzzz===
Vertical plane
plane
plane =75
75
75 mm.Vector
75mm.
mm.
mm. Vector
Vector lines(top),
Vectorlines
lines
lines (top),2D
(top),
(top), 2Dvelocity
2D
2D velocity
velocity
velocity
magnitude(bottom).
magnitude
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
(bottom).
Figure19.
Figure
Figure 19.Time
Timeaveraged
averagedSAS
SASsimulation.
simulation.Vertical
Verticalplane
planezz==−75−75mm.
mm.Vector
Vectorlines
lines(top),
(top),2D
2Dvelocity
velocity
Figure 19.
19. Time
Time averaged
averaged SAS
SAS simulation.
Vertical plane
plane zz == −75
−75mm.
mm.Vector
Vectorlines
lines(top),
(top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
Water 2020, 12, 3330 12 of 23
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Figure 20.
Figure 20. Time
Time averaged
Time averaged SAS
SAS simulation.
simulation. Vertical plane zz ==
plane
Vertical plane = 141
141 mm.
mm.
141 mm. Vector
Vector
mm. Vector lines
lines
Vector lines (top),
(top),
lines (top), 2D velocity
2D
(top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
Figure 20. Time averaged SAS simulation. Vertical z = 141 velocity
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Time
Time averaged SAS
averaged SAS simulation.
Vertical plane
plane zzz =
plane = −141
−141 mm.
mm. Vector lines (top), 2D velocity
Figure
Figure 21.
21. Time averaged
Time averaged SAS
SAS simulation.
Vertical plane z == −141
−141 mm. Vector
mm.Vector lines
Vectorlines (top),
lines(top), 2D
(top),2D velocity
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure 22.
Figure 22. Time
Time averaged
averaged shear
shear stress
stress transport
transport (SST)
(SST) simulation.
Vertical plane
plane zz == 00 mm.
mm. Vector
Vector lines
lines
Figure
Figure 22.
22. Time
Timeaveraged
averaged shear
shear stress
stress transport
transport (SST) simulation. Vertical
Vertical plane z== 00mm.mm.Vector
Vector lines
lines
(top), 2D
(top), 2D velocity
velocity magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
(top),
(top), 2D velocity magnitude (bottom).
Figure 23.
Figure 23. Time
Time averaged
averaged SST
SST simulation.
Vertical plane
plane zz == 75
75 mm.
mm. Vector
Vector lines
lines (top),
(top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
Figure
Figure 23.
23. Time
Time averaged
averaged SST
SST simulation.
simulation. Vertical plane zz == 75
Vertical plane 75 mm.
mm. Vector
Vector lines
lines (top),
(top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
Water 2020, 12, 3330 13 of 23
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23
Figure
Figure 24.
Figure 24. Time
24. Time averaged
Time averaged SST
averaged SST simulation.
SST simulation. Vertical
simulation. Vertical plane
Vertical plane zzz ==
plane = −75
−75mm.
−75 mm.Vector
mm. Vectorlines
Vector lines(top),
lines (top), 2D
(top), 2D velocity
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure
Figure 25.
25. Time
Time averaged
averaged SST
SST simulation.
Vertical plane = 141
141mm.
141 mm. Vector
mm. Vector lines
Vector lines (top),
(top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure
Figure 26.
26. Time
Time averaged
averaged SST
SST simulation.
Vertical plane = −141
−141mm.
−141 mm.Vector
mm. Vectorlines
Vector lines(top),
lines (top), 2D
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
Figure
Figure 27.
27. Time
Timeaveraged
Time averaged SAS
SAS simulation.
simulation. Horizontal
Horizontal plane
plane yy ==
= 10
10mm.
10 mm.Vector
mm. Vectorlines
Vector lines(top),
lines (top),2D
(top), 2Dvelocity
2D velocity
velocity
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Water 2020, 12, 3330 14 of 23
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Figure
Figure 28.
Figure28. Time
28.Time averaged
Timeaveraged SAS
averagedSAS simulation.
SASsimulation. Horizontal
simulation. Horizontal plane
plane yyy===135
Horizontalplane 135 mm.
135mm. Vector
mm.Vector lines
Vectorlines (top),
lines(top), 2D
(top),2D velocity
2Dvelocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure
Figure 29.
Figure29. Time
29.Time averaged
Timeaveraged SAS
averagedSAS simulation.
SASsimulation. Horizontal
plane yy
Horizontalplane y===170
170 mm.
170mm. Vector
mm.Vector lines
Vectorlines (top),
lines(top), 2D
(top),2D velocity
2Dvelocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
Figure
Figure 30.
Figure30. Time
30.Time averaged
Timeaveraged SST
averagedSST simulation.
SSTsimulation. Horizontal
plane yyy ===10
Horizontalplane 10 mm.
10mm. Vector
mm.Vector lines
Vectorlines (top),
lines(top), 2D
(top),2D velocity
2Dvelocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure
Figure 31.
Figure31. Time
31.Time averaged
Timeaveraged SST
averagedSST simulation.
SSTsimulation. Horizontal
plane yyy===135
Horizontal plane 135 mm.
135mm. Vector
mm.Vector lines
Vectorlines (top),
lines(top), 2D
(top),2D velocity
2Dvelocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Water 2020, 12, 3330 15 of 23
Figure
Figure32.
32.Time
Timeaveraged
averagedSST
SSTsimulation.
simulation. Horizontal plane yy==170
Horizontal plane 170mm.
mm.Vector
Vectorlines
lines(top),
(top),2D
2Dvelocity
velocity
magnitude
magnitude (bottom).
(bottom).
It is difficult to quantify and compare the asymmetry of the presented results obtained from the
experiments and from the numerical simulations. The asymmetry is an imperfection of the specific
experimental apparatus and the mathematical model. For each, the imperfection reason can be different.
However, it must be considered, that the investigated phenomena are highly turbulent and unsteady in
their2020,
Water nature.
12, xBoth in theREVIEW
FOR PEER experiment and numerical simulations, the flow in the siphon-based discharge 15 of 23
object behaves like the Hopf bifurcation, so, any asymmetry perturbation breaks the global solution
symmetry. From the point of view of the visualized results, the numerical simulations show a higher
degree of asymmetry.
Large turbulent eddies calculated in the vertical plane z = 0 with the SAS scale resolving simulations
can be seen33.
Figure in SAS
Figures 33 andTime
simulation. 34. The highly
instant unsteady
t0 + 2.92 vortices
s. Vertical planecan
z = be found
0 mm. especially
Vector in the
lines (top), 2Dshear
layervelocity
behindmagnitude
the upper(bottom).
siphon wall. They are shedding with the dominant frequency about 5.2–6.3 Hz
(Figure 35). Figure 36 shows (similar to Figure 15) in detail the flow in the shear layer behind the upper
siphon wall in the vertical plane z = 0 mm, calculated with the SAS turbulence model. In this figure,
pictures and the coordinate system are rotated by 37◦ against the horizon. The smooth time-averaged
shear layer can be seen on the left, unsteady vortices behind the wall edge can be found in the shear
layerFigure
on the32.right-hand
Time averagedside.
SSTSimilar (butHorizontal
simulation. much less pronounced
plane y = 170 mm.and lesslines
Vector regular) vortices
(top), 2D can be
velocity
found in the CFD analysis
magnitude (bottom). based on the SST model (Figure 37).
Figure 34. SAS simulation. Time instant t0 + 2.92 s. Vertical plane z = 0 mm. Vorticity (top), velocity
real eigenvalue (middle) and Q invariant (bottom).
Figure
Figure 33.
33. SAS
SASsimulation.
simulation.Time
Timeinstant
instantt0 t+0 2.92 s. Vertical
+ 2.92 plane
s. Vertical z = z0 =mm.
plane Vector
0 mm. lineslines
Vector (top), 2D
(top),
velocity magnitude (bottom).
2D velocity magnitude (bottom).
Figure
Water 2020, 12, 33.
3330SAS simulation. Time instant t0 + 2.92 s. Vertical plane z = 0 mm. Vector lines (top), 2D
16 of 23
Figure34. 34.SAS
SASsimulation.
simulation.Time
Timeinstant
instant
t0 t+0 +2.92
2.92
s. s. Vertical
Vertical plane
plane z =z0 =mm.
0 mm. Vorticity
Vorticity (top),
(top), velocity
velocity real
Water Figure
Water 2020, 12,
2020, 12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 16 of
16 of 23
23
real eigenvalue
eigenvalue (middle)
(middle) and Qand Q invariant
invariant (bottom).
(bottom).
tt00 ++ 3.28
3.28 ss tt00 ++ 3.32
3.32 ss tt00 ++ 3.36
3.36 ss
tt00 ++ 3.40
3.40 ss tt00 ++ 3.44
3.44 ss tt00 ++ 3.48
3.48 ss
Figure 35.
Figure 35. SAS
35. SAS simulation.
SASsimulation. Unsteady
Unsteady
simulation. vortices
vortices
Unsteady behind
behind
vortices the siphon
the
behind siphon edge.edge.
edge.
the siphon Vertical
Vertical plane plane
plane
Vertical zz == 00 mm.
mm. Vector
z = Vector
0 mm.
lines.
lines.
Vector lines.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 36.
Figure SAS Simulation.
36. SAS Simulation. Flow
Simulation. in the
Flow in
in the shear
the shearlayer
shear layerbehind
layer behindthe
behind theupper
the uppersiphon
upper siphonwall
siphon wallinin
wall invertical
vertical
plane
vertical z=
plane
plane zz =0=
0 mm.
mm.Pictures
Picturesandandthe
thecoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemarearerotated
rotatedby
by37 ◦
37°against
againstthe
thehorizon.
horizon. (a)
0mm. Pictures and the coordinate system are rotated by 37° against the horizon. (a) Time-averaged
Time-averaged
velocity field;
field; (b)
(b) unsteady
unsteady vortices
vortices behind
behind the
the wall
wall
velocity field; (b) unsteady vortices behind the wall edge.edge.
edge.
(a) (b)
Figure 36. SAS Simulation. Flow in the shear layer behind the upper siphon wall in vertical plane z =
Water 02020,
mm.12,Pictures
3330 and the coordinate system are rotated by 37° against the horizon. (a) Time-averaged
17 of 23
velocity field; (b) unsteady vortices behind the wall edge.
Figure
Figure 37.
37. SST
SSTsimulation.
simulation.Time
Timeinstant
instantt0 t+0 5.96 s. Vertical
+ 5.96 plane
s. Vertical z = z0 =mm.
plane Vector
0 mm. lineslines
Vector (top), 2D
(top),
2D velocity magnitude (bottom).
The
The unsteady
unsteady flowflow close
close to the floor calculated with the SAS turbulence
turbulence model
model can
can be
be seen in
Figures
Figures 38 and 39. Similarly
Similarly to the experiments, the dominant structure here—the nodal point
to the experiments, the dominant structure here—the nodal point of
attachment—can
attachment—can be be replaced
replaced byby a structure of connected singular points. Typically,Typically, one
one to
to three
nodal points can be observed.
observed. This
This structure
structure isis periodically
periodically moving
moving in in the
the stream-wise
stream-wise and
and span-wise
span-wise
directions with the frequencies,
frequencies, which will be be discussed
discussed later.
later. Concerning
Concerning thethe SST
SST based
basedsimulations,
simulations,
they give
giveoneonenodal
nodal point,
point, moving
moving also also
in theinstream-wise
the stream-wise and span-wise
and span-wise directions
directions with the
with the dominant
dominant
frequency frequency
of 2.5 Hz of 2.5
(FiguresHz (Figures
40 and 41). 40 and 41).
Water 2020,
Water 2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 17 of
17 of 23
23
Figure 38. SAS

SAS simulation.
simulation.Time instantt00t+0 +
Timeinstant 2.92 s. Horizontal
2.92 plane
s. Horizontal y =y10= mm.
plane Vector
10 mm. lineslines
Vector (top), 2D
(top),
velocity magnitude
2D velocity (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
Figure 39.
39. SAS
SASsimulation. Time
simulation. instant
Time instant 0 + 2.92
t00 +t2.92 s. Horizontal plane plane
s. Horizontal y = 10
y = 10 mm. Vorticity (top), velocity
mm. Vorticity (top),
real eigenvalue
velocity (middle)(middle)
real eigenvalue and Q invariant (bottom).
and Q invariant (bottom).
Figure 39. SAS simulation. Time instant t0 + 2.92 s. Horizontal plane y = 10 mm. Vorticity (top), velocity
WaterFigure
2020, 12,39. SAS simulation. Time instant t0 + 2.92 s. Horizontal plane y = 10 mm. Vorticity (top), velocity18 of 23
3330
Figure 40. SST simulation. Time instant t0 + 5.96 s. Horizontal plane y = 10 mm. Vector lines (top), 2D
Figure
Figure 40. SST
velocity40. SSTsimulation.
simulation.
magnitude
Time
Timeinstant
(bottom). + 5.96
instantt0t+0 5.96 s. Horizontal plane
s. Horizontal y = y10=mm.
plane Vector
10 mm. lineslines
Vector (top), 2D
(top),
velocity magnitude
2D velocity (bottom).
magnitude (bottom).
t0 + 5.72 s t0 + 5.80 s t0 + 5.88 s

t0 + 5.72 s t0 + 5.80 s t0 + 5.88 s
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

t0 + 5.96 s t0 + 6.04 s t0 + 6.12 s 18 of 23
t0 + 5.96 s t0 + 6.04 s t0 + 6.12 s
Figure
Figure 41. SST simulation.
41. SST simulation. Unsteady
Unsteady vortices
vortices behind
behind the
the siphon
siphon edge.
edge. Horizontal plane yy ==10
Horizontal plane 10mm.
mm.
Therefore, so as to analyze frequencies linked to the unsteady phenomena in the computational

Therefore, so as to analyze frequencies linked to the unsteady phenomena in the computational
domain, a system of ten control points has been used, in each all three velocity components being
domain, a system of ten control points has been used, in each all three velocity components being
monitored. In this study, two most important points are presented. The point HP4 (with the coordinates
monitored. In this study, two most important points are presented. The point HP4 (with the
x = 386 mm, y = 10 mm, z = 0 mm) is located in the symmetry line of the horizontal plane y = 10 mm,
coordinates x = 386 mm, y = 10 mm, z = 0 mm) is located in the symmetry line of the horizontal plane
in the position where the nodal point of attachment moves (Figure 42). The point VP5 is located in the
y = 10 mm, in the position where the nodal point of attachment moves (Figure 42). The point VP5 is
symmetry plane z = 0 mm, in the position, where vortices are shedding in the shear layer behind the
located in the symmetry plane z = 0 mm, in the position, where vortices are shedding in the shear
upper siphon wall. Its coordinates are x = 465 mm, y = 164 mm, z = 0 mm. The numerical simulations
layer behind the upper siphon wall. Its coordinates are x = 465 mm, y = 164 mm, z = 0 mm. The
based on the SST turbulence model show a distinct dominant frequency of 2.5 Hz in all control points.
numerical simulations based on the SST turbulence model show a distinct dominant frequency of 2.5
In addition, the frequencies 1.25 and 5 Hz are important, especially in the point VP5 (Figure 43).
Hz in all control points. In addition, the frequencies 1.25 and 5 Hz are important, especially in the
Graphs of velocity components during 1.6 s can be seen in Figure 44. The frequency analysis of the
point VP5 (Figure 43). Graphs of velocity components during 1.6 s can be seen in Figure 44. The
numerical simulations based on the SAS scale resolving simulations is much more “noisy”. In the
frequency analysis of the numerical simulations based on the SAS scale resolving simulations is much
point HP4, the dominant frequency is about 2.8–3 Hz, which is close to the SST results. However,
more “noisy”. In the point HP4, the dominant frequency is about 2.8–3 Hz, which is close to the SST
in the point VP5, the dominant frequency is somewhere between 5 and 6.3 Hz (Figure 45), which is
results. However, in the point VP5, the dominant frequency is somewhere between 5 and 6.3 Hz
approximately
(Figure a double
45), which frequency of the
is approximately SST prediction.
a double frequencyNevertheless, this frequency
of the SST prediction. obtained from
Nevertheless, this
the Fast Fourier Transform (hereinafter FFT) analysis of velocity components corresponds
frequency obtained from the Fast Fourier Transform (hereinafter FFT) analysis of velocity well with
the visualizations
components in Figure
corresponds 35.with the visualizations in Figure 35.
well
Figure
Figure 42.
42. Control
Control points
points for
for FFT
FFT analysis
analysis of
of velocity
velocity components.
components. Point
PointHP4
HP4representing
representing horizontal
horizontal
plane
plane yy ==10
10mm,
mm, point
point VP5
VP5 representing
representing vertical
vertical plane
plane zz ==00mm.
mm.
Water Figure
2020, 12,42.
3330 19 of 23
Control points for FFT analysis of velocity components. Point HP4 representing horizontal
plane y = 10 mm, point VP5 representing vertical plane z = 0 mm.
FFT analysis
Figure 43. FFT
Figure analysis of
of velocity
velocity components
components in
in horizontal plane yy == 10
horizontal plane 10 mm,
mm, point
point HP4
HP4 (top)
(top) and
and
Water 2020,
2020,12,
Watervertical xxFOR
12,plane == 00 mm,
FORzPEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
mm, point VP5
point VP5 (bottom).
(bottom). CFD
CFDsimulation,
simulation,SST
SSTmodel.
model. 19
19 of
of 23
23
Figure 44. Velocity

Figure44. Velocitycomponent
componentin
component invertical planezz=
verticalplane == 00 mm,
mm, point
point VP5
VP5during
during1.6
1.6s.s. CFD
CFD simulation,
simulation,
SST
SSTmodel.
model.
Figure 45.FFT
Figure45. FFTanalysis
FFT analysisof
analysis ofvelocity
velocitycomponents
velocity componentsin
invertical planezz=
verticalplane ==00 mm,
mm,point
mm, pointVP5.
point VP5.CFD
VP5. CFD simulation,
simulation,
simulation,
SASmodel.
SAS model.
6.
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
Discussion
The
The goal
Thegoal
goalofofthe
of thestudy
the studyis
study isisto
totoperform
perform
perform a validation
aavalidation
validation of of
thethe
ofthe mathematical
mathematical
mathematical model
model
model andand
and to to study
tostudy
study the the
theflow
flow
flow topology
topology
topology and and
and dynamicsdynamics
dynamics in in detail.in detail.
detail. The The
The laboratory laboratory
laboratory simplified simplified
simplified model
model of model
of the of
the real the real
real situation situation
situation was
was built was
built up.
up.
The
The reason
reason of
of using
using thethe simplified
simplified laboratory
laboratory model
model is is that
that the
the application
application of of the
the advanced
advanced
experimental
experimental techniques
techniques basedbased on onthe
the optical
optical principle
principle is
is not
not possible
possible ininthe
the real
real situation.
situation. InIn reality,
reality,
the
the geometry
geometry of of the
the discharge
discharge object object can
can be be more
more complicated
complicated [4],[4], the
the size
size is
is bigger
bigger and
and the
the vessel
vessel
walls
walls are
are not
not suitable
suitable forfor the the optical
optical measurements
measurements (they (they are
are typically
typically mademade of of concrete).
concrete).
Nevertheless
Neverthelessthetheflow
flowphenomena
phenomenainvestigated
investigatedin inthe
thestudy
studydepict
depictthe
thecomplex
complexflow flowbehavior
behaviorenough
enough
Water 2020, 12, 3330 20 of 23
built up. The reason of using the simplified laboratory model is that the application of the advanced
experimental techniques based on the optical principle is not possible in the real situation. In reality,
the geometry of the discharge object can be more complicated [4], the size is bigger and the vessel
walls are not suitable for the optical measurements (they are typically made of concrete). Nevertheless
the flow phenomena investigated in the study depict the complex flow behavior enough to validate
reliably the CFD tools used by authors.
The primary flow structure is the water jet, behind the siphon outlet, accompanied with the
backflow and the strong vortex just below the siphon outlet. The nodal point of attachment (or a
structure of connected unstable singular points) is unsteady and moves with the dominant frequency
of several Hz. The dynamic and erosive effects of this structure should be considered during the design
of the discharge object.
Comparisons of the SAS and SST simulations show a good agreement of the time-averaged
flow fields, which also agree well with the visualizations by means of PIV. The SAS scale resolving
simulations give more detailed view of all vortical structures, but the computational demands are
much higher. Concerning the frequency analysis, predictions of the dominant frequency (related to the
nodal point of attachment) from both numerical models differ about 10%, but the frequency chart from
the SAS scale resolving simulations is much more “noisy” suggesting the higher frequencies resolved
by this method.
The methodology used in this study can be generally very effective to design and optimize the
pump or turbine systems. When validated by the experimental data, the CFD tools enable to examine a
wide range of variants and to choose the best one. CFD also provides very effective tools for the detailed
analysis of the flow phenomena, their interaction and dynamics. Figure 46 shows the 3D view of the
time-averaged and unsteady water jets behind the siphon outlet visualized for the SAS simulations.
Figure 47 shows the (two-dimensional) magnitude of velocity and the vector lines in the inclined plane
simulations. Figure 47 shows the (two-dimensional) magnitude of velocity and the vector lines in the
behind the siphon outlet, which follows the main part of the jet (as indicated in Figure 46). Two vortical
inclined plane behind the siphon outlet, which follows the main part of the jet (as indicated in Figure
structures close to the side walls are driven by the jet side shear layers. The shear layers which are the
46). Two vortical structures close to the side walls are driven by the jet side shear layers. The shear
sources of two dominant vortices above and below the water jet are visualized in Figure 48 by means
layers which are the sources of two dominant vortices above and below the water jet are visualized
of the iso-surfaces with the opposite value of vorticity. Vortex filaments of these dominant vortices are
in Figure 48 by means of the iso-surfaces with the opposite value of vorticity. Vortex filaments of
shown in Figure 49a. It can be seen that these filaments are not straight and do not extend up to the
these dominant vortices are shown in Figure 49a. It can be seen that these filaments are not straight
side walls, as both the dominant vortices dissipate in the side boundary layers. The 3D view of the
and do not extend up to the side walls, as both the dominant vortices dissipate in the side boundary
strong backflow region associated with these vortices can be seen in Figure 49b visualized by means of
layers. The 3D view of the strong backflow region associated with these vortices can be seen in Figure
the iso-surfaces of the negative longitudinal velocity U = −0.17 m/s.
49b visualized by means of the iso-surfaces of the negative longitudinal velocity U = −0.17 m/s.
(a) (b)
Figure 46.
46. SAS
SASSimulation.
Simulation.3D
3Dview
view
of of
thethe water
water jet behind
jet behind the siphon
the siphon outlet outlet visualized
visualized with iso-
with iso-surfaces
surfaces
of the 3Dofvelocity
the 3D velocity
magnitudemagnitude 1 m/s.
1 m/s. (a) (a) Time-averaged
Time-averaged velocityvelocity
field; (b)field; (b) unsteady
unsteady flow,
flow, time time
instant
t0 + 2.92t0 s.
instant + 2.92 s.
(a) (b)
Figure 46. SAS Simulation. 3D view of the water jet behind the siphon outlet visualized with iso-
surfaces of the 3D velocity magnitude 1 m/s. (a) Time-averaged velocity field; (b) unsteady flow, time
Water 2020, 12, 3330 21 of 23
instant t0 + 2.92 s.
(a) (b)
Water Figure
2020, 12,47.
x FOR
47. SASPEER
SAS REVIEW
simulation.
simulation. Vector
Vector lines
lines andand
2D 2D velocity
velocity magnitude
magnitude in theininclined
the inclined plane behind
plane behind 21 of 23
the
the siphon
siphon Pictures
outlet. outlet. Pictures
and the and the coordinate
coordinate system
system are areby
rotated 35◦ against
rotated by 35°the
against the (a)
horizon. horizon. (a) Time-
Time-averaged
velocity field; (b) unsteady flow, time instant t0 + 2.92 s.
averaged velocity field; (b) unsteady flow, time instant t 0 + 2.92 s.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 48.
Figure 48. SAS
SAS Simulation. 3D
Simulation. 3D view of
3D view of the
the time-averaged
time-averaged vorticityvorticity Z Z component
component behind
behind the
the siphon
siphon
outlet visualized
visualized with
with iso-surfaces.
iso-surfaces. (a)
(a) Value
Value −20 −1
−20 ss−1−1 s−1−1
outlet −20 ;; (b)
;(b) value
(b)value 20
20ss−1
value20 .. .
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 49.
Figure 49. SAS
SAS Simulation.
SASSimulation. (a)
Simulation.(a) Time-averaged
(a)Time-averaged vortex
Time-averagedvortex core
vortexcore filaments
corefilaments (in
filaments(in red)
(inred) of
red)of two
oftwo dominant
twodominant vortices;
dominantvortices;
vortices;
(b) 3D
(b) 3Dview
3D view
view of time-averaged
of the
of the time-averaged
the time-averaged backflow
backflow regions
regionsregions
backflow visualized
visualized with iso-surfaces
with iso-surfaces
visualized with iso-surfaces of negative
of negative of negative
longitudinal
velocity U = velocity
longitudinal
longitudinal velocity
−0.17 m/s. −0.17 m/s.
U = −0.17 m/s.
Still, the
Still, the methodology
methodology limitations
limitations should
should bebe mentioned
mentioned as as well.
well. First,
First, there
First, there are
there are limits
limits of of the
the
experimental research. Measurements are done one by one in different planes
experimental research. Measurements are done one by one in different planes and different
experimental and different measurement
segments.
measurement
measurement Thatsegments.
is why, onlyThattheistime-averaged
why, only theresults can be used
time-averaged
time-averaged to reconstruct
results be used
can be theto
complex
to 3D view
reconstruct
reconstruct the
the
of flow
complex 3D
complex in the test
3D view
view of section.
of flow
flow inConcerning
in the
the test the numerical
test section.
section. Concerningmethods,
Concerning the they
the numerical are still
numerical methods, limited
methods, they by computational
they are
are still
still limited
limited
resources,
by especially
by computational in the case
resources, of calculations
especially in the
in withofadvanced
the case physical
calculations
calculations withmodels.
advanced In physical
many cases it is still
models. In
not
many
many possible
cases to
it use
is sufficiently
still not possibledense
to computational
use sufficiently
is still not possible to use sufficiently dense grids
dense and sufficiently
computational long
grids computational
and sufficiently
grids and sufficiently long times,
long
which can guarantee
computational
computational times, grid-independent
which can guarantee andgrid-independent
sufficiently time-averaged results.time-averaged results.
and sufficiently
7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
The subject of
The of the
the presented
presented study
study isis the
the laboratory
laboratory model of aa pumping
pumping system’s discharge
object
object with the welded siphon
siphon and a relatively simple geometry
simple geometry of the discharge object. Results of
the
both the experimental research and mathematical modelling are presented.
Water 2020, 12, 3330 22 of 23
7. Conclusions
The subject of the presented study is the laboratory model of a pumping system’s discharge object
with the welded siphon and a relatively simple geometry of the discharge object. Results of both the
experimental research and mathematical modelling are presented.
Two stationary flow regimes characterized by different volume flow rates and water level heights
have been chosen. The study concentrates mainly on the regions below and behind the siphon outlet. Five
vertical planes, three horizontal planes and one cross-wise section have been examined, focused mainly
on the regions below and behind the siphon outlet. The experimental data are compared with the results
of the CFD simulations, based on the ANSYS CFX software and the SST and SAS turbulence models.
The mathematical modelling using the advanced simulation methods has been performed,
the volume-of-fluid method has been applied for the free-surface flow modelling. The experimental
results obtained by the PIV method are used for the mathematical model validation. The presented
results show a good agreement of measured and calculated complex flow topology below and behind
the siphon outlet, especially close to the test-section floor.
The unsteady behavior of the flow from the siphon impinging to the vessel bottom has been
observed and analyzed using the spectral methods. The evolution and interactions of the main flow
structures have been studied using visualizations.
Nowadays, the CFD tools are able to model all the complete hydraulic system of a pumping or water
turbine station, to prove the functionality and design parameters of hydrodynamic machines as well as
to guarantee functionality of such a new station under design, as any changes and reconstructions of the
suction and discharge objects of the station are extremely time and money consuming. The numerical
models are not restricted to a simple geometry and can replace the physical modelling in the laboratory,
which is (in a full complex geometry of the complete station) practically impossible. From this point of
view, any improvement, validation and verification of the numerical tools, used for the optimal design
of pumping or turbine stations, is highly desirable.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.S., V.U. and M.K.; methodology, M.S., V.U., M.K. and P.P.; CFD, M.S.; PIV,
P.P., V.U. and V.S.; validation M.S., P.P. and V.U.; resources, M.S. and V.U.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S. and
P.P.; writing—review and editing, V.U.; visualization, P.P. and M.S.; supervision, M.S. and V.U.; project administration,
M.S.; funding acquisition, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech Republic under the grant
project FV30104 “Suction and Discharge Objects of Pump and Turbine Stations”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in
the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
Nomenclature
f frequency [Hz]
h height [m] or [mm]
l length [m] or [mm]
M magnitude of two-dimensional velocity vector [m/s] in specified plane
Q velocity invariant (exact definition in [15]) [s−2 ]
Qv volume flow rate [m3 /s] or [L/s]
t time [s]
U, V, W velocity components [m/s]
W width [m] or [mm]
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates [m] or [mm]
y+ dimensionless wall distance [-]
∆t time step [s]
Abbreviations
Amp Amplitude
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CMOS Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor
Water 2020, 12, 3330 23 of 23
DES Detached Eddy Simulations

DN Diameter Nominal
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
HP Horizontal Plane
LES Large Eddy Simulations
Nd:YLF Neodymium-Doped Yttrium Lithium Fluoride
PIV Particle Image Velocimetry
RANS Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes equations
SAS Scale Adaptive Simulations
SST Shear Stress Transport
URANS Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes Equations
VOF Volume of Fluid
VP Vertical Plane
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Water: Experimental Research and Numerical Analysis of Flow Phenomena in Discharge Object With Siphon

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Water 2020, 12, 3330; doi:10.3390/w12123330 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Figure 6. Computational grid.(a)

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23

5.2. CFD Simulations

Figure 38. SAS

t0 + 5.72 s t0 + 5.80 s t0 + 5.88 s

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Therefore, so as to analyze frequencies linked to the unsteady phenomena in the computational

Figure 44. Velocity

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 23

DES Detached Eddy Simulations

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